THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



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1 

THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 
OF BALTIMORE 



THE 
BAHAMA ISLANDS 



EDITED BY ^ 

GEORGE BURBANK SHATTUCK, Ph. D. 

Associate Professor of Physiographic Geology in the yohns Hopkins University 



THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS 



(Iten? 'Porft 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 

1905 

Alt rights restrvcd 






LIBRARY of i 


OKSSESS 


Two Cop-eo 


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1905 


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Copyright, 1905, by 
THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



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BALTIMOUE, MD., D. 8. A. 



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OFFICERS OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 

OF BALTIMORE 



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Bernard N. Baker. 

treasurer. 
Robert Garrett. 



Daniel C. Gilman. 
Charles J. Bonaparte. 
Waldo Newcomer. 
Ira Remsen. 
Charles K. Lord. 
Bernard N. Baker. 
Eugene Levering. 
Laweason Eiggs. 
Fabian Franklin. 
E. Brent Keysee. 
George E. Gaithee. 
William B. Clark. 
Blanchard Eandall. 
Harry F. Eeid. 



president. 
Daniel C. Gilman. 
vioe-presidents. 
Eev. John F. Goucher. 



Lawrason Eiggs. 



TRUSTEES. 



secretary. 
George B. Shattuck. 

James H. Van Sickle. 
Egbert Garrett. 
C. Morton Stewart, Jr. 
Bernard C. Steiner. 
Gilbert Fraser. 
George A. Von Lingen. 
Antonio C. de Magalhaes. 
Joseph E. Foard. 

EOBEET EaMSAY. 

Eev. John F. Goucher. 
George Cator. 
Walter W. Abell. 
Egbert W. Wood. 
George B. Shattuck. 



SCIENTIFIC STAFF OF THE BAHAMA EXPEDITION 

George B. Shattuck, Director. 

Clement A. Penrose, Surgeon and Vice-Director. 

OEOLOQY. 

George B. Shattuck, In charge. 

Benjamin L. Miller, Associate. 

TIDES, TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, CLIMATOLOGY. 

Oliver L. Fassig, In charge. 

James E. Eouth, Assistant. 

SOILS. 

Charles jST. Mooney, In charge. 

J. C. Britton, Assistant. 

E. T. Hughes, Assistant. 

BOTANY. 

William C. Cokee, . . . . . . . In charge. 

C. A. Shore, . . • Assistant. 

F. M. Hanes, Assistant. 

MOSQUITOES. 

T. Homer Coffin. 

FISHES. 

Barton A. Bean, In charge. 

A. H. Baldwin, Artist. 

Joseph S. Lewis, Assistant. 

James B. G. Custis, Assistant. 

BATRACBIANS, REPTILES, MAMMALS, BIRDS. 

Joseph H. Eiley, In charge. 

Samuel H. Derickson, Assistant. 

MEDICINE. 

Clement A. Penrose, In charge. 

Herbert P. Cole, Assistant. 

Edward B. Beasley, Assistant. 

T. Homer Coffin, Assistant. 

Frank Gillmore, Photographer. 

HISTORY. 

James M. Wright. 

general assistants. 
Alexander Eandall. Israel B. Brodie. 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 



To Dr. Daniel C. Gilman, 

President of The Geographical Society of Baltimore. 

Sir. — I herewith transmit to you a report of the Bahama Expedition 
sent ont by the Geographical Society of Baltimore on June 1, 1903. This, 
the first publication of the Societ}', contains sixteen distinct chapters on 
various subjects pertaining to the Bahama Islands. These papers have been 
prepared by specialists, most of whom were present on the Expedition and 
directed the work on their respective investigations. The material Avliich this 
volume contains is largely the result of researches carried forward on the 
Expedition, but there are certain chapters which deal principally with facts 
discovered by earlier investigators. The object of 'these chapters is to sum- 
marize this material and thus increase the general usefulness of the publi- 
cation. The appearance of this book, at a time when the certainty of the 
Panama Canal is drawing the attention of the civilized world to the Ameri- 
can Mediterranean, seems most opportune; and it is hoped that the facts 
here published may be instrumental, if only in a small degree, in causing the 
Bahama Islands to share in the renewed prosperity which is destined to over- 
take the West Indies when the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans are united. 

Trusting that this volume may meet with your approval, I remain. 
Very respectfully, 

George Bdrbane Shattuck, 

Direcior of the Bahama Expedition. 
Johns Hopkins Univeksity, 

Baltimore, January 2, 1905. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE. 

PREFACE xxlx 

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. Bt George 

Bdebank Shattuck, Ph. D., axd Bexjaxiin LeRoy Miller, Ph. D 3 

Ikteoductiox 3 

Previous Investigation 4 

Physiographic Features 7 

SuBiERiAL Division 7 

Relation with Surrounding Regions 7 

Contour and Slope 8 

Surface 9 

Distribution of Islands 11 

Character of Surface 12 

SuB.ERiAL Division 12 

Classification 12 

Geological Features 14 

iEoLiAN Deposits 14 

Aqueous Deposits 15 

Organic Deposits 16 

Structure and Age 17 

Erosion 17 

Topographic History 19 

FOSSILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, WITH A LIST OF THE NON- 
MARINE MOLLUSKS. By William H. Dall, A. M., So. D 23 

Introduction 23 

List of Stations and the Species Collected at Each of Them 24 

The LanDshell Fauna of the Bahama Islands 29 

List of Bahama Landshells 39 

Marine Fossils of the Bahamas 43 

The Fauna of the " Salt Pans " 45 

Explanation of Plates 46 

TIDES AND BENCH MARKS AT NASSAU, NEW PROVIDENCE. By L. P. 

Shidy .* 51 

Introduction 51 



XH CONTENTS 

PAGE. 

Description of Bench Marks 52 

Bench Mark No. 1 52 

Bench Mark No. 2 52 

Bench Mark No. 3 52 

Tides at Nassau 53 

Tide Record 53 

First Reduction 73 

Harmonic Constants 90 

Recapitulation 94 

Annual Variation in Mean Sea Level at Nassau 95 

MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Oliver L. 

Fassig, Ph. D 99 

Introduction 99 

Stations Occupied 99 

Nassau : Old Government House 100 

Hog Island, on the North Side of the Harbor of Nassau 100 

Nassau : Public Square 101 

Watlings Island, Cockburn Town 101 

Clarence Town, Clarence Harbor, Long Island 102 

Hopetown, Elbow Cay, Abaco 102 

Earlier Values of Magnetic Elements at Stations in the Bakajias. 102 

Results of Magnetic Observations made by the Bahama Expedition 

OF THE Geographical Society of Baltimore in 1903 103 

Directions for the Magnetic Work of the Bahasia Expedition 104 

Astronomical Observations 104 

Magnetic Declination Observations 105 

With compass needle belonging to Dip Circle 56/4440 105 

With compass needle of Theodolite 106 

Dip Observations 106 

Relative Intensity and Dip Observations 107 

Miscellaneous Information 108 

General Information 108 

CLIMATE OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Oliver L. Fassig, Ph. D Ill 

Introduction Ill 

Climate as a Whole 112 

Temperature 113 

Absolute Extremes of Temperature at Nassau 114 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS Xlll 

I'AOE. 

Extremes of Temperatube at Cat Cay 115 

Comparative Temperature Data 115 

Relative Humidity IIG 

Clouds and Sunshine 117 

Rainfall 117 

Wind Direction 118 

Wind Velocity 119 

Thunderstorms 120 

Hurricanes 120 

Frequency of Hurricanes 121 

Law of Hurricanes 123 

Theoretical importance of the law of recurving 123 

The law of general routes or geographical zones pursued by Hur- 
ricanes 125 

Law of the relative velocity of translation 125 

EXPLORATION OP THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE AT NASSAU, NEW 

PROVIDENCE, BY MEANS OP KITES. By Oliver L. Passig, Ph. D. 129 

Introduction 129 

Description or Flights 130 

Temperature Results 136 

Decrease in Pressure 138 

Relative Humidity 138 

Tabulation of Observations 139 

SOILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Charles N. Mooney, S. B 147 

Introduction 147 

Agricultural Development 147 

Climate 151 

Geology 152 

Soil Types 153 

Coral Sand 155 

Bahama Black Loam 157 

Bahama Stony Loam 161 

Bahama Red Loam 163 

Bahama Marl 167 

Brackish Swamps 169 

Bahama White Marl 171 

Methods of Cultivation and Cropping 172 



XIV CONTENTS 

PAGE. 

Important Crop and Soil, Problems 174 

Pineapples 175 

Citrus Fruits 178 

Bahama Hemp or Sisal 180 

Conclusion 181 

VEGETATION OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By William C. Coker, Ph. D. 185 

Introduction 185 

Sketch of Botanical Explorations in Bahajias 186 

Composition and Relationships of the Bahama Flora 190 

Distribution of the Bahama Flora 194 

Indigenous Trees and Shrubs Useful for their Wood or Leaves 201 

Indigenous Medicinal Plants 206 

Indigenous Fruits 207 

Cultivated Fruits 209 

Trees Cultivated for Ornament 212 

Botanical Formations in the Bahama Islands 214 

Plant Formations 216 

New Providence 216 

Sand-Strand Formation 216 

The Ipomea pes-caprse Association 217 

The Uniola-Tournefortia Association 217 

Pithecolobium-Salmea Association 217 

Erithalis-Reynosia (or littoral Sand-coppice) Association 218 

The Silver Palm Association 218 

Fresh-maesh Formation 218 

Pine-babren Formations 219 

The Wet-barrens 219 

The Dry-barrens 219 

Coppice Formations 220 

High-coppice Formation 220 

Low-coppice Formation 221 

Salt Marsh Formation 222 

Rocky-shore Formation 223 

Mangrove Cay, Andros 223 

Green Cay 224 

Current Settlement, Eleuthera 225 

Spanish Wells, George Island 226 

Gregory Town, Eleuthera 227 



THE BAHAilA ISLANDS XV 

PAGE. 

Governors Harbor, Eleuthera 230 

Taepum Bat, Eleuthera 231 

Powells Point, Eleuthera 232 

Arthurs Town, Cat Island 233 

Port Nelson, Rum Cay 233 

Watlings Island 235 

Sand-Stkand Forsiation 235 

Tournefortia-Suriana Association 235 

Distichlis-Ambrosia Association 235 

Cocoa-Plum Association 236 

Inodes-Lantana Association 236 

Fresh-Marsh Formation 236 

Conocarpus-Flat Formation 236 

Low-coppice Formation 237 

Conocarpus-Mangrove Formation 237 

High-Coppice Formation 237 

Claeence Harbor, Long Island 239 

Which Point, Abaco 241 

List of Plants Collected 242 

Explanation of Plates 268 

MOSQUITOES OP THE BAHAMA ISLANDS (INTRODUCTION). By L. O. 

Howard, Ph. D 273 

MOSQUITOES OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS (DISCUSSION). By T. Homer 

Coffin 275 

Introduction 275 

Description of Stations 275 

Nassau, New Providence 27G 

Andeos 276 

Green Cay '. 277 

Spanish Wells, George Island 277 

Harbor Island, Eleuthera 277 

Current Settlement, Eleuthera 277 

Governors Harbor, Eleuthera 277 

Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera 278 

Powell Point, Eleuthera 278 

Arthurs Town, Cat Island 278 

Port Nelson, Rum Cay 278 

. Watlings Island 278 



XVI CONTENTS 

PAGE. 

Clabence Hakbob, Long Island 278 

Descriptions of Important Mosquitoes 279 

PISHES OP THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Barton A. Bean 293 

Introduction - 293 

Annotated List of Bahama Pishes 295 

BATRACHIANS AND LAND REPTILES OP THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By 

Leonhaed Stejnegee 329 

Introduction 329 

Systematic and Nomenci-atueal Notes 330 

Batrachians 330 

Reptiles 331 

Lizards 331 

Snakes 335 

Disteibution of Batrachians and Reptiles (except Maeixe Turtles) 

Occurring in the Bahama Islands 338 

Relations and Origins of the Bahama Herpetologicax Fauna 339 

Relations to Plorida 339 

Relations to Cuba 340 

Relations to Haiti 341 

Relations to Rum Cay and Watlings Island 342 

Conclusions 343 

BIRDS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Joseph H. Riley 347 

Introduction 347 

Ornithological Explorations 347 

Notes on the Zoogeogeaphical Position of the Bahama Islands 350 

List of Bahama Birds 35S 

MAMMALS OP THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Gerrit S. Miller, Jr 371 

Introduction 371 

Annotated List of Species 372 

Rats 372 

Capromys 373 

Raccoons 376 

Bats 379 

SANITARY CONDITIONS OP THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. By Clement A. 

Penrose, M. D 387 

Introduction 387 

Medical and Surgical Equipment 389 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS XVll 

PAGE. 

Methods of Work 390 

IMPOBTANT Diseases Excounteked 392 

Tuberculosis 392 

Venereal Diseases 393 

Syphilis 393 

Gonorrhea 393 

Malaria 393 

Rheumatism axd Lumbago 394 

Gastric and Intestinal Troubles 394 

Diseases of the Eye 395 

FiLAKIASIS 396 

Elephantiasis 398 

Leprosy 399 

Forms of Leprosy 399 

Bacillus of Leprosy 400 

Transmission of Leprosy 401 

Treatment of Leprosy 402 

Status of the Leper in the Bahamas 403 

Recommendations regarding Leprosy 404 

Yellow Fever 405 

polydactylism 405 

AiNHUM OB RlXG-TOE 406 

Talipes or Club-foot 407 

Locomotor- Ataxia 407 

Pesplanus or Flat-foot 408 

Boils, Carbuncles and Infections 408 

Degeneracy 409 

History of Spanish Wells 409 

History of Hopetown 410 

Explanation of Chart 410 

Special Cases of Degeneracy 411 

Cause of this Degeneracy 412 

Recommendations regarding Hopetown 414 

Treatment 414 

Government Hospitals 415 

HISTORY OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, WITH A SPECIAL STUDY OF 
THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY IN THE COLONY. By James M. 

Wright 419 

Inteoductiox 419 

Historical Sketch of the Bahamas prior to the Nineteenth Century. . 420 



11 CONTENTS 

PAGE. 

Amelioration of the Condition of the Slaves 427 

Abolition of the Slave-trade 427 

Registration of the Slaves 428 

Debates in Parliament 430 

Protest of the Bahamas 432 

The Wyllt Affair 433 

The " Healing Act " 437 

Adoption of the Registration System 439 

Demands of the English Public 441 

Attitude of the Bahamas 444 

Adoption of a New Slave Code 445 

Legal Rights of Master and Slave 446 

Rights and Duties of the Slave 446 

Rights and Duties of the Master 452 

Operation of the Registration System 457 

The Abolition of Slavery 457 

Governor Sir James Smyth 458 

Attempt to give effect to Reforms 458 

Flogging of Female Slaves 460 

Elections of 1832 464 

Governor Smyth and the Slaveholders 468 

The Governor's Council 470 

Attempt to Educate the Africans 471 

The Out-islands 472 

Law against Cruelty to Slaves not Enforced 473 

Removing Slaves from one Island to the other 476 

Slave Trade Survives 478 

Court Martial of Major Nicolls ". 4S0 

Abolition of Slavery by Parliament 481 

Balfour as Lieutenant-Governor 483 

The Assembly Convened Again 484 

Struggle over Executive Functions 485 

Provision for the Coming Changes 490 

Period of t'he Apprenticeship System 492 

A New Regime Instituted 492 

Classes of Apprentices 493 

Legal Status of Apprentices 495 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS XIX 

I'AGE. 

Rights and Pbivileges of the Apprentice 495 

Maintenance 495 

Personal Rights 495 

Riglits pertaining to Contracts 497 

Marital and Family Rights 498 

Corporal Punishment 499 

Manumission 499 

Other Rights 500 

Rights of Emtloyer 500 

Property in the Services of the Apprentice 500 

Right to Return Runaways 501 

Prohibitions on Apprentices 502 

Children 502 

The Special Magistracy 503 

Reforms in the Magistracy 505 

DrxiES of Special Magistrates 507 

Operations of Apprenticeship System 509 

Complaints 512 

Punishments 512 

Reform in the General Court 514 

Capth'es from Slave Ships 515 

Relations of the Branches of the Government 520 

Termination of Apprenticeship Systesi 525 

The Period 1838 to 1848 528 

The Opposition Party and the Government 528 

Election of Speaker 531 

Government Prevails 533 

Separation of the Councils 534 

Cockburn becojues Governor 535 

Temporary Adjiinistration 536 

Ecclesiastical Affairs 539 

The Dissenters 541 

The Education of the Negroes 543 

Question of the Control of the Schools 544 

A Contest for Religious Equality 549 

Land System 552 

Quit Rents 553 

Failure of Close Settlements 554 

Changes Made by Cockburn 555 

Commutation of Quit Rents 557 



XX CONTENTS 

lAGE. 

Salt Poxds 55S 

Regulations of 1781 559 

i^^troduction of loxg leases 561 

Enslavement of Bahama Negroes 5G3 

Condition of Labor 565 

Quiet reigns in the Colony 566 

Governor Mathew and Archdeacon Trew 567 

Later History of the Bahamas 569 

The Separation of the Turks Islands from the Bahamas 569 

The Public Burial-grounds 571 

The Bahamas a Bishopric 573 

Commercial Conditions 573 

Blockade-running 573 

State of Finances 577 

Disendowment of the Established Chl-rch 578 

The Educational Establishment 579 

Conclusion 582 

SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO THE BAHAMA 

ISLANDS. By George Burbank Shattuck, Ph. D 587 

Introduction 587 

Area and Population 589 

CUKKENCT and BANKING FACILITIES 590 

Facilities of Communication 591 

Important Industries 592 

The Sponge-fishery 592 

Agricultural Pursuits 593 

Salt 594 

Volume of Trade 594 

Government 595 

Condition of People 597 

Criminality 598 

Religious Conditions 598 

Education 599 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATE. FACING PAGE. 

I. Bougainvillea in a Nassau Garden 3 

II. Physiographic and Geologic Views 8 

Fig. 1. — View of Sail Rocks showing Marine Erosion. 
Fig. 2. — View of Highway on Summit of Blue Ridge, New 
Proviflence. 

III. Physiographic and Geologic Views 14 

Fig. 1. — View Showing Surface of Wave Eroded Limestone, 

Sail Rocks. 
Fig. 2. — View of Wave Eroded Limestone, Showing Casts of 

Roots and Other Vegetable Remains, Sail Rocks. 

IV. Physiographic and Geologic Views 18 

Fig. 1. — View Showing Cross-bedded Structure In iEolian 

Limestone at Nassau. 
Pig. 2. — Nearer View of Cross-bedded Structure in .Eolian 
Limestone at Nassau. 

V. Physiographic and Geologic Views 24 

Fig. 1. — View of Harold Pond, New Providence, a Typical 

Brackish Water Lake. 
Fig. 2. — View of Great Lake, Watlings Island, with Foam 
blown in Heaps on the Beach. 

VI. Physiographic and Geologic Views 30 

Fig. 1. — View showing Thin-bedded Limestone, Green Cay. 
Fig. 2. — View showing a Recemented Boulder Rampart, 
Green Cay. 

VII. Physiographic and Geologic Views 36 

Fig. 1. — View showing Boulder Rampart, Green Cay. 
Fig. 2. — Nearer View of Boulder Rampart. 

VIII. Physiographic and Geologic Views 42 

Fig. 1. — View of Raised Coral Reef, Overlaid by .T^olian 

Limestone, Green Cay. 
Fig. 2. — Nearer View of Raised Coral Reef. 

IX. Physiographic and Geologic Views 46 

Fig. 1. — View of Ocean Hole, Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera. 
Fig. 2. — View of Old Sea-cliff with Cavern, New Providence. 
X. Map Showing Bahama Islands and Adjacent Land Masses.... -52 

XI. Bahama Fossils 58 

XII. Bahama Fossils 64 

XIII. Bahama Fossils "^0 

XIV. Physical Apparatus '^''> 

Fig. 1. — Kew-Casella Dip Circle. 
Fig. 2. — Sexton Tide Gauge. 



XXll 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATE. FACING PAGE. 

XV. Views Illustrating Work on Tides and Bench Marks 82 

Pig. 1. — View of Boat Camber and Tide Gauge House, Nassau. 
Fig. 2. — View of Bench Mark No. 1 and Monument, Nassau. 

XVI. Physical Apparatus 88 

Fig. 1. — Marvin Meteorograph. Published by Courtesy of 

Maryland Weather Service. 
Fig. 2. — Kite and Marvin Meteorograph. Published by Cour- 
tesy of Maryland Weather Service. 

XVII. Views Illustrating Work on Climate 94 

Fig. 1. — Flying Kites at Nassau. 

Fig. 2. — View of Thunderstorm North of Abaco. 

XVIII. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, May, 1878-1903 100 

XIX. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, June, 1878-1903 106 

XX. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, July, 1878-1903 112 

XXI. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, August, 1878-1903 118 

XXII. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, September, 1878-1903 124 

XXIII. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, October, 1878-1903 130 

XXIV. Tracks of West Indian Hurricanes, November, 1878-1903 136 

XXV. Views Illustrating Agricultural Conditions 148 

Pig. 1. — View of Vegetation Looking North from Summit of 

Blue Ridge, New Providence. 
Fig. 2. — View of Mature Pineapple Field, New Providence. 

XXVI. Views Illustrating Agricultural Conditions 154 

Fig. 1. — View of Banana Palm in Bloom, Nassau. 
Pig. 2. — View of Cocoanut Grove, Nassau. 

XXVII. Views Illustrating Agricultural Conditions 160 

Fig. 1. — View of Pine Barrens. 
Pig. 2. — View of Jungle Growth, New Providence. 
XXVIII. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on New 

Providence 164 

XXIX. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on Eleuthera 168 
XXX. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on Long 

Island and Rum Cay 172 

XXXI. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on Cat 

Island 176 

XXXII. Reconnaissance Map Showing Distribution of Soils on San 

Salvador 180 

XXXIII. Views Illustrating Vegetation 186 

Pig. 1. — Tamarind Tree (Tamarindus inclica), Nassau. 
Fig. 2. — Pawpaw Tree (Carica pavaya) in Pruit, Nassau. 

XXXIV. Views Illustrating Vegetation 192 

Pig. 1. — "Almond" Tree (TerminaUa catappa), Nassau. 
Fig. 2. — Pig Tree (Ficus sapotifolia) , Nassau. 

XXXV. Views Illustrating Vegetation 198 

Pig. 1. — ^Royal Palm {Roystonia regia)m a Garden at Nassau. 
Pig. 2. — Pine Tree (Pinus bahamensis). Surrounded by 
Silver Palm (Thrinax haliamensis) . New Providence. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



XXlll 



PLATE. 

XXXVI. 



XXXVII. 



XXXVIII. 



XXXIX. 



XL. 



XLI. 



XLII. 



XLIII. 



XLIV. 



XLV. 



XLVI. 



FACING PAGE. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 204 

Fig. 1. — Lignum VitK Trees (Onaiacxim sanctum), Showing 

the ISffect of Prevailing Winds, Clarence Harbor. 
Fig. 2. — Sand-box Tree (Hura crepitans) , Nassau. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 210 

Fig. 1. — Vegetation of a Fresh Water Marsh with Thatch 

Palm (Inodes palmetto) in Center, New Providence. 
Fig. 2. — Forest Showing Pines with " May-pole " Fern 
(Ptericlmrn cauclatiim) beneath, Abaco. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 216 

Fig. 1. — Typical High Coppice in the Interior of New 

Providence. 
Fig. 2. — Mixed Growth of Pines. Silver Palms {Thrinax ba- 

hamensis) and Deciduous Trees, New Providence. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 222 

Fig. 1. — Logwood Tree (Hwmatoxylon campechianum) . Cur- 
rent Settlement, Eleuthera. 
Fig. 2. — Fig Tree {Ficus jacquinifolia) in Center, Man- 
grove Cay, Andros. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 228 

Fig. 1. — "Bamboo Tree" {Agave rigicla), Gregory Town, 

Eleuthera. 
Fig. 2. — Epiphytic Plant {Tillandsia recurvata) on Strump- 

fia maritima in an open Brackish Flat, Nassau. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 234 

Fig. 1. — Pigeon Plum Tree (Coccolobis laurifolia) , Clarence 

Harbor, Long Island. 
Fig. 2. — Mangrove Trees (Rhizopliora mangle). Great Lake, 
Watlings Island. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 240 

Fig. 1. — Vegetation on Rocky Coast, New Providence. 
Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Sandy Shore, New Providence. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 246 

Fig. 1. — Vegetation on Sandy and Rocky Shore, Watlings 

Island. 
Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Rocky Beach, Watlings Island. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 252 

Fig. 1. — Vegetation on Sandy Beach, New Providence. 
Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Sandy Beach, Green Cay. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 258 

Fig. 1. — White Lilies (Hymenocallis arenicola) in Flower, 

West Shore, Eleuthera. 
Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Rocky Shore, near Clarence Harbor, 

Long Island. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 264 

Fig. 1. — Vegetation on Border of Salt Pan, Rum Cay. 
Fig. 2. — Vegetation in Meadow, Water Cay, Long Island. 



XXIV 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATE. 
XLVII. 



XLVIII. 



XLIX. 



LI. 

LII. 
LIII. 
LIV. 

LV. 
LVI. 

LVII. 

LVIII. 

LIX. 

LX. 

LXI. 

LXII. 



LXIII. 



LXIV. 



LXV. 



FACING PAGE. 

Views Illustrating Vegetation 269 

Pig. 1. — Vegetation on Sandy Beach, New Providence. 
Fig. 2. — Vegetation on Sandy Beach, Green Cay. 

Bahama Mosquitoes 276 

Pig. 1. — Stegomyia fasciata (Pabr.) (Yellow-Fever Mosquito). 
Fig. 2. — Wyeomyia smitliii (Coq.). 

Bahama Mosquitoes 280 

Fig. 1. — Oulex confirmatus (Arrib.). 
Pig. 2. — Culex jamaicensis Theob. 

Bahama Mosquitoes 284 

Fig. 1. — Culex restuans Theob. 
Fig. 2. — Culex tcBniorynchiis Wied. 

Bahama Mosquitoes 288 

Fig. 1. — Culex territans Walk. 
Pig. 2. — Culex trivitattus Coq. 

Rliyi)ticus tistrispinosus (Mitchill) (Soap Pish) 296 

Tylosurus acus Lacepede (Hound Pish) 302 

Anisotremus virginicus (Linnaeus) (Pork Pish) 310 

Pterophryne histrio (Linnaeus) (Mouse Fish) 316 

Teuthis cwruleus (Bloch and Schneider) (Blue Surgeon or 

Tang) 322 

Epinephehcs maculosas Cuvier and Valenciennes (Red Hind) . . 332 

Bodianus fulvus punctatus (Linnaeus) (Negro Fish) 340 

Sparisoma aurofrenatum (Cuv. and Val.) (Gold-bridled Parrot 

Fish) 350 

Gephalacanthus volitans (Linnaeus) (Flying Gurnard) 356 

Holacanthus tricolor (Bloch) (Rock Beauty) 362 

Views Illustrating Mammals 378 

Fig. 1. — Skull of Procyon lotor elucus Bangs, seen from 

above. 
Fig. 2. — Skull of Procyon lotor elucus Bangs, seen from 

below. 

Views Illustrating Mammals 374 

Fig. 1. — Skull of Procyon maynardi Bangs, seen from above. 
Pig. 2. — Skull of Procyon maynardi Bangs, seen from below. 

Views Illustrating Mammals 380 

Pig. 1. — Skull of Procyon pygmwus Merriam, seen from 

above. 
Fig. 2. — Skull of Procyon pygmwus Merriam, seen from 
below. 

Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 38S 

Fig. 1.— Medical Staff. 

Fig. 2. — View of Grants Town, Nassau. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



XXV 



PLATE. FACING PAGE. 

LXVI. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 396 

Fig. 1. — Sliore Clinic at Current Settlement, Eleuthera. 
Fig. 2. — Temporary Dispensary at Current Settlement, Eleu- 
thera. 

LXVII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 404 

Fig. 1. — View of Iniirmary, Nassau. 
Fig. 2. — View of Hospital, Nassau. 

LXVIII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 412 

Fig. 1. — View of Lazaretto at Nassau. 

Fig. 2. — View of Typical Home of Colored People. 

LXIX. Group of Lepers with Attendant Physician, from Lazaretto at 

Nassau 420 

LXX. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 428 

Fig. 1. — Tubercular Leprosy in Advanced Stage. 
Fig. 2. — Incipient Tubercular Leprosy. 

LXXI. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 434 

Fig. 1. — Man at Hopetown, Abaco, in Advanced Stage of 

Anaesthetic Leprosy, Showing Facial Paralysis and Loss 

of Fingers and Toes. 
Fig. 2. — Woman at Hopetown, Abaco, in Advanced Stage of 

Anesthetic Leprosy, Showing Loss of Fingers. 

LXXII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 344 

Fig. 1. — Samson Rooker, Showing Six Digits on Each Hand. 
Fig. 2. — Dwarf at Spanish "Wells. 

LXXIII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 450 

Fig. 1. — ^Negroes coming to Vessel for Medical Treatment, 

Clarence Harbor, Long Island. 
Fig. 2. — Three Brothers Afflicted with Congenital Blind- 
ness, Hopetown, Abaco. 

LXXIV. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 458 

Fig. 1. Two Idiots out of Five in a Family of Eight Chil- 
dren, Hopetown, Abaco. 
Fig. 2. — Mother of Girls shown in Accompanying Figure. 

LXXV. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 464 

Fig. 1. — Family at Hopetown, Abaco. The young man is a 

Congenital Idiot. 
Fig. 2. — Nearer View of Congenital Idiot Showing also Flac- 
cid Paralysis of Left Arm. 

LXXVI. Family Tree of Degenerates at Hopetown, Elbow Cay, Abaco, 

Bahamas 472 

LXXVII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 478 

Pig. 1. — Filaria nocturna in human blood (Magnified 490 

Diameters). 
Fig. 2. — Filaria nocturna in human blood (Magnified 490 

Diameters). 



SXTl 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATE. FACING PAGE. 

LXXVIII. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 486 

Fig. 1.— Foot affected with Ainhum of Little Toe. 

Fig. 2. — Left Foot of Samson Rooker. showing Six Toes. 

LXXIX. Views Illustrating Sanitary Conditions 492 

Fig. 1. — Left Hand of Samson Rooker, showing Polydac- 

tylism. 
Fig. 2. — Right Hand of Samson Rooker, showing Polydac- 

tylism. 

LXXX. Views Illustrating Historical Researches 500 

Fig. 1. — Profile of Lucayan Skull. 
Fig. 2. — Front View of Lucayan Skull. 

I LXXXI. Sir Gilbert T. Carter, Governor, Bahama Islands, 1S9S-1904 506 

LXXXII. Views Illustrating General Conditions 514 

Fig. 1. — View Showing Government House and Gardens, 

Nassau. 
Fig. 2. — Lane of Poincianas, Government House, Nassau. 

LXXXIII. Views Illustrating General Conditions 520 

Fig. 1. — ^View of Fort Fincastle, Nassau. 
Fig. 2. — View of Entrance to a Nassau Estate. 

LXXXIV. Views Illustrating General Conditions 528 

Fig. 1. — View of Mangrove Thicket, New Providence. 
Fig. 2. — Scene at Mount Vernon, New Providence. 

LXXXV. Views Illustrating General Conditions 534 

Fig. 1. — Thatch Palmetto, New Providence. 
Fig. 2. — Cocoanut Palm, Nassau. 

LXXXVI. Views Illustrating General Conditions 542 

Fig. 1. — View of Bay Street. Nassau. 

Fig. 2. — View of Sisal Plantation, New Providence. 

LXXXVII. Views Illustrating General Conditions 550 

Fig. 1. — Sisal Fiber Exposed for Drying. 
Fig. 2. — Sisal Factory, New Providence. 

LXXXVIII. View of Silk-Cotton Tree at Nassau 558 

LXXXIX. Views Illustrating General Conditions 56G 

Fig. 1. — View of Limestone Quarry. Nassau. 
Fig. 2. — Building Construction at Nassau. 

XC. Views Illustrating General Conditions 574 

Fig. 1. — View of Salt Pans at Rum Cay. 
Fig. 2.— View of Salt Piles at Rum Cay. 

XCI. View of Colonial Hotel at Nassau 582 

XCII. Views Illustrating General Conditions 590 

Fig. 1. — Characteristic Homes of Sponge Fishermen. 
Fig. 2. — Group of Sponge Fishermen. 

XCIII. Views Illustrating General Conditions 598 

Fig. 1. — View of a Sponge Exchange at Nassau. 
Fig. 2. — View of a Sponge Yard at Nassau. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS XXVI 1 

FIGUEE PAGE 

1. Diagram Showing Location of Tide Gauge and Bencli Marks 51 

2. Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made in Flight of July 1, 1903, 9 a. m. 

to 5 p. m 131 

, 3. Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made in Flight of July 2, 1903, 3 to 

6 p. m 133 

4. Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made on board the Steam Launch 

Alicia, July 6, 1903. 11 a. m. to 1 p. m 135 

5. Nassau, Bahama Islands. Based on Records of June 27 to July 6, 1903. . 137 

6. Nassau, Bahama Islands, June 27, July 1, 2, 6, 1903. Average Condition 

during four ascents 137 

7. Diagram of Mosquito with parts named 279 



PREFACE 

The two main olDJects which the Tnistees of the Geographical Societ.y 
of Baltimore have sought to accomplish Ijy means of the Societj' are, first, 
to place before the public of Baltimore, at practicall}' cost prices, an annual 
course of lectures dealing either directly or indirectly with geographical sub- 
jects; and second, to foster geographical research aud, from time to time, 
publish monographs dealing witli some particular piece of geographical in- 
vestigation, carried on under the auspices of the Society. In pursuance of this 
latter object, the Bahama Expedition was organized and ecpiipped, and sent 
out from Baltimore on the first day of June, 1903, to the Bahama Islands. 
The object of this Expedition was to investigate the origin and natural history 
of the Islands and also to conduct studies along lines intimately associated 
with the well-being of the inhal)itants. 

In the organization of the Expedition provision was made and suitable 
men selected to carry on investigations in Geolog}^, Paleontolog)', Tides, 
Terrestrial Magnetism, Climate, Exploration of the Upper Atmosphere, Soils 
and Agricultural Conditions, Vegetation, Mosquitoes, Fishes, Batrachians and 
Eeptiles, Mammals, Birds, Sanitary Conditions, Commercial Geographj', and a 
History of the people who have inliabited the Islands. The names of those 
who carried forward these investigations are given in another part of this 
volume. 

For many months previous to the day of departure the Director of the 
Expedition was busily engaged in organizing and equipping the various depart- 
ments, in order that each might work as far as possible independently of 
all the others. For the work in geology, barometers, levels, hammers, and the 
necessary collecting outfit were supplied. For the work on tides and terrestrial 
magnetism the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey kindly loaned to the Expedi- 
tion a tide-gauge and instruments for a magnetic survey. For the work on 
climate, the JJ. S. Weather Bureau cooperated and supplied the Expedition 
with kites, barometers, thermographs, and other instruments for making 
automatic records of meteorologic conditions. For the work on soils the Bureau 
of Soils, JJ. S. Department of Agriculture, kindly loaned one of their field 
ec|uipments, containing a complete field laboratory for the chemical examination 



XXX PREFACE 

of soils. For the work in botany, all the neeessarj? equipment for collecting 
and preserving- plants was provided. For the work on mosquitoes, collecting 
jars, preserving iluids, and other necessary apparatus were supplied. For the 
work on fishes, tangle-bars and oyster-dredges were furnished by the Expedi- 
tion ; a hand-windlass for deep-sea dredging was kindly loaned by the University 
of Iowa; nets and deep-sea dredges .were furnished to the Expedition by the 
U. S. Fish Commission, and a glass-bottom boat was contributed by Mr. 
Bernard N. Baker, of Baltimore. For the work on land zoology, guns, ammuni- 
tion, collecting bags, chests for skins, preserving fluids, etc., were supplied. For 
the work on sanitary conditions, the Expedition furnished a supply of drugs 
and instruments which was as complete as possible. The care of the members 
of the party was the first consideration, and no expense was spared in order 
to be prepared for any emergency which might arise. In addition to the 
above a naphtha launch, cameras, and a library containing books relating to the 
Bahama Islands were supplied for the use of all the party. 

This equipment, together with provisions for a two months' cruise were 
placed on board the Van Name, a one hundred ton schooner which had been 
chartered for the Expedition. The cabin of this ship was set aside for an 
office and reading room, and the various staterooms opening from it were 
used as laboratories and a dark room. The men were quartered in the hold, 
which had been renovated and freshly painted. 

As a number of the men who took part in the Expedition were on leave 
of absence from various government bureaus for the months of June and July 
only, the time at the disposal of the Expedition was limited. Every effort 
was made to so arrange matters that work could go forward with the greatest 
possible dispatch. Unfortunately, however, storms, head winds, and calm 
weather prolonged the outward voyage and the vessel did not arrive at ISTassau, 
its first stopping place, until the 17th of June. It was necessary to leave 
before the end of July in order to reach Baltimore at the time appointed. This 
left about five weeks in which to prosecute the work. It was fuUv intended to 
explore some of the more southerly islands of the Bahama group, but the plan 
was finally abandoned on account of the loss of time occasioned by irnfavorable 
sailing conditions. However, the Expedition visited Abaco, 'New Providence, 
Andros, Green Cay, and the Eleuthera group of islands. Cat Island, Long 
Island, Eum Cay and Watlings Island. 

Although the work of the various staffs was somewhat diversified, there 
was little difficulty experienced in adjusting the needs of each. The historian. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS XXXI 

Mr. Wright, was left at Nassau where he made a study of original records 
and returned to Baltimore independently of the Expedition late in September. 
Dr. Fassig and Mr. Eouth also spent considerable time at Nassau, but were 
with the Expedition again at Watlings Island and Long Island. The other 
members of the scientific staff accompanied the vessel throughoirt the cruise. 

Most of the work was done on shore, so that as soon as the vessel came 
to anchor at any particular station, the various corps were landed, conducted 
their work independently, and returned to the ship to eat and sleep. Fre- 
quently, while work was being conducted on land, Mr. Bean and his corps 
would either take the naphtha launch and glass-bottom boat on a collecting 
tour or else the large vessel would be placed at their disposal for dredging. 
While the Expedition 'was at Nassau, a laboratory was established in a private 
house, so that chemical analyses of the various soil types could be made. The 
botanists also secured another room where they could conduct certain branches 
of work which the motion of the vessel made impracticable on shipboard. 

It will be readily understood that much of the work done in the field 
by the Expedition was only preliminary to studies conducted later in laborato- 
ries. The material which is published in this volume is the result of a large 
amount of work subsequent to the return of the Expedition to Baltimore. 
As a rule, the Directors of the various staffs are the authors of the chapters in 
this book, but Dr. L. 0. Howard, who was not present on the Expedition, has 
kindly written the introduction to the chapter on mosquitoes, while Mr. 
Leonhard Stejneger and Mr. Gerrit S. Miller have cooperated in the work of 
land zoology and written respectively the chapters on reptiles and mammals. 
Dr. William H. Dall has studied and discussed the collection of fossils. Mr. 
L. P. Shidy has reduced the tide-gauge observations and written the chapter 
on tides; and officials connected with the Division of Terrestrial Magnetism 
of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey have kindly rediiced the mag-netic 
observations taken by Dr. 0. L. Fassig and compiled the tables which are pub- 
lished in the chapter pertaining to the magnetic survey. 

It would have been impossible for the Director of the Expedition to have 
accomplished even the smallest results had it not been for the earnest and 
enthusiastic cooperation of his colleagues, and acknowledgment is here heartily 
given to these gentlemen for their incessant work while in the Bahamas. The 
Director also wishes to take this opportunity to express his appreciation to the 
Trustees of the Society and of the Johns Hopkins University for their generous 
response to his needs in organizing and equipping the Expedition; to the 



XXXll PREFACE 

U. S. Department of Agriculture, IT. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U. S. 
Weather Bureau, and tlie TJ. S. Fish Commission for the loan of necessary 
apparatus; to the Government of the Bahama Islands for a generous appro- 
priation to meet part of the expenses incurred in conducting the soil survey ; 
to His Excellency, Sir Gilbert T. Carter, former Governor of the Bahama 
Islands, for his personal support and interest in the work of the Expedition; 
to Mr. C. Tyldesley Sands of Nassau and Messrs. Penniman and Brown of 
Baltimore for generous and personal services in connection with the soil survey ; 
to Mr. H. M. Flagler for many courtesies; to Mr. Bernard N". Baker, for the 
gift of the glass-bottom boat; to the ISTotre Dame of Maryland; and to the 
many friends of the Society who personally gave financial aid to the Expedi- 
tion and who later, in a similar manner, encouraged the publication of this 
volume. 

The IT. S. Hydrographic office kindly furnished transfers from their 
own stones for the base of the Ijathymetric map shown in Plate X. The 
bases for the various soil maps (Plates XXVIII-XXXII) have been reen- 
graved from Admiralty charts. The hurricane charts (Plates XVIII-XXIV) 
have been revised and brought down to date from similar charts previously 
published by the IT. S. Weather Bureau. Mr. A. H. Baldwin, the well-known 
artist, accompanied the Expedition, and made the original colored sketches 
from which the lithographs of fishes (Plates LII-LXI) have been reproduced. 
The originals for the figures of mosquitoes (Plates XLVIII-LI) were also 
drawn by Mr. Baldwin and kindly loaned to the Editor by Dr. L. 0. Howard. 
Mr. J. B. Smith, State Entomologist of New Jersey, furnished the electrotype 
for Figure 5, and the Maryland Weather Service, the originals for Plate XIV, 
Fig. 1, and Plate XVI. Mr. George N". Saegmuller, of Washington, D. C, 
kindly furnished the original for the figure of the tide-gauge (Plate XIV, 
Fig. 2). The figures of fossils (Plates XI-XIII) are the work of Miss Frances 
Wieser, of Washington, and Plates LXXVII, LXXVIII and LXXIX are the 
work of Mr. Hermann Becker, of Baltimore. Messrs. Forrest Shreeve and 
Albert Sommerwerck. of Baltimore, have aided in the clerical work of this 
volume. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE 
BAHAMA ISLANDS 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE I. 




2 
o 

c/2 



<1 



O 
D 
O 

m 






PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE 
BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 

GEORGE BURBANK SHATTUCK, Ph.D., 

Associate Professor of Physiographic Geology in the Johns Hophins University, 

AND 

BENJAMIN LeROY MILLER, Ph. D., 
Associate in Geology in Bryn Maiur College. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Along the northeastern margin of the West Indies, extending from 
southern Florida to eastern Haiti, is a group of three thousand or more low 
islands, kej's, rocks and banks, to which the name Bahama Islands has been given. 
Most of these islands are small ; many of them are nothing more than rocks or 
sand-bores, but they are so scattered that the archipelago as a whole, including 
the submerged banks in the extreme south, extends from 27° 30' to 19° 50', 
north latitude and from 68° 45' to 80° 35', west longitude. In other words, 
the Bahama Islands occupy a region nearly as extensive as Great 
Britain, and if superimposed on the surface of the United States they would 
extend from New York southward to Atlanta, and in their widest part from 
Cape Hatteras, westward to New Bern, in tlio heart of the Alleghany moun- 
tains, in western Virginia. 

As the archipelago is separated into a northern and southern half by the 
Tropic of Cancer, which crosses it almost exactly in the middle, the climate is 
practically tropical throughout. The eastern margin of the Islands is washed 
by breakers which roll in unchecked irom the brOad surface of the Atlantic 
Ocean, while the western edge is swept by the Gulf Stream as it flows northward 
through the Straits of Florida. The Islands also lie in the region of the West 
Indian hurricanes and have been repeatedly swept by terrific cyclones which 
have proved important geologic agents both of deposition and erosion. 

When considered from a geological point of view, the Bahamas afford an 
interesting study, in that they are composed almost entirely of debris derived 



4 PI-IYSIOGKAPHY AND GEOLOGY 

from corals and other calcareous organisms and rest on a shallow, submerged, 
platform, which is separated b}' deep submarine troughs from the neighboring 
land-masses of North America and the West Indies. 

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATION. 

Although there has been considerable written about the Bahamas in booJvS 
of travel and in popular magazines, this group has received less careful geologic- 
al stud)' than almost any other portion of the West Indies. 

For our knowledge regarding the form of the submarine bottom on which 
the Bahamas rest, and its relation to iSTorth America and the West Indian 
regions, we are chiefly indebted to the excellent charts published by the British 
Admiralty, the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the IT. S. Hydrographic 
Office. These charts, by indicating a large number of soundings, bring out 
very clearly the figure and character of the platform from which the Bahama 
Islands rise. 

Capt. E. J. Nelson, E. E., was the first to adequately describe these Islands 
and to bring their true nature to the attention of geologists." He regarded 
them as composed of calcareous sand which had been thrown up by the waves 
to form beaches, and later picked up by the winds and piled into dunes. He 
saw no evidence of either uplift or subsidence during recent time, and concluded 
that the Islands had remained stationary in their position during the present 
epoch. In this connection he says : " Whatever may be the real foundation of 
the Bahamas, whether, like the West Indian Islands generally, they are indebted 
to igneous agency for their existence as elevated masses, or otherwise, there is 
no evidence of such elevation having taken place either in the Bahamas or 
Bermuda. On the contrary, the total absence of coral-reefs in mass, or even 
of detached coral blocks, above the tide-line leads us to the supposition that no 
upheaval has taken place during the present epoch. . . . The fact of detached 
blocks of coral being found in the rock at considerable distance from the sea- 
coast at ike tide-level, proves that no subsidence has taken place during the 
pi-esent epoch. Conch-shells also, either dispersed or in beds, are found by the 
Avell-diggers in the solid rock at about the sea-level, and thus bear evidence 
to the same fact." ' It was from this paper of Capt. Nelson that Darwin and 
Dana drew their facts when later they described the Bahamas in their discus- 
sions on the origin of coral islands. 

> On the Geology of the Bahamas. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 1853, vol. ix, 
pp. 200-214. 

"■ Loc. cit., pp. 212-213. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 5 

In about the year 1890 Dr. John I. Nortlirop spent six montlis in the 
Bahama Islands, during which time he visited New Providence and Andros. 
On his return to the United States he published an account of his observations.' 
This paper is especialh' interesting from the fact that he believes that the 
Bahamas are rising. " I think the facts I have given justify my conclusion 
in regard to the recent elevation of Andros and New Providence. It is probable 
that the elevation extended over the rest of the Bahamas, as caves exist on the 
other islands. What the Bahamas are doing to-day, of course, we cannot tell ; 
but until we have proof to the contrary, we may assume that they are rising." ' 

No other M'ork of importance appeared until Prof. Alexander Agassiz 
published his researches on the Bahamas." The reconnoissance which Agassiz 
here describes was undertaken during the winter and early spring of 1893. He 
had at his disposal the steamship Wild Duel-, and cruised throughout the entire 
archipelago. The descriptions of the Bahamas which he gives in the Bulletin 
are very complete and are the best which have ever been published. As a 
result of his researches he concluded that the Bahamas had at one time stood 
higher and were more extensive than at present; that they had subsequently 
subsided for at least 300 feet; and that during this period their areal extent 
liad been further diminished by erosion. In this connection he says; " After 
the formation of the islands came an extensive gradual subsidence, which can 
be estimated at about three hundred feet, and during this subsidence the sea 
has little by little worn away the aeolian hills, leaving only here and there 
narrow strips of land in the shape of the present islands. . . . Subsidence 
explains satisfactorily the present configuration of the Bahamas, but teaches us 
nothing in regard to the substratum upon which the Bahamas were built. In- 
deed, the present reefs form but an insignificant part of the topography of the 
islands, and they have taken only a secondary part in filling here and there a 
bight or a cove with more modern reef rock, thrown up against the shores so 
as to form coral reef beaches such as we find in the Florida Eeef ." " Agassiz 
evidently did not observe any of the raised marine deposits which are discussed 
later in this chapter, for he says : " I did not meet anywhere with deposits 

= Notes on the Geology of the Bahamas, Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1890, vol. x, 
Oct. 13, pp. 4-23. 

' Loc. cit., p. 22. 

'- Observations in the West Indies, Am. Jour. Sci., 1893, vol. xiv, pp. 358-362. A 
Reconnoissance of the Bahamas, etc.. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1894, vol. xxvi. No. 1, 
pp. 1-108. 

'Loc. cit., p. 7. 



b PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GliOLOGY 

either of corals or of mollusks, the jDOsition of which couki not be satisfactorily 
accoiinted for as resulting from the action of winds and waves, or hurricanes." ' 

One of the results of these various researches was to establish the fact that 
the Bahama Islands stood on a shallow, irregular, platform which rose out of 
great depths, not only from the Atlantic on the east, but also from the bottom 
of the West Indian region on the west. In order to account for the irregulari- 
ties in the margin of this platform. Dr. J. W. Spencer published two papers ' 
in which he argued that the Bahama Islands, together with the rest of the 
Caribbean-Gulf regions had been formerly much elevated and during this period 
of elevation had undei-gone considerable erosion so that its surface became 
deeply dissected with river-valleys and canyons. Later, when the region sank 
to its present position, these valleys were submerged and gave rise to the various 
passages between the Islands as well as to the embayments which make the 
outline of tlic Bahama platform so irregular. 

During the month of April, 1902, the senior author of this chapter made a 
geological reconnoissance of a portion of the Bahama Islands, and later, during 
June and .July of 1903, while a Director of the Bahama Expedition sent out 
by the Geographical Society of Baltimore, he, in connection with Dr. Miller, 
examined further into the structure of the Islands. The conclusions wliich 
seemed to be justified by these studies were published just after the return of 
the Expedition." They were as follows : 

" The present survey has been able to determine that the material com- 
posing the Bahama Islands is not entirely made up of wind-blown coral and 
lime sand, but the lower portions of many of the islands, extending up to ten or 
fifteen or twenty-five feet above the present level of mean tide, has been de- 
posited by the ocean and contains marine organisms in large numbers. Above 
this lies the deposit of wind-blown material which has up to this time been 
regarded as the sole type of deposit visible throughout the archipelago. 

" In regard to the question of elevation or subsidence, the survey has deter- 
mined that both processes have taken place. The Islands were doubtless much 
higher at one time than to-day, and it is ecpially certain that they were formerly 
more depressed beneath the Atlantic Ocean than they are now. It is impossible 
to say whether tliey are being elevated or submerged at the present time, as the 

' Loc. cit. 

" Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1895, vol. 6, 
pp. 103-140, and Resemblance between the Declivities of High Plateaus to Those of 
Submarine Antillean Valleys, Trans. Can. Inst., 1898, vol. v, pp. 3.59-,368. 

"Science, N. S., 1903, vol. xviii, p. 428. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 7 

process is extremely slow at best, and can only be detected by careful measure- 
ment extending over long periods of time." 

Prom this resume it will be seen that four views have been lield at various 
times by those who have studied the geology of the Bahamas. Nelson con- 
cluded that the Islands were stationary; Northrop, that they were probably 
rising ; Agassiz, that they had been depressed ; and lastly, Shattuck and Miller, 
that the Islands had undergone a former elevation ; followed by a more recent 
depression, which in turn had given place to a still later elevation; but as to 
whether the Islands are now stationary or experiencing a change in level no 
opinion was expressed. 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES. 

The physiographic features of the Bahama Islands fall into two groups, a 
submarine and a subserial. Those belonging to the first division are largely 
hidden from direct observation, beneath the surface of the ocean, and have been 
only roughly ascertained by means of the sounding-line. Those of the second 
division are everywhere open to observation and constitute the topographic fea- 
tures of the Islands. 

Submarine Division. 

The Bahama Islands rest on a submerged platform which rises on all sides 
abruptly from the surrounding depths of the ocean. This platform is the most 
significant physiographic feature of the Bahama Islands, and will be considered 
first in relation to surrounding regions ; second, in regard to its own contour 
and slope ; and third, in regard to the character of its surface. 

Relation ivith surrounding regions. — Between the great land-masses of 
North and South America there is a region of land and water including southern 
Mexico, Central America, the islands of the West Indies, the Gulf of Mexico 
and the Caribbean Sea, which has long been a puzzle to geographers and geolo- 
gists. As a result of a vast amount of tedious sounding it has finally been 
ascertained that the American Mediterranean, as this region is appropriately 
called, is divisible into three great basins. In the northwestern portion is a 
huge depression which is filled by the Gulf of Mexico; in the southeast a still 
greater one is occupied by the Caribbean sea ; while between them a third, 
deeper than either of the others, holds the waters which lie between Yucatan 
and Cuba. These three basins not only are separated from each other by broad 
banks which rise like partitions between them, but they are also cut off from 



8 PHYSIOGKAPHY AND GEOLOGY 

free communication with the ocean beyond, by another bank which connects 
the coast of South America with Florida. 

Although these banks are for the most part submerged, they are none the 
less real; for, not only do they prevent the cold water at the bottom of the 
Atlantic from getting over into the basins of the Caribbean-Gulf region, but 
they also exclude free circulation of the waters within the region itself. 

The islands of the West Indies are nothing more than, the superficial por- 
tions of these banks or ridges which happen at the present epoch to rise above 
the surface of the water. These dry land summits are, in terms of geology, 
transitory and uncertain. They have not always been as they are to-day, nor 
will they remain so in the future; but they -change their shapes and positions 
in response to movements of the earth's crust of which they form a part. The 
Bahama Islands which are to be considered as the summits of a portion of 
the eastern ridge connecting South America with Florida are no exception. 

Contour and slope. — The flat-topped ridge or platform from which the 
Bahama Islands rise extends from southern Florida to eastern Haiti. By an 
examination of the map which accompanies this chapter" (Plate X) it will 
be seen that this platform rises rapidly from the deeper regions which surround 
it on all sides. The steepest ascent is along the eastern face of the platform, 
where it abruptly rises from the bottom of the Atlantic to the surface of the 
ocean — a vertical distance of 2500 fathoms — in a little less than 25 miles. 
On the south, west and north, the ascent, although rapid, is not so pronounced as 
towards the Atlantic for the reason that the waters east of Florida, Cuba, and 
Haiti are not as deep. On all sides, however, the platform is so well marked 
that it stands out as a great submerged tableland from the surrounding ocean- 
bottom. 

The northwestern half of the Bahama platform varies greatly from 
the southeastern. Not only is it shallower, lying for the most part, as in 
the Great and Little Bahama Banks, only a few feet or fathoms beneath the 
surface of the ocean, but also it is less broken than the latter, and carries the 
largest islands. The islands of the southeastern half are arranged in small 
groups and rise rapidly on all sides from a lower portion of the platform. 
They are also separated from each other by wide passages. 

'° The base of this map was engraved from transfers kindly furnished by the 
Hydrographic Office. To this the bathymetric contours and colors have been 
added. The general appearance ot this map is similar to the one published by 
Professor Agassiz in his " Reconnoissance of the Bahamas," but it differs from it in 
that the area included is not the same, more contours and details have been intro- 
duced, and a different system of colors employed. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE II 





FlO. 1. — VIEW OF SAIL ROCKS SHOWING MAKINE EROSION 




Fig. 2. — view of highway on summit of blue hills, new providence 



PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 9 

The irregular outline of the Bahama plateau is one of its most significant 
characteristics. In the northeast portion this is particularly well marked on 
account of the separation of the Little and Great Bahama Banks by Providence 
Channel and also by the embayments known as " Tongue-of-the-Ocean " and 
" Exuma Sound." These embayments dissect the Great Bahama Bank so that 
it resembles a letter S and admits the deep waters of the ocean into the very 
heart of the plateau. The southeastern half of the platform does not appear 
so irregular in outline; but this is due to the fact that passages such as 
Crooked Island, Caicos, Turks, and Silver Bank have taken the place of 
embayments; or^ in other words, that erosion has destroyed whatever con- 
necting banks formerly existed and now allows the ocean to pass r;nobstructed 
between the individual island groups. 

There is another feature ^^•^lich marks the northwestern portion of 
the plateau strongly from the southeastern, and that is the greater pre- 
ponderance of shallow water in the former and of deep water in the latter. 
Throughout the northwestern. Little and Great Bahama Banks, with the 
islands which they carry on their surfaces, stand out in marked contrast 
to the more insignificant banks of the southeastern half, which form groups 
independent of one another. This contrast between the two divisions of the 
Bahama platform conveys the impression that the surface as a whole slopes 
toward the southeast. This impression is increased from the fact that the 
Silver and Navidad Banks, situated in the extreme south, are devoid of islands. 
But one sliould not too quickly conclude from this that the platform is 
actually depressed toward the southeast. On the contrary the facts would seem 
to indicate that the difference in depths of water are due not so much to 
deformation as to differential erosion and that the southeastern half has 
suffered relatively more than the northwestern. 

Surface. — The surface of the Bahama platform is divisible into a deep- 
water and a shallow-water fades. The former, as has just been said, is more ex- 
tensively developed throughout the southeastern half of the region, while the 
latter dominates the northwestern. Concerning the physical features of the 
surface, the methods employed in the exploration of the deep-water fades have 
not been sufficientlj- delicate to reveal more than salient features. Judging from 
the data procuied from soundings, its surface appears to be flat and practi- 
cally featureless except where it rises abruptly to form banks and pass over 
into the shallow-water fades. More is known regarding the shallow-water 
fades, for it lies so near the surface of the ocean that it can be distinctly 



10 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 

seen through the clear water which covers it. Aside from the islands, keys, 
and rocks, which will be discussed later, three features stand out prominently. 
They are coral reefs, sand bores, and marine ocean-holes. 

Everywhere over the surface of these shallow banks coral heads and reefs 
are to be found. Along the more exposed eastern face, the coral polyp 
flourishes and builds extensive barrier reefs making that shore practically 
inaccessible to shipping, while over the surface of the more sheltered banks 
individual coral heads and small reefs are constantly encountered. These cause 
the bottoms to shallow suddenly and are consequently much dreaded by sailors. 
Dangerous reefs are frequently scattered so thickly over the surface of the 
banks that it has proved impracticable to chart them. The waters where they 
occur are avoided by vessels of large draft, and navigation is never attempted 
save in broad daylight and with a sailor at the bow to notify the helmsman of 
approaching reefs. 

' Sand bars or '• sand bores " as they are usually called occur in greatest 
abundance over the surface of the bank south of the Tongue-of-the-Ocean. 
In this region they are so numerous as to make it dangerous for even light 
shipping during times of ebb tide. These sand bores are very low bars of white, 
coral sand which collect on the banks and frequently rise a few feet above the 
surface of the ocean. During ebb tide they are laid bare in great numbers, 
but during high water most of them disappear. They are not fixed in one 
position, but shift about with the ever-changing currents. 

Submarine ocean-holes, or " blue holes " as they are frequently called, are, 
as the name indicates, deep holes which open suddenly downwards from the 
surface of the banks. In the Bahamas, the color of shallow water is green, 
and of deep water, blue ; so that depth is indicated by color. The presence of an 
ocean-hole is therefore shown by an isolated area of blue water in the midst 
of a sea of green ; hence the term " blue hole." These ocean-holes vary in 
diameter from a few feet to a quarter of a mile or more. Their sides beneath the 
opening frequently flare out like a bottle, and are usually covered with healthy 
branches of growing coral and many different varieties of marine plants, 
showing that there is a constant circulation of water. Numerous attempts 
have been made to ascertain the depth of these holes, but only in a few cases 
have lines succeeded in reaching the bottom. Agassiz found that some of the 
holes which he fathomed were at least .300 feet deep. It has been frequently 
observed that the water boils or rushes through these ocean-holes in harmony 
with the ebb and flow of the tide, proving that they are connected with deep 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 11 

water bej'ond. Although these ocean-holes are occasionally met with they 
cannot be considered of common occurrence. Agassiz states that the principal 
ones are as follows : " 

One 5 to 6 miles from Hawks Bill Eock; three, of 18, 24 and 13 fathoms, 
a little north of Bine Hole Point. These are about 5 miles apart on a 
northerly line. There are two more, of 17 and 38 fathoms, in the extension of 
a line of Blossom Channel leading from Tongue-of-the-Ocean upon the banlc. 
There is also a 15 fathom hole at High Point on Andros, and a 20 fathom hole 
in the middle bight between Gibson Key and Big Wood Key. 

The senior author of this paper had a novel experience at this particular 
ocean-hole during his first cruise in the Bahamas. After a long search the 
locality was discovered one evening at sundown, and the ship brought to anchor 
for the night close by. The boat, as she lay at rest, was about an eighth of a mile 
from the ocean-hole. The surface of the water above the hole was covered with 
a circular mass of foam about 15 feet in diameter, rotating slowly in a direc- 
tion contrary to the hands of a watch. All hands on board could plainly 
see from the distance at which the boat stood that the surface of the water 
above the hole sagged and took on a saucer-like depression. A boat was 
quickly lowered and rowed cautiously toward the ocean-hole. As soon as it 
arrived in the saucer-like depression it was caught in the whirlpool and 
moved slowly round and round with the motion of the water. Looking down, 
the opening into the cavern beneath could be distinctly seen and it was 
evident, as the tide was flowing, that this ocean-hole communicated with 
other caverns at a distance, possibly on the island of Andros, and that the water 
was being sucked down through the opening to find its way into unknown parts. 
The walls of this ocean-hole were lined with living coral and marine plants. 
An attempt was made at sounding but the lead did not succeed in reaching 
bottom. 

Distribution of Islands. — These various islands and keys are distributed 
unequally throughout the archipelago. By far the greater number are confined 
to the northwestern half and lie for the most part around the periphery of the 
banks, where they descend suddenly to deep water. In the southwestern portion 
of the Bahamas the islands are less numerous and are assembled in clusters, 
which rest on isolated banks, while in the extreme south, keys and rocks give 
place to submerged banks. 

" Lac. cit., p. 42. 



13 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 

Character of Surface. — The topography of these land fragments consists of 
features which rise in relief and others which sink as depressions beneath the 
general surface. The features of relief are dunes of coral sand and ridges of 
hard rock. The depressions consist of lakes, ponds or marshes, ocean-holes, 
banana-holes, and a general rough surface. 

Dunes occur with great frequency along the sea-shores, where the winds 
have an opportunity to blow the calcareous sand up into heaps dazzling in the 
sunlight. These bear the characteristic vegetation and consolidate rapidly 
into soft rock, so that the tendency is to grow in height rather than to migrate 
inland. These dunes are distributed generally throughout the archipelago, but 
perhaps they are well developed as anywhere along the eastern side of Eleuthera 
fronting the ocean. There appears to be no very well defined line of separation 
between these half consolidated dunes, and the ridges of hard rock. Both have 
the same origin, as well as a similar topography, and one passes into the other 
with insensible gradations. The oldest dunes are hard rock, while the youngest 
are loose sand, and there is every intermediate stage. These ridges cross the 
islands in ranks like the dunes, and where an island has suifered severely from 
erosion, are frequently the only remaining features to mark the once more con- 
tinuous land surface. The highest of these ridges are met with in Cat Island, 
where they rise to about 400 feet, but this is uncommon. They are usually low, 
rolling hills, scarcely high enough to break the monotony of the landscape. 

SuB^EBiAL Division. 

Professor Agassiz has given such minute and careful descriptions of the 
various islands of the Bahama archipelago,'" that it is unnecessary to go over 
the same ground here. Those desiring detailed descriptions are referred to the 
monograph mentioned above. Tn this paper only the salient features which 
apply to the group as a whole will be considered. 

Classification. — The Bahama Islands consist of some three thousand or 
more islands, keys, and rocks, which Agassiz has classified in the following 
manner : " 

First, simken banks like the Navidad, Silver and Mouchoir Banks; second, 
islands occupying the whole or nearly the whole summit of the banks from 
wliich they rise, as Watlings, Eum Cay, Concepeion, Plana Cays, Inagua, and 
the atoll of Hogsty; third, banks having a resemblance to atolls, like Crooked 

" Loc. cit. 

■'■' Loc. cit., p. 11. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 13 

Island and Caicos Banks, which are fringed with low islands, so as to form a 
crescent with a shallow open lagoon in the interior; fourth, Salt Cay Bank, 
which is intermediate between first and third classes; fifth, composite banks 
like the Little and Great Bahama Banks which carrj' characteristics causing 
them to resemble all of the others. 

On the larger islands, lakes, ponds and marshes are frequently met with. 
Many of these are shallow, while otliers are quite deep and are connected more 
or less directly with the ocean. They are usually undrained, contain l)rackish 
water, and their shores are lined with mangroves and other characteristic salt- 
loving plants. Examples of these are Lake Killarney and Harold Pond 
(Plate V, Fig. 1) on New Providence. The shores of these lakes advance 
and recede with the filling or desiccating of the body of water within. 

One of the most beautiful brackish lakes in the Bahamas is located in the 
interior of Watlings Island (Plate V, Pig. 2, and Plate XXXII). It is 
known as Great Lake, contains bi-ackish water, and is reported to be con- 
nected with the sea beyond. On the day that the Expedition visited this lake, 
foam from the water had been blown up on the beach into drifts whicli quivered 
in the breeze like piles of eider-down. An additional interest is attached to' 
this lake as it is believed to be the one seen by Columbus on the morning of 
the day when he first touched foot in America. 

In addition to these lakes there are deep, well-like depressions filled with 
salt water and connected with the ocean by subterranean passages. They ebb 
and flow with the tide, support marine life, and in all essential features 
resemble the submarine ocean-holes, except that they occur on land, usually 
removed some distance from the sea. One of the most perfect of these occurs 
at Tarpum Ba}', just behind the settlement and at a distance of about a 
quarter of a mile from the sea-shore (Plate IX, Pig. 1). This terrestrial 
ocean-hole is circular in form and is said to be 100 feet deep. It contains salt 
water, and one standing on the rim can distinctly see marine fishes swimming 
about in the water below. The surface of this water changes with the tide and 
there is no doubt that a subterranean channel connects this hole with the 
ocean outside. 

There are all gradations between these terrestrial ocean-holes and a 
smaller type of well-like openings known as " banana-holes." These banana- 
holes are cylindrical depressions with perpendicular sides and attain at 
times a depth of 25 feet or more. Their bottoms are usually lined with 
soil or mud, but at other times contain brackish or salt water which ebbs and 



14 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 

flows with the tide. Others have no such connection and remain dry except 
when filled with rain-water. These holes range downward in size vintil the}^ 
merge with the general rough surface of the country. The smaller ones 
having a depth of 5 or 10 feet usually contain rich soil and are used to grow 
bananas; hence the name. 

Throughout the Bahamas the surface rock is extremely rough and is 
carved into innumerable cavities and holes. When these openings are about 
the size of a flower pot they are known as " pot-holes '" ; although they are 
due to solution and not to mechanical erosion. These pot-holes are filled 
with rich soil and in them the pineapple plant is cultivated. 

GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 

The Bahama Islands are built out of sediments derived from the destruc- 
tion of coral and other calcareous organisms. Nothing is known ' regarding 
the geology of the platform on which these Islands rest, but, if it is similar 
to other ridges of the West Indies, its geology is complex and the veneer of white 
calcareous sand simply covers it like a shroud. These sedimentary rocks, out 
•of which the Islands are built, have been deposited by three agencies, air, water, 
and organisms. Each one of these types will now be considered. 

^■EoLiAN Deposits. 

These deposits include the dunes and rock-ridges described in a previous 
section. These dunes are composed of half solidified calcareous sand blown 
up from the sea-shore, while the ridges of hard rock are ancient dunes cemented 
to solid limestone. They both contain fossil land-shells and have a cross- 
bedded structure. This cross-bedding may be seen wherever the rock has 
been excavated. The fresh surfaces thus exposed weather quickly, but as the 
various layers do not decay at the same rate, the cross-bedded structure is 
brought out in a striking manner. Such exposures may be seen in the various 
quarries of Nassau and in the approach to the bridge leading to Government 
House (Plate IV). This cross-bedding can also be seen from the sides of the 
road where the highway leading to the south passes over the summit of Blue 
Eidge (Plate II, Pig. 2). 

Fossil land-shells are frequently discovered in these wolian deposits. A 
representative collection was secured and submitted to Dr. Dall who has dis- 
cussed it in the succeeding chapter. The manner in which these shells 
are entombed is most interesting. The surface of the dunes supports a scant 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE III 




Fig. 1. — VIEW showing sueface of wave eroded limestone, sail hocks 




Fio. 2. — view OF wave eroded limestone, showing casts of ROOTS and other 

VEGETABLE REMAINS, SAIL BOCKS 



PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GKOLOGIC VIKWS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 15 

vegetation which has become adapted to this semi-arid environment. The 
leaves of these shrubs support large numbers of land-shells, which feed on them 
and at death become detached and falling to the ground accumulate aljout the 
base of the plants. Drifting sand quickly covers them over and they become 
true fossils. In digging around the roots of these plants, one can uncovei- a 
large number of these shells. As the dune thickens and grows in height, these 
organisms become buried deeper and deeper and, when the sand solidifies to 
hard rock, they become cemented into one mass with the surroimding particles. 
Vegetable remains and especially casts of roots occur abundantly in the 
teolian deposits. These are particularly noticeable where the waves have etclied 
out the softer parts of the matrix and have left the more consolidated casts 
to stand out in relief, giving to the surface a rough and scoriaceous appearance 
(Plate III, Fig. .2). 

Aqueous Deposits. 

The deposits formed by the agency of water have either been laid down 
at the bottom of the small ponds described above or by the waves and currents 
of the ocean. The deposits made at the bottom of the small lakes are of 
little extent. They, however, are of considerable importance in that they 
carry the remains of the organisms which inhabit the various bracl^ish water 
lakes. Great Lake in the interior of Watlings carries large numbers of shells ; 
also the salt pans on Rum Cay (Plate XC, Pig. 1). The deposits which line 
the bottoms of these salt f>ans contain large lumibers of fossil shells, which 
belong to a fauna derived from the ocean outside but adapted to living in their 
peculiar environment. The fossils collected at Rum Cay were submitted to 
Dr. Dall who has discussed them in another chapter. 

In many places it was found that these solian deposits rested on lower 
beds of marine origin, which were frequently very fossiliferous. Localities 
where these marine beds were observed finallj' became so numerous and were 
so widely distributed that the conviction became irresistible that the substratum 
of the Bahamas, throughout at least the northwestern portion of the archipelago, 
was marine. At certain places, as for instance, on Rum Cay, these marine 
deposits extend as high as 1.5 or 20 feet above sea level. The ajolian deposits 
are therefore to be considered as a superficial blanket covering these basal 
marine sediments. A list of localities where these marine deposits were found, 
together with the fossils from each, is given by Dr. Dall in the next chapter. 

A quarter of a mile west of Clarence Harbor the contact between the 



It) PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 

ffiolian and marine rocks is shown more distinctlj' than in any of the other 

localities visited by the Expedition. Along a canal which has been cut to 

admit water in a salt jDan, some excellent sections are shown. The lower 

part of the section contains great quantities of marine fossils, while above, 

land forms are equally abundant. These two deposits are not separated by 

any pronounced break, but if the section could be traced for any distance it 

is probable that an unconformity would appear. 

The surface of the banks is everywhere covered with a snow-white mantle 

of calcareous sand and mud derived chiefly from the erosion of coral reefs. 

In the region south of Tongue-of-the-Ocean these sediments are heaped into 

sand bores by the currents. In the bights and along the western shore of 

Andros, as well as along the western shore of Abaco, on the bottom of Wide 

Opening and other places, there is a peculiar deposit of finely divided calcareous 

mud known as " white marl." This has the consistency of chalk and may, in 

fact, be considered to be a modern chalk deposit. The following is an analysis 

of this white marl from Middle Bight, Andros, which the Bureau of Soils, U. S. 

Department of Agriculture, has been kind enough to furnish : 

Potash (K.0) 0.306 

Soda (NaoO) 2.12 

Lime (CaO) 47.50 

Magnesia (MgO) 2.85 

Iron and Alumnia (Fe & Al) trace 

Nitrogen (N) 0.054 

Phosphorus pentoxide (P.O5) 0.123 

Sulphur trioxide ( SO3) 0.37 

Chlorine (CI) 2.97 

Silica ( SiO,) 3.22 

Carbon dioxide (CO,) 40.48 

99.993 . 

Organic Deposits. 

Throughout the Bahama Islands coral polyps are actively engaged in 
. building up fringing reefs against the shore, while coral heads in both isolated 
and small clusters are scattered promiscuously over the more sheltered banks. 
As these were discussed in a previous section, they will not be taken up further 
in this place. There is, however, on the little island of Green Cay, situated on 
the southeast margin of Tongue-of-the-Ocean, a dead reef which lies per- 
manently above the level of low tide. This reef, which extends along the shore 
for about a quarter of a mile, is composed of a number of different species 
of corals and extends in toward the center of the Island, where it becomes 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 17 

covered by sand dunes. (Plate VIII.) It is the only instance of the kind 
which was discovered in the Bahamas, but it is evident that when this reef was 
formed it occupied a lower level than at present, and that it has been raised 
to its present position since its formation. 

Structure and Age. 

Nowhere were these sedimentary beds observed to lie otherwise than in a 
horizontal position. Cross-bedding due to wave and atmospheric action was, 
of course, prevalent, but this did not interfere with the general horizontal 
attitude of the deposits. .Although the marine beds have been elevated since 
their deposition, they now occupy a position a few feet above and parallel to the 
one in which they were laid down. From the fossil contents of both the 
ajolian and aqueous beds, Dr. Dall has determined that the deposits are Recent. 

Erosion. 

Signs of erosion are visible on every side throughout the Bahama Islands. 
In fact, it is evident that processes of destruction are much more important 
here than those of construction. The upper surface of the limestone rock out 
of which the Bahamas are built shows everywhere signs of solution. The 
solving agents are both carbon dioxide brought down by the rain from the 
atmosphere, or humic acids contained in the soil. Wherever these reagents 
attack the rock a differential erosion takes place, the softer parts are dissolved 
and carried away, leaving irregular cavities which in time fill with soil and 
form the pot-holes mentioned above. In other places where the solution has 
not advanced so far, a rubbly or rough surface is the result. These results, 
however, are insignificant when compared to the more important work of 
underground waters which during some period in the past, when the region 
stood higher than to-day, dissolved the subterranean rocks of the Islands 
and left them in a cavernous and honey-combed condition. The ocean-holes, 
banana-holes, and many of the brackish pools mentioned above are due to this 
subterranean solution. 

As there are no true rivers in the Bahama Islands the mechanical erosion 
is practically confined to the work of waves. The Islands situated as they are, 
well out in the Atlantic are subjected to a perpetual attack from the sea. A 
glance at the map (Plate X) will suffice to convince one that the whole 
archipelago has suffered severely from the effects of wave erosion. The Islands 
are being slowly worn away and broken up into keys and rocks and these in 



18 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 

turn are being planed down to submarine banks. (Plate II, Pig. 1, and Plate 
III.) In fact, the entire archipelago as it exists to-day is only a fraction of 
\\'hat it must have been in times gone by. 

It must be remembered that the Bahama Islands are honey-combed with 
caverns and that these cavities give the waves an excellent chance to attack and 
tear the rock asunder. Evidences of this are seen on every hand. Prom the 
shore where precipitous bluffs come down to meet the waves, the former 
frequently contain huge caverns which have been carved out by the waves as 
they have enlarged smaller openings which originally occurred in the rocks. 
These are of very common occurrence along the sea-shore but " The Cares " 
(Plate IX, Pig. 2), seven miles west of IS'assau, furnishes as good an example 
as any and at the same time is within easy reach. This cavern has Ijcen 
excavated in the face of an ancient sea-cliif Avhich now stands two hundred 
feet or more back from the shore and five or ten feet above sea level. It is 
about 25 feet deep by 20 high, and leads into the heart of a hill in the rear. 
This cave probably existed tirst as a subterranean cavern, which was broken 
into and enlarged by the waves when the island stood somewhat lower than 
to-day. The cutting of the sea-cliff and the enlarging of the cavern was carried 
on at one and the same time. Glass Window, Eleuthera and Hole-in-the-Wall 
near Elbow Cay, Abaco, are other instances of wave work in original sub- 
terranean caverns. In these latter cases, however, the caverns have been 
eroded at both ends, leaving only a thin section in the middle. These elevated 
sea-cliffs, cut by an ancient erosion, are not vmcommon in the Bahamas. 
Another good example of them beside one already mentioned, occurs on the 
east side of Andros just south of Morgans Bluffs. The topography indicates 
that they were cut by the waves and their position shows that the surface of 
the Islands stood 5 or 10 feet lower than now. 

In the introduction of this chapter it was stated that the Bahama Islands 
were located in the midst of the hurricane area of the West Indies. This fact 
will be more fully appreciated by an examination of Plates XVIII-XXIV, 
which show the tracks of hurricanes in the Bahamas since 1878. During 
ordinary storms the waves from the Atlantic roll in unchecked to break on the 
unprotected shores of the Bahamas, but these breakers are as nothing com- 
pared to the tremendous seas which are hurled against the Islands during 
hurricanes. In many places, particidarly along exposed shores, immense 
blocks of limestone have been heaped into huge piles well up on the shore 
beyond the reach of the ordinary storm breakers. A typical example of this 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE IV 




Fig. J. — VIEW snowina ceoss-bedded stkdctuke in Aeolian limestone at Nassau 




Fig. 2. — nearer view of cross-bedded structure in .eolian limestone at Nassau 



PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 19 

may be seen on Green Cay (Plate VJ, Fig. 1, and Plate VII), ncai' the clevaliMl 
coral reef spoken of above. By an examination of these figures it will be seen 
that the thin-bedded coral rock in the foreground has been ripped up in huge 
slabs and piled in a rampart along the upper margin of the beach. .Vn 
ancient one of these ramparts which have been receniented into solid rock liy 
the accumulation and consolidation of coral sand is shown ( Plate VI. Fig. '2). 

TOPOGRAPHIC HISTORY. 

It is stated above that the Bahama Islands are honey-combed witii 
caverns. This could only have taken place when the Islands stood higher 
than they do to-day. Terrestrial and marine ocean-holes together with banana- 
holes and brackish-water lakes are different lines of evidence showing that 
the sea has ready access to the interior of the Islands. This access is easily 
possible through the presence of these underground caverns. The deepest 
ocean-holes extend dovm some 300 feet beneath the surface of the water. This 
indicates that the Islands must have stood at least 300 feet higher when this 
excavation took place than they do to-day. The present attitude of the archi- 
pelago then is indicative of subsidence. The evidence furnished by the elevated 
coral reef on Green Cay, together with the elevated deposits carrying marine 
shells and the raised sea-cliffs, shows that the Islands have been elevated from 
10 to 25 feet at no very remote date. 

So far as geological evidence is able to throw light on the problem, it is 
evident that the topographic history of the Islands has been as follows : there 
was a period of elevation when the Islands stood at least 300 feet higher than 
they do at the present time. During this epoch the dry land area of the 
Bahamas was very much greater than to-day. The extent of this land mass may 
be approximately reconstructed by imagining all the light-colored areas which 
now constitute the banks as standing above water level. (Plate X.) It will be 
seen then that the Islands as they exist to-day are mere remnants of what they 
were formerly and that the great reduction in land surface has been due to 
the effects of subsidence and marine erosion. During this period of elevation 
the limestone rock was dissolved into caverns and grottoes, similar to wliat 
exists now in the Shenandoah Valley and Florida. This period of elevation 
gave place to one of depression, when the land sunk beneath the level of the 
ocean to a position at least 15 feet lower than it now occupies. During this period 
the deposits bearing marine shells were made as well as the coral reef on Green 
Cay, and the ancient sea-cliffs were cut. The third chajiter in the topographic 



20 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 

history opened when the Islands were elevated about 15 or 20 feet to their 
present position and brought up with them the marine deposits Just mentioned. 
It is not known whether the Islands at the present time are undergoing 
subsidence or elevation or whether they are stationary. In order to establish 
this point bench marks have been erected at Nassau which are described in 
full in another part of this volume. It will be interesting for future geologists 
to determine the position of these marks after a lapse of twenty-five or fifty 
years. 



FOSSILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. WITH A 
LIST OF THE NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS 



FOSSILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, WITH A 
LIST OF THE NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS 

BY 
WILLIAM H. DALL, A. M., Sc. D., 

Curator Division of MoUusks, U. S. National Museum. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The material submitted to me by Dr. George B. Shattuck was chiefly 
collected by Dr. B. L. Miller, of Bryn Mawr College, and comprised specimens 
of the various calcareous rocks containing organic remains, as well as some 
fossils which had been removed from their associated matrix, all fully labelled 
with locality and other data. 

The rocks may be divided into two general groups, those which were 
formed in water, or sedimentary; and those formed of drifted sands more or 
less consolidated, or seolian. 

In the main the fossils of the sedimentary rocks are of marine origin 
while those of the seolian rocks are landshells, but in both there is some 
mixture, as dead marine shells from the beaches were included in the aeolian 
sands, or landshells washed or blown into the sea in the sedimentary beds, as 
happens daily under present conditions. 

All the material of both kinds of rock is nltimatelj' organic or has been 
derived from the sea water through the medium of organisms which have 
secreted it in solid form, which has subsequently been reduced to sand by 
attrition and reconsolidated by partial resolution and deposition. In a broad 
sense this applies to both lime and silica as contained in these rocks, and 
more or less mingled with phosphoric acid and oxides of manganese or iron, 
of which the proportions in general are very small. 

It is probable that the amount of sand derived from crystalline rocks of 
the adjacent region, except in the form of floating pumice, is almost infini- 
tesimal. 

The fundamental rock of the Bahamas is sedimentary and was deposited 
at a moderate depth below the sea at a very recent geological epoch, all the 



24 FOSSILS AND NON-MAEINE MOLLUSKS 

marine fossils contained in it being now found living in the same region, at 
moderate depths. The terrestrial forms have invaded the Islands since their 
elevation above the sea level, and the seolian rocks have also been formed since 
that event. They contain the remains of the first forms which occupied the 
recentljf elevated territory as well as those which by evolution and variation 
have been developed since. Hence if we could form some estimate of the 
definite time which has elapsed since the elevation of the Bahamas, we should 
have a measure of the rate of variation and specific evolution of the landshells 
referred to, under favorable conditions. 

It is hardly necessary to say that the data are yet quite insufficient to 
do more than point the way toward the solution of this problem, but to the fact 
that the}' do furnish some indications in this direction is due wliatever inter- 
est the fossils herein noticed may possess. 

The first evidence of the existence of extinct species of landshells in the 
Eeolian rocks of the Bahamas was given by the writer in the Bulletin of the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Vol. XXV, No. 9, in 1894, in discussing 
some collections made by Professor Alexander Agassiz during the voyage of 
the yacht Wild Duch. 

The present collection adds considerably to our knowledge of these 
forms, and it may be supposed that further exploration would reveal other 
additions to the list. 

LIST OP STATIONS AND THE SPECIES COLLECTED AT EACH OF THEM. 

Station 1. — About two miles north of Governors Harbor, Eleuthera 
Island, about six feet above the water, near the shore. 

Cerion {sp.). 

Phacoides {Here) pensylvanicus Linne. 

Station 2. — Fossils from the Mount Vernon estate, about four miles east 

of Nassau, N. P., in the walls of the sink-holes described in Note No. 8. 

Area (Scapharca) transversa Say. 

Ghama (sp.) fragment. 

Phacoides {Here) pensylvanicus Linne. 

Cerithium (sp.) fragment. 

Torinia canalifera C. B. Adams. 

Fissurella Hsteri Orbigny. 

Station 3. — Hard limerock from basement of Rum Cay. 

Chama (sp.). 

Phacoides (Here) pensylvanimts Linne. 

Livona pica Linng. 

Agaricia (sp.) . 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE V 




FrC. 1. — VIEW OF IIAEOLn PO.ND, NEW PROVIDENCE, A TYPICAL DRACKISII WATER LAKE 




Fig. 2. — view of great lake, watlings island, with foam blown in heaps on the 

r.cAcii 



PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 25 

Station 4. — Hard rock containing fossils from inland not far from 
Clarence Harbor, Long Island. 

Strombus gigas Linne. 

Natica canrena Lamarck. 

Bulla striata Bniguiere. 

Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. 

Hemicardium (sp.). 

Station 5. — Hard rock from Mangrove Cay, Andres Island. 

Porites (sp.). 

Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. 

Station 5a. — Sink-hole in hill back of the town about half a mile inland 
and aboiit thirty-five feet above sea level. 
Favia (sp.). 

Station 6. — Hard rock from .30 to 35 feet above the sea level, in the wall 

of " Glass AVindow," Eleuthera Island. Landshells. 

Cepolis varians Menke. 

Cerion (near cinerea Maynard). 

Station 7. — From shores of small salt pan or lake, about two miles west 

of Clarence Harbor, Long Island. 

Cerion (sp.). 

Cerithium (Pyrazus) septemstriatum Say, vars. 

Anomalocardia cuneimeris Conrad. 

Station 8. — Eock (very hard) from wall of large sink-hole on Mount 
Vernon estate, New Providence, about four miles east of Nassau. 
Contains no recognizable fossils. 

Station 9. — Soft windblown sand rock from the quarry at the top of 
Nassau ridge, on Nassau street. New Providence. 

Cerion (sp.) fragments. 
Cepolis (sp.) fragments. 

Station 10. — Soft, fine-grained limerock from quarry near seawall, 

Glenely settlement, Tarpum Bay. 

Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus LinnS. 
Hemicardium (sp.) young. 
Chione cancellata Linne. 
Anomalocardia (sp.) young sliell. 

Station 11. — Hard rock from basement of Eum Cay, material rather 
gravelly than sandy. 

Codakia orbicularis Linne. 
Hemicardium (sp.) young valve. 



26 FOSSILS AND NON-MAKINE MOLLUSKS 

Station 13. — Hard rock broken off the high cliff on the west side of 
Xew Providence Island. This specimen was obtained from about 15 feet 

above sea level. 

Worn fragments of Cyprcca {cinereaf). Cliama. Phacoides, etc., in a shell 
gravel compactly consolidated. 

Station 13. — Soft calcareous sand rock, a few feet above sea level, at east 

side of Corie Sound. 

Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. 

Station 14. — Soft calcareous sand of small unnamed key south o£ 
Eeids Cay, Middle Bight, Andros Island. The material seems to be water- 
deposited. The shells are loose, some were found near the beach, others in 
the marl. None were found living. The shells are a mixture of land anil 

marine species. 

Truncatella sp. fragment. 

CepoHs duclosiana Ferussac. 

Cerion rhyssum, new species, allied to C. dimidiatum Pfr. 

Cerion ritcUiei grayi Maynard. 

Cerion glans Kiister. 

Chione cancellata Linne. 

Cerithium sp. 

Natica canrena Lamarck. 

Nerita versicolor Lamarck. 

Spirula australis (Lam.) Pelseneer. 

Station 15. — Fossils from soft sand rock in quarry on Xassau street at 

top of Nassau ridge; New Providence Island (see also No. 9). 
Cerion agassizii Dall (extinct). 
Cepolis troscheli Pfeiffer. 
Cerithium sp. (worn). 

Station 16. — Fossils obtained from a soft sand rock about .five feet 
above sea level. This rock contains large masses of coral, some two or three 
feet in diameter, and is exposed about three-quarters of a mile from the ex- 
treme east end of New Providence along the north shore. 

Ostrea parasitica Gmelin. 

Margaritiphora radiata Leach. 

Lithophaga antiUarum Orbigny. 

Area occidentalis Philippi. 

Barbatia Candida Gmelin. 

Bariatia reticulata Gmelin. 

Codakia orbicularis Linne. 

Chama (macerophylla Chemnitz?) fragment. 

Macrocallista nebulosa Solander. 

Tellina radiata Linne. 

Cypraa cinerea Linne. 

Astralium imbricatum Gmelin. 

Meandrites sp. ind. 



THE BAHAJIA ISLAXDS 'i i 

Station 17. — Fossils from quarry at back of hospital grounds, Nassau, 
New Providence. At the base of the section is a hard white rock from which 
was obtained — 

Margaritipliora racliata Leach (Marine). Above this was a somewhat brown- 
ish, poorly cementetl, sandy layer two or three feet thick, containing an extinct 
land shell, Cerion agassizii Dall. Above the sandy layer there is a hard white rock, 
containing no fossils. 

Station 18. — Fossils from the narrow part of Eleuthera Island opposite 
Savanna Sound from about five feet above sea level. The rock appeared to 
be a beach formation. 

Cerion (near agassizii Dall) fragments. 

Mytilus exustus Linne. 

Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linne. 

Phacoicles (CaUucina) radians Conrad. 

Phacoides (Caviliicina) trisulcatiis Conrad. 

Bulla striata Bruguigre. 

Natica canrena Lamarck. 

Acmwa punctulata Gmelin. 

Balanus sp. fragments. 

Station 19. — Fossils from reolian rocks along east side Eum Ca}'. 

Cerion lentiginosum Maynard. 

Cepolis varians Menke. 

Cepolis agassizii new species, near varians, Menke. 

Cepolis pharcida new species, near duclosiana Ferussac. 

Helicina rawsoni Pfeiffer (Watlings Id.). 

Barbatia sp. 

Chama sp. indet.. worn. 

Tectarius (muricaiusi L. ) worn shell. 

Livona pica Linne. 

Claw of a small crab. 

Station 20. — Fine, rather hard, gravelly sand rock, witli included worn 
calcareous peb1)les, from about one mile north of Pigeon Hill, Eleutliei-a 
Island, and about one mile inland. 

Mytilus exustus Linne. 

Lanipusia sp. (fragment). 

Chlorostoma sp. (young shell). 

Station 21. — Bluff of Eleuthera Island about a mile north of Bluff 

settlement and six feet above sea level. Above the rock containing these 

fossils is a stratum of rock of jeolian origin. The matrix of the fossils is a 

soft, fine, calcareous sand rock. 

Glycymeris americana Defrance. 
Phacoides {Here) pensylvanicus Linne. 
Cerithium ftoridanum Morch. 



28 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS 

Station 23. — ^olian sand rock, one hundred yards north of " Glass 
Window," Eleuthera Island, at about three feet above sea level. 
Cerion alta Maynard. 

Station 23. — Fine, rather soft, sand rock from near Clarence Harbor, 
Long Island, about three-quarters of a mile inland. 

Mytilus exustus Linne. 
Divaricella quadrisulcata Orbigny. 
Bulla striata Bruguiere. 
Mangilia sp. (fragment). 
Olivella nivea Gmelin? 
Trivia pediciilus Linne. 
Litorina sp. (young shell). 
Bittium varium Pfeiffer. 

Station 24. — Basement rock of Eum Cay. Same as Station 3. Hard 

water-laid sand rock with numerous shell fra,^ents and worn calcareous 

pebbles. 

Stromhus gigas Linne. 
Murex nuceus? Morch. 
Nassa ambigua Montagu. 
Pyrula papyratia Say, fragment. 
Area iimhonata Lamarck. 
Mytilus exustus Linne. 
Balanus sp. fragments. 
Meandrites sp. worn. 

Station 25. — See Station 2. 

Station 26. — Hard, fine gravel rock from Arthurs Town, Cat Island, 

about half a mile inland. 

Glycymeris americana Defrance. 
Gardita (Glans) dominguensis Orbigny. 

Station 27.' — Fossils from above " Glass Window," Eleuthera Island. 

See also Station 6. 

Cerion hlandi Pilsbry and Vanatta. 
Cepolis varians Menke. 

Station 28. — Fossils from three and a half miles N. W. of Clarence 

Harbor, Long Island, and half-way across the island. 

Area sp. fragment. 

Codakia orbicularis Linn6. 

Phacoides (.Here) pensylvanicus Linng. 

Phacoides {Lucinisca) nassula Conrad. 

Chione cancellata Linne. 

Columlella mercatoria Linn6. 

Mitra sp. fragment. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 29 

Nassa amhigua Montagu. 
Trivia pediculus Linnfi. 
Polynices lactea Gullding. 
Natica canrena Lamarck. 
Cerithium algicola Adams. 
Cerithium semiferrugineum Lamarck. 
Bulla striata Bruguiere. 

Station 29. — Stratified rock along shore of Green Cay, a hard^, calcareous 

sand rock. 

Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linn6. 
Chama variegata Reeve. 
Nerita tesseJlata Gmelin. 

Station 30. — Rock in place about one and a half mile west of " The 

Caves," New Providence, and about five feet above sea level. 

Area reticulata Gmelin. 

Chama sarda Reeve. 

Phacoides (Here) pensylvanicus Linn§. 

Strigilla carnaria Linne. 

Purpura sp., fragment. 

Natica castrensis Dall. 

THE LANDSHELL FAUNA OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. 

The latest enumeration of the recent landshell fauna of the Bahamas 
which has come to my notice is the list given by Mr. Bendall in 1895 in the 
Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London. This list contains at 
least two synonyms and several names of species which have been mistakenly 
attributed to the Bahamas, and six varieties of recognized species. Deduc- 
tion being made of these, there remains a total of seventy-six species then 
known to inhabit the Islands. 

To these are now added, for the purpose of making a complete enumeration 
of the known land and fresh-water fauna of the Bahamas, (1) a number of 
species in the collection of the U. S. National Museum, derived from various 
sources; (2) a certain number of species first collected by Mr. Owen Bryant, of 
Boston, on a recent trip to the Bahamas, the report on which, by the writer, 
will shortly be printed; and (3) the species collected by the present Expedition, 
and described in the text here following, preceding the general list of the fauna. 

The list now given comprises 172 forms, of which 25 may be regarded 
as varietal, leaving 147 recognized species so far as at present known, adding 
seventy-one species to the list of 1895. In view of the great variability of 
the genus Gerion, only those forms which seemed well characterized have been 



30 FOSSILS AKD NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS 

admitted as of specific rank; fnlly as many more could be added if all those 
hitherto described were enumerated. I have no doubt that a large number 
of well-characterized new forms will be added to the catalogue of those now 
known, when the various islets are all thoroughly and systematically ex- 
plored. 

Of the well-established species- of the existing fauna a certain number 
seem to have been lately introduced from Cuba or the adjacent region. These 
naturalized members of the fauna include the species of Oleacina., Pleurodonte, 
Orthostyla and Urocoptis, and one of the species of Bulimulus. The chief and 
most conspicuous elements of the strictly indigenous landshell population are 
the species of the genus Cepolis and of the genus Cerion, which together 
make up nearly half the existing fauna. Eight IleUciniJcc and nine Gijclo- 
stomatidce are next in importance in the census. Eemaining types are rep- 
resented usually by only one or two species each. 

The genera Cepolis and Cerion take their origin from the Oligocene period. 
During the JMiddle Oligocene the peninsular part of Florida was represented 
by a group of islets which must have greatly resembled the Bahamas of to-day. 
They were low with occasional lakes of fresh water, and generalized forms of 
Cepolis and Cerion made up the bulk of their landshell fauna, in which 
Ilelicina, Bulimulus, Urocoptis and Polygyra were represented, as well as 
Planorbis and Lioplax. So far as the scanty remains in the Bowden marl 
of nearly the same geological age afford evidence, the characteristics of the 
Floridian island fauna and that of Jamaica were as different as they are 
to-day, the fossils found having nothing in common. 

The present landshell fauna of south Florida is apparently not directly 
derived from this Oligocene assemblage, of which the more tropical types may 
have been eliminated during the comparatively cold Miocene epoch; but the 
similarity to the present Bahama fauna is sufficientlj'- striking to suggest 
that the latter is the recent representative of the former. 

This representation does not proceed from a lineal succession on the spot, 
for it is probable that the entire archipelago of the Bahamas may have been 
submerged during comparatively recent geological time. The islands of 
which it is composed are so low that their submergence during the changes of 
level which are known to have taken place in the adjacent high islands of 
Cuba, Haiti, etc., must have been almost inevitable. We are led to believe 
that the types which existed in Florida also were represented in Cuba, which 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE VI 




Fig. 1. — VIEW showing thin-bedded limestone, green cat 





iif*^ 



Fig. 2. — view showing a recemented boulder raaifart, green cay 



PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 31 

has never been entirely submerged since the Eocene epoch, by which exemp- 
tion they were preserved to again spread out over the Bahamas when their 
elevation again rendered them suitable for colonization. That this was com- 
paratively recent is rendered probable by the extreme variability of the species 
now occupying the Bahamas and which are frequently connected by intor- 
grading forms, suggesting that the elimination which would be brought about 
in the course of time by natural selection and other factors, has not yet had 
time to complete its work of restricting the specific forms. 

This immigration took place from Haiti and Cuba, judging by the 
analogies of the fauna, but the marked similarity to the Florida Oligocene 
fauna is due not only to the presence of representative types but to tlio 
absence of a multitude of others which are very characteristic of either Haiti 
or Cuba. This is to be accounted for by the similarity of the environment. 
The types represented in the Bahamas, as formerly in Florida, are lowland 
forms, which for the most part affect the vicinity of the sea. These would 
be the first to be transferred to the new land and would find it congenial, 
while the species of the higher land and moister forests of Cuba and Haiti 
would be transferred much less readily, and, if successfully transplanted, 
would find the conditions of existence much less favorable. 

With the opportunity for occupying a favorable district in which there 
were no competing organisms we find, as in insular faunas generally, a great 
increase in variability, the development of a multitude of slightly varying 
types, and the greatest profusion of individuals. 

To this is due the fact that in Cuba and Haiti, from which the immi- 
grants came, the number of species of their type now living is much less in 
proportion to the total fauna than in the Bahamas. Cerion and Cepolis 
form about luilf the species of the Bahama landshell fauna, while in Cuba 
and Haiti these two genera form an insignificant percentage of the molluscan 
population. 

Another feature which confirms the view above stated is the fact that 
several of the fossil species of the Bahamas more nearly resemble some of 
those now living in Cuba or Haiti than they do the prevalent Bahama living 
forms; or, at best, are intermediate between them. 

The landshells obfained by the Baliama Expedition in a fossil state are 
the following species : 



32 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS 

Cepolis (Hemiteochus) varians Menke. 

Helix varians Menke, 1829, Cat. Coll. Malsburg, p. 5; Conch. Cab. ed. 11, Helix, 

pi. 109, figs. 1-5. 
Helix {Helicella) carnicolor (Ferussac) Pfeiffer, 1840, Symb. ad. hist. Hel., p. 37. 
HemitrocMis hcemastonius Swalnson, 1840, Malac, p. 165. 

Fossil, above "Glass Window," Eleuthera Island, Stations 6 and 27; 
east side Eum Cay in seolian rocks at Station 19. Living at iSTassau, Eum 
Cay and Eock Island, Bahamas; Florida Keys, Cuba, etc. 

This species represented in the eeolian rock by a number of specimens 
and fragments, does not appear to differ from the recent shell except in its 
loss of color. 

Cepolis (Hemitrochus) agassizii n. sp. 
Plate XII, Fig. 8. 

Fossil at Station 19, in seolian rock on the east side of Eum Cay. 

Shell resembling C. varians Menke, but larger, thinner, and with more 
inflated whorls; whorls about five and a half, turgid, with an appressed but 
distinct suture; sculpture of rather strong more or less irregular incremental 
lines, more prominent on the spire; surface polished, color white with two 
dark bands between the sutures on the spire and, on the last whorl, three, 
rather broad with narrower interspaces, the most anterior of which is per- 
ipheral ; the base is white ; aperture much as in C. varians, the lower and 
pillar lips reflected over but (in the type shell, not quite mature) not closing 
a minute perforation in the umbilical region. Height 20.2, max. diameter 
18, min. diameter 16 mm. 

A single partly defective specimen of this species was obtained. It is 
larger than any of the known living species of Hemitrochus and so charac- 
teristic that I felt warranted in naming it after Prof. Alex. Agassiz, whose 
studies of the Bahamas have been so extensive. 

Cepolis (Plagiopttcha) inagdana variety subandrosi Dall, nov. 

Fossil on small unnamed key south of Eeids Cay, Middle Bight, Andros 
Island, at Station 14. 

Shell like C. inaguana Dall, but larger, with the pillar-lip broader and 
with traces of a narrow dark band just behind the suture at the aperture; 
behind this a subequal pale band, and behind the latter a broad band, more 
or less dark, extending to the next suture. Height 7.5; max. diameter 12.0; 
min. diameter 9.25 mm. 

A single specimen was found as above. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 33 

Cepolis (Hemitrochds) troscheli Pfeiffer. 
Helix troscheli Pfeiffer, 1S46, Symb. ad. hist. Hel., Ill, p. 76; Conch. Cab. ed. II, 
Helix, pi. 109, figs. 6-11. 

Fossil in the quarry of ffiolian rock on top of Nassau ridge, Nassau, New 
Providence Island, at Station 15. Living at New Providence, Gun Cay and 
Tnagua Island. 

This species agrees well with the recent shell with which we have iden- 
tified it. 

Cepolis (Plagioptycha) phakcida n. sp. 
Plate XII, Pigs. 2, 3. 

Fossil at Station 19, in sKolian rock on the east side of Rum Cay. 

Shell depressed, thin, originally yellowish with a pale peripheral band, 
five whorled; spire depressed conic, whorls above slightly convex with a well- 
marked suture; nuclear whorls smooth, polished, later ones with fine, close 
threadlike sculpture following the incremental lines; periphery of the last 
whorl a little above the middle of the whorl and slightly prominent though 
rounded; base rounded, umbilicus small, deep; termination of the adult last 
whorl bent down, constricted, then expanded and below a little reflected, 
broad at the very short pillar, narrow above, with a fold or ridge projecting 
into the lumen of the whorl behind and parallel with the basal lip; the plane 
of the aperture forming an angle of about 45° with the vertical axis of the 
shell. Height 10, major diameter 19, minor diameter 15.5 mm. 

This species is nearest to C. gregoriana Dall. Than G. duclosiana it is 
smaller, smoother, more polished and with the gular fold shorter, higher, and 
more obliquely set with regard to the lip in front of it. The sculpture of 
the present species is more like that of the Haitian Cepolis than that of most 
of the living Bahama Plagioptycha. The fossil species is the largest of 
the group to which it belongs, and recalls the Oligocene Cepolis instrumosa 
Dall, of the Tampa, Florida, silex beds, more than any of the recent species. 

Cerion (Strophiops) agassizii Dall. 
Plate XII, Fig. 5. 

Cerion (Maynardia) agassizii Dall, 1894, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXV, No. 9, p. 120. 
figs. 9, 10. 

Fossil in the aolian rock of the quarry at the top of Nassau ridge, 
Nassau, N. P., at Stations 9 and 15, and in the quarry back of the hospital 
grounds, Nassau, at Station 17. 



34: FOSSILS AND NON-MAEINB MOLLDSKS 

This is a large, heavy, variable species with a peculiar thick duplex 
sh'arp-edged lip. The shell varies from nearly smooth to rather finely and 
closely rib-striate. An imperfectly preserved form resembling this species 
was obtained from the narrow part of Eleuthera Island, opposite Savanna 
Sound, at Station 18, and another on the sa^ne island about two miles north 
of Governors Harbor, at Station 1. 

Ceeion (Strophiops) rhyssum n. sp. 
Plate XII, Pigs. 4, 6. 
Fossil in the feolian rock of a small unnamed key south of Reids Cay, 
Middle Bight, Andres Island, at Station 14. 

Shell large, heav}', solid, with a short parietal tooth, the axial tooth 
absent or obsolete; axis a hollow cylinder with a small umbilical perforation 
in the adult; whorls 10-11, the nepionic whorls at first smooth and polished, 
then delicately axially striated; form cylindrical with a short apical cone, 
sometimes much depressed; sculpture of the adult whorls of about 17 rather 
sharp, slightly oblique ribs, with wider interspaces, the basal whorl attenuated 
and more finely wrinkled axially below ; there is no basal cord or spiral stria- 
tion; peristome slightly thickened and continuous. The color is, of course, 
gTayish white with traces of brown in the throat. Measurements of the two 
most contrasted specimens, in millimeters are: 

Height. Max Diameter. Height of last whorl. 
33 16.0 17 

26 17.5 16 

This species belongs to Maynard's section Pinguitia and seems most 
closely related to C. dimidiatum Pfr., of which the short form is C. proteus 
Gimdlach ; a Cuban species found at Gibara. 

Cerion (Strophiops) grayi Maynard. 

Strophia grayi Maynard, 1S94, Contr. to Science, II, p. 138, figs. 42, 43. 
StropTiia ritohiei Maynard, 1894, op. cit. p. 135, fig. 41. 

Cerion (Strophiops) ritchiei. form grayi, Pilsbry, 1902, Man. Conch., XIV, p. 250, 
pi. 39, figs. 93, 94, 98, 99. 

Small unnamed key south of Eeids Cay, Middle Bight, Andros Island, 
at Station 14. Living at Highborn Cay, Maynard. 

This form is regarded by Dr. Pilsbry as a mutation of C. ritchiei which 
may perhaps be the case; I have retained the name grayi, however, as the 
specimens agree closely with the typical grayi while not so similar to the 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 35 

form which was original!}' called ritchiei. The localities of the fossil and 
recent form are nearly abreast of each other, though some distance apart. 

Cerion (Steophiops) glaks Kiister. 

Papa glans Kuster, 1S48, Conch. Cab. ed. II, p. 74, pi. 11, figs. 1, 2. 

Cerion ( Strophiops) glans Pilsbry, 1902, Man. Conch., XIV, p. 253, pi. 43, fig. 56. 

Fossil at station l-i, Andres Group, with the last species; also by 
Agassiz on Andros and Great Stirrup Cay. Living on Andros, New Provi- 
dence, and their associated cays and islets. 

This agrees with the figure cited from the Manual of Conchology. 

Ceeion (Strophiops) blandi Pilsbry and Vanatta. 

Cerion ilandi Pilsbry and Vanatta, 1896, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sol. Phila., p. 334, pi. 11, 
fig. 7; Man. Conch., XIV, p. 263, pi. 44, fig. 81. 

Fossil above " Glass Window," Eleuthera Island at Station 27. Living, 
Turks Island. 

The specimens above identified have a great resemblance externally tO' 
several species from the south side of Cuba, as for instance C. pannosum 
Maynard, but the parietal tooth is short in the fossil and long in the Cuban.' 
forms. Without a large and well-preserved series it is almost hopeless to 
identify forms of this group, but the specimens obtained are admirably rep- 
resented by the figure of Mandi in the Manual. 

Cerion (Strophiops) ELEUTHEEiE P. and V., var. drupidm Dall, nov. 

Cerion eleutherw Pilsbry and Vanatta, 1896, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 333,. 
pi. 11, figs. 19, 20; Man. Conch., 1902, XIV, p. 240, pi. 36, fig. 38. 

Fossil at Station 6, above " Glass Window," Eleuthera. Living, Eleu- 
thera Island. * 

The shell above referred to has the cylindrical form of the gulernatorium 
group; though the lip is not fully complete it has the outline of eleuthm-ce, 
from which the form differs in having fine, close, feeble riblets over the whole 
shell. 

Cerion (Strophiops) lentiginosum Maynard. 

Strophia lentiginosa Maynard, 1889, Contr. to Science, I, p. 75, fig. 11, pi. 7, fig. IS. 
Cerion lentiginosum Pilsbry, 1902, Man. Conch., XIV, p. 248, pi. 37, figs. 60, 61. 

Fossil in asolian rocks on the east side of Rum Cay, at Station 19. Liv- 
ing on the west side of Pum Cav, in tlie interior. 



36 FOSSILS AND NON-MAEINE MOLLUSKS 

Ceeion" (Strophiops) maynaedi Pilsbry and Vanatta. 

Strophia alta Maynard, MS. in Coll. U. S. N. M. ? = Gerion maynardi Pilsbry, Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1895, p. 5. 

Fossil with C. eleutherce var., above " Glass Window," Eleuthera Island, 
at Station 22. Living on Bum Cay, Maynard; Abaco, Pilsbry. 

The fossil specimens agree closely with a specimen from Bum Cay, 
named for the U. S. National Museum by Mr. Maynard. It recalls C. grayi 
Maynard in its sculpture, but is smaller and more fusiform. 

Cebion sp. indet. 

Specimens of Gerion too imperfect for identification were noted in cal- 
careous rock collected at Station 1, on Eleuthera Island, and Station 7, on 
Long Cay. 

Helicina eawsoni Pfeiffer. 
Plate XIII, Figs. 1, 3. 

Helicina rawsoni Pfr., 1867, Malak. Blatt.. XIV, p. 165. lUd., 1876, Mon. Auric, pt. 
II, p. 261, Ball, 1894, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXV, No. 9, p. 118. 

Fossil in ffiolian rock on the east side of Eum Cay. Living on the island 

of Inagua (type locality) and Watlings Island. This species until now has not 

been figured. 

Trdnoatella sp. indet. 

The decollate tip of a species of Truncatella was obtained at Station IJ, 
on a small unnamed key, south of Eeids Cay in the Middle Bight of Andros 
Island. 

As there seems to be no recent list of the Bahama landshells in which the 
distribution according to the several islands is iipted, the following catalogue 
has been carefully compiled from the literature and from the material pre- 
served in the collections of the U. S. National Museum. Varieties for the most 
part are- omitted, as to include them would have greatly expanded the list 
without any obvious benefit. Note has been made of synonymic deductions 
from previous lists, and nearly all species not positively known to inhabit the 
Bahamas have been excluded. 

In examining the collection to make sure of getting all the species repre- 
sented in it from the Bahamas, several forms were found which appeared to be 
undescribed or incorrectly identified with Cuban or Haitian species. Descrip- 
tions of these follow in order that they may be included in the list. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE VII 



1 




FlQ. 1. — VIEW SHOWING BOULDEK UAMPART, GREEN CAY 




Fl6. 2. NEARER VIEW OF BOULDER RAMPART 



PHYSIOGKAPIIIC AND GEOLOGIC VlliWS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 37 

Cepolis (Hemitrochus) exumana n. sp. 
Plate XIII, Figs. 4, 7. 

Shell small, solid, turlnnate. with five moderatehf convex whorls, evenly 
ronnded at the peripher)-; nuclear whorls polished, translucent, usually dark 
brown or darker than the rest of the shell; sculpture of fine, small, sharp riblets, 
in harmony with the lines of growth, with equal or wider interspaces, and less 
evident on the last whorl ; color very variable, sometimes unicolor, from creamy 
white to dark brown without bands ; other specimens are banded with brown on 
a creamy ground, generally darker above, lighter below, and with a dark 
brown narrow peripheral band above a narrow white one ; some are brown with 
a peripheral and a subsutural narrow white band, or numerously banded on a 
lighter ground, or with the bands broken up into delicate pencillings; the last 
whorl descends slightly at the aperture, which is quite rounded, with a strong 
reflected peritreme, whitish or bright rose pink; the lip is reflected over and 
nearly closes the umbilicus; there is little callus on the body, no gular fold, 
and the throat is usually dark colored. Height 10, max. diameter 13.5, min. 
diameter 11 mm. 

This pretty species was collected on Exuma Island by Dr. J. J. Brown. 
It is nearest to C. penicillata, Gould (not Poey) from jMatanzas, Cuba, which 
is a less solid, slightly larger shell with a lump on the basal side of the aperture 
when fully mature, while the present species has no trace of any gular fold. 
Types 37668-9, U. S. National Museum. 

Cepolis (Plagioptycha) gregoeiana n. sp. 
Plate XIII, Figs. 5, 8. 
Shell depressed with four and a half whorls, a strongly marked suture, and 
narrowly perforate umbilicus; periphery evenly rounded, often marked by a 
narrow pale band ; sculjDture, following a smooth nucleus, of numerous, sharp, 
low close-set riblets, in harmony with the lines of growth, separated by slightly 
wider interspaces and evenly covering the whole shell; the surface is dull, not 
polished, and the color a more or less pronounced reddish brown; the last whorl 
near its termination is sharply constricted and depressed, its margin expanded 
and below slightly reflected, especially over the umbilicus, but above simple and 
sharp ; a prominent white gular fold is set obliquely within the aperture, which 
is very oblique; aperture oval, witli a thin callus on the body. Height 7, max. 
diameter 15, min. diameter 11.5 mm. 



38 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS 

Collected by Messrs. Bean and Itiley of the U. S. National Museum, at 
Gregorytown, Eleuthera Island. Tjqjes No. 173183, I'. S. National Museum. 

This species is more like the fossil form from Eum Cay (C pharcidum 
Dall) than any of the known living species but is much smaller, more sharply 
sculptured, and has the gular fold shorter, more oblique, and relatively more 
prominent. It is notable for its dull, unpolished surface, which presents a 
marked contrast to the polish of llie durJosiana group. 

Cepolis (PLAGiorTYCiiA) DucLOSiANA variety COLUMBIANA Dall, nov. 

Plate XIII, Figs. 6, 9. 

I 

Shell similar to C. dudosiaua Perussac, but smaller, the apex proportion- 
ately more elevated and pointed; the number of whorls the same, but the gular 
fold lower, more elongated, less oblique, and closer to the pillar and lower lip. 
Height 7.5, max. diameter 1-1, min. diameter 13 mm. 

Watlings Island, U. S. Fish Commission. Types No. 10911C, U. S. Na- 
tional Museum. 

Cepolis (Plagioptyciia) inaguana n. sp. 
Plate XII, Fig. 1 ; Plate XIII, Pig. 2. 

Shell small, subturbinate, with four and a half rounded wliorls united l)y 
a strongly marked suture ; spire moderately elevated, periphery evenly rounded, 
base moderately convex with a small perforate umbilicus nearly closed liy a 
reflection of the pillar-lip; color olivaceous with a brilliantly polished perios- 
tracum; nucleus smooth, the remainder of the whorls sculptured with sharp, 
elevated lines with wider interspaces and oblique curvature, strongest on the 
earlier whorls but persistent over the whole shell ; aperture depressed, oblique, 
the whorl behind it slightly constricted; upper and outer lips simple, thin; 
pillar-lip reflected over the umbilicus (which it does not cpite close) and on 
the base; there is no indication of a gular fold. Height 7, max. diameter 111.."), 
min. diameter 8 mm. 

Inagua Island, Bahamas, Lea Collection in the U. S. National Mnsouin. 
No. 105793. 

The most marked characteristic of this little shell, after its small size and 
sharp sculpture, is the entire absence of a gular fold. What appears to be a 
larger variety of this, with a broader pillar-lip and coloration of brown bands, 
was found in the fossil state at Station 11. in the Andros group and named 
suhandrosi. 



the bahajea islands 39 

list of bahama landshells. 

(kecent and fossil.) 

Note. — N. P. = New Providence Id., chiefly in the vicinity of Nassau. Cat 
Island and San Salvador are regarded as identical in this list. 

Oleacina solidula Pfr., New Providence, Great and Little Abaco, Andros Id. 

Pleurodonte (Zaohrysia) provisoria Pfr., N. P., Abaco. 

Cepolis (Hemitrochus) varians Menke, N. P., Inagua, Crooked Id., Eleuthera, Rum 

Cay, Andros, Long Id., Abaco, Bahamas. Florida Keys. 
Cepolis (Hemitrochus) milleri Pfr., Long Cay, Fortune Id. 
Cepolis (Hemitrochus) constantior Welnland. Inagua, Rum Cay, Turks Id., Crooked 

Id., Long Id. 
Cepolis (Hemitrochus) caribaa Weinland. Crooked Id., Eleuthera, Inagua. 
Cepolis (Hemitrochus) agassizii Dall, fossil, Rum Cay. 
Cepolis (Hemitrochus) gallopavonis Val., Turks Id., Watlings Id. 
Cepolis gallopavonis var. caracaloides Pilsbry, Ambergris Cay, Turks Id. group. 
Cepolis (Hemitrochus) troscheli Pfr., N. P., Gun Cay, Inagua. 
Cepolis troscheli var. calacala Weinland, N. P., Great Inagua. 
Cepolis troscheli var. irowni Pilsbry, Cat Id. 

Cepolis (Hemitrochus) multifasciaia Weinl. and Marts., Crooked Id., Inagua. 
Cepolis multifasciata var. polytamiata Pilsbry, CrooKed Id. 
Cepolis (Hemitrochus) filicosta Pfr., Eleuthera. 
Cepolis (Hemitroclius) maynardi Pilsbry. Andros. 
Cepolis (Hemitrochus) xanthophaes Pilsbry, Inagua, Long Id. 
Cepolis (Hemitrochus) exumana Dall, N. P., Exuma Id. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha)macroglossa Pfr., Great Inagua. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) duclosiana Fer., N. P. 

Cepolis duclosiana var. salvatoris Pfr., Cat Id. (or San Salvador), Eleuthera. 
Cepolis duclosiana var. Columbiana Dall., Watlings Id. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) smirna Dall, Riding Point, Grand Bahama. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) abacoensis Martens, Abaco. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) inaguana Dall, Inagua. 
Cepolis inaguana var. subandrosi Dall, Andros group, fossil. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) gregm-iana Dall. Gregorytown. Eleuthera Id. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) pharcida Dall, Rum Cay, fossil. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) bahamensis Pfr., N. P. 
Cepolis bahamensis var. holostoma Pilsbry, Turks Id. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) androsi Dall, Mangrove and Golding Cays, South Bight of 

Andros group. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) sargenti Bland, Little -Inagua. 

Cepolis (Plagioptycha) indistincta Fer., var. discnlus Deshayes, Turks Id., Eleu- 
thera. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) albersiana Pfr., Great Inagua, Haiti. 
Cepolis (Eurycampta) bryanti Pfr., Water Cay, Ragged Id. 
Tliysanophora saxicola Pfr., N. P., Cuba at Matanzas; Haiti. 
Thysanophora (vortex var.?) inaguensis Weinland, Little Inagua. 
Thysanophora vortex Pfr., N. P.; Watlings Id.; Great Abaco; Mangrove Cay, Andros; 

also Florida, Bermuda, etc. 
Thysanophora (Ptychopatula) dioscoricola C. B. Adams, N. P., also Jamaica, Florida, 

etc. 
Polygyra cereolus Miihlfeldt, var. microdonta Deshayes, Watlings Id.; Great and 

Little Abaco: N. P.; Mangrove Cay, South Bight of Andros group. 



40 



FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS 



Guppya gundlachi Pfr., N. P.; Watlings Id.; also Florida, etc. 

Oxystyla undata Bruguiere, N. P.; Andros; Trinidad, etc. 

Microceramus gossei Pfr., var. providentia Pilsbry, Mangrove Cay, South Bight of 

Andros; N. P.; Little Abaco. 
Microceramus swiftii Bland, Turks Id.; Inagua; Watlings Id. 
Bulimulus (Buliviulus) sepulchralis Poey, N. P., at Nassau; Cuba, at Havana. 
Bulimulus (Drymwus) ialiamensis Pfr., N. P., Durham Creek, Great Inagua; 

Eleuthera; Mangrove Cay, Andros; Little Abaco; also Haiti. 
Bulimulus sp. indet., Watlings Id. 
Urocoptis (Gongylostoma) iahamensis Pfr., Nassau. 
Urocoptis bahamensis var. providentia Pilsbry, Mangrove Cay, South Bight of 

Andros; Nassau, N. P. 



Cerion 
Gerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 

ties 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Gerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Cerion 
Gerion 
Cerion 
Gerion 
Cerion 
Gerion 
Cerion 
Gerion 
Gerion 
Cerion 



StropMops 
Stropliiops 
Strophiops 
Stropliiops 
Stropliiops 
Stropliiops 

Strophiops 
Stropliiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 
Strophiops 



dow, Eleuthera 



Cerion {Strophiops 
Cerion {Strophiops 
Cerion { Strophiops 
Cerion {Strophiops 
Cerion {Stropliiops 
Gerion {Stropliiops 
Gerion {Strophiops 
Gerion {Strophiops 

Cay. 
Cerion glans ohesnm Dall, Lon 

South Bight of Andros. 



incanum Binney, Gun Cay; also Florida Keys. 

incanoide Pilsbry and Vanatta, Turks Id. 

stevensoni Dall, Rum Cay (not Long Id.). 

felis Pilsbry and Vanatta, Cat Id. 

sculptuni Poey (Loc.?). 

regina Pilsbry and Vanatta, Turks Island, with many varie- 

calcareum Pfr., Little Inagua. 

sarcostomum Pilsbry and Vanatta, Little Inagua. 

columna Pilsbry and Vanatta, Turtle Cove, Great Inagua. 

regium Benson, Castle Island, on Crooked Island bank. 

weinlandi Kurr, Crooked Island. 

nudum Maynard, Clarence Harbor, Long Island. 

brunnetim Dall, Governors Harbor, Eleuthera. 

variaMle Dall, Red Bay, Northwest point of Andros Id. 

variaiile var. saurodon Dall, Red Bay, Andros Id. 

variaMle var. pupilla Dall, Red Bay, Andros Id. 

iyiflatum Maynard, Salena Point, Acklin Id. 

plegmatum Dall, Exuma. 

rhyssum Dall, Andros group (fossil). 

guliernatorium Crosse, Nassau, N. P. 

agassizii Dall, N. P. (fossil). 

inilleri Pfr., Duck Cay, Exuma group. 

northropi Dall, Bahamas (probably near Gun Cay). 

piUsburyi Pilsbry and Vanatta, Gun Cay. 

niteloide Dall, Water Cay, Salt Cay bank. 

abacoense Pilsbry and Vanatta, Abaco. 

maynardi Pilsbry and Vanatta. Abaco. Fossil at Glass Win- 



album Maynard, west coast of Rum Cay, near the salt pond. 

browni Maynard, north side of Rum Cay. 

lentiginosum Maynard, interior west part of Rum Cay. 

ritchiei Maynard, Highborn Cay; Mangrove Cay, Andros Id. 

aff. ritchiei, Great Ragged Cay. 

ritchiei vannostrandi Pilsbry and Vanatta. (Loc?) 

eburne%i)n Maynard, U Cay, north of Highborn Cay. 

glans Kiister, Andros Id., Gun Cay, N. P., and Great Ragged 



Cay in the North Bight and Mangrove Cay in the 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 41 

Gerion glans varium Bonnet, Nassau. 

Cerion glans cinereuvi Maynard, Ragged Cay, N. P., Gun Cay. 

Gerion glans coryi Maynard, Nassau, near Fort Charlotte, and Egg Id., Bleuthera. 

Gerion glans neglectum Maynard, Nassau, and Great Stirrup Cay. 

Gerion glans griseum Maynard, near South Bight o( Andros Id. 

Gerion glans bimarginatum Maynard, Green Cay and Little Golding Cay, Andros. 

Gerion (Strophiops) maynardi PUsbry and Vanatta, Rum Cay, Bleuthera. 

Gerion (Strophiops) l)landi Pllsbry and Vanatta, Turks Island. Fossil at Glass 

Window, Bleuthera. 
Gerion {Strophiops) eximiiim Maynard, Cat Id., Nassau, N. P. 
Gerion (Strophiops) eximium fratermnn Pllsbry, Cat Island. 
Gerion (Strophiops) agrestinum Maynard, south side of New Providence Id. 
Gerion (Strophiops) otoeni Dall, Indian Hole, Little Abaco; Sugarloaves, and also 

the south side of Great Abaco opposite Marsh Harbor; Grand Bahama. 
Gerion oweni incisum Tla-W, Sweeting's village and Stranger Cay, Abaco. 
Gerion oweni vermiculum Dall, Mathews Point, west side Great Abaco. 
Gerion (Strophiops) bendalli Pllsbry and Vanatta, Abaco. 
Gerion (Strophiops) martensi Weinland, Crooked Island. 
Gerion (Strophiops) multistriatum Pilsbry and Vanatta, Crooked Island. 
Gerion (Strophiops) marmoratum Pfr., Fortune Id. 
Gerion (Strophiops) fordii Pilsbry and Vanatta, Bahamas (Andros?). 
Gerion (Diacerion) bryanti Pfr., southern part of Inagua. 
Gerion (Diacerion) ruHcimdinn Menke, northwest point and eastern end of Inagua 

Island. 
Gerion (Diacerion) heterodon Pilsbry, Inagua. 
Gerion (Diacerion) dalli Maynard, Inagua. 

Gerion (Diacerion) duplodon Pilsbry and Vanatta, Bahamas. (Inagua group?) 
Strobilops hubbardi Brown, Watlings Id., also Florida, etc. 
Pupoides marginatus Say, var. modicus Gould, Andros, Nassau, Turks Id. Also 

Haiti, Bermuda, Florida. 
Bifidaria servilis Gould, Andros: N. P.; Watlings Id., Turks Id.; also Jamaica, 

Bermuda, etc. 
Vertigo ovata Say, Mangrove Cay, Andros; also Cuba, Florida, etc. 
Subulina octona Bruguiere, N. P., Antilles generally. 
Opeas octonoidea C. B. Adams, N. P.; Mangrove Cay, Andros. 
Opeas subula Pfr., N. P., Great Abaco; Great Inagua; Haiti; Key West, Florida. 
Opeas micra Orbigny, N. P.: also South America. 

Opeas paupercula C. B. Adams, Mangrove Cay, Andros; Nassau; Jamaica. 
Lamellaxis pallidus C. B. Adams, N. P.; also Jamaica. 
Melaniella gracillima Pfr., N. P.; Andros; Watlings Id.; Florida, Cuba, St. Thomas, 

etc. 
Gwcilioides acicula Miiller, Nassau, N. P.; Florida; Bermuda. 
Zonitoides minusculus Blnney, Nassau, N. P.; also Florida, Bermuda, Jamaica. 
Siiccinea ochracina Gundlach, N. P.; Cuba. 

Succinea barbadensis Guilding, Andros; Nassau. Also Bermuda, the Antilles, etc. 
Veronicella scUivelyw Pilsbry, var. bahamensis Dall, Nassau, N. P.; Little Abaco. 

The type form at Bermuda. 
Segmentina (Planorbula) dentata Gould, and 
Segmentina dentata var. edentata C. B. Adams, Watlings Id.; Mangrove Cay, Andros; 

Cuba, St. Thomas, Porto Rico and Jamaica. 
Planorbis redfleUli C. B. Adams, Andros; Jamaica. 

Physa acuta Draparnaud, Arthurs Town, Cat Id.; Mangrove Cay, Andros; the An- 
tilles generally, western and southern Europe. 



43 FOSSILS AND NON-MARINE MOLLUSKS 

Melampus gundlachi Pfr., Nassau, the Antilles, Florida. 

Melampus flavus Gmelin, Nassau, the Antilles, Florida. 

Melampus caffeus Linne, N. P.; Antilles, Florida. 

Detracia iulloides Montagu, N. P.; Andros; also Bermuda, Florida, etc. 

Microtralia minuscula Dall. Watlings Id.; also south Florida. 

Plecotrema cuhense Pfr., Cuba, Bermuda and probably the Bahamas. 

Pedipes miraMlls Miihlfeldt, and var. tridens Pfr., Andros; the Antilles generally, 

and Bermuda. 
Blauneria pelluoida Pfr., Andros Id., Florida, Antilles. 
Sayella crosseana var. hahamensis Dall. Watlings Id.; also Haiti at Lake Henriquillo. 

The type form in Florida. 
Oiichidium floridanuin Dall. Florida, Bermuda and probably the Bahamas. 
Williamia krebsi Morch, Florida Keys to Montevideo. 

Siphonaria alternata Say, Andros, Little Abaco, Gun Cay, Florida, Bermuda. 
Siphonaria Uneolata Orbigny, Florida, Bermuda, Cuba, St. Thomas. 
Gadinia carlnata Dall, Colon, Barbados, Cuba, Bermuda (as Siphonaria lienica Ver- 

rill and Bush), doubtless also in the Bahamas. 
Annularia scabrosa (Humphrey) Pfr., N. P.; Turks Id.; Jamaica. 
Rhytidopoma euploca Dall, Inagua. 

Colobostylus liydei Weinland, Great Inagua. Crooked Id., Fortune Id. 
Colobostylus hjalmarsoni Pfr., Crooked Id.. Turks Id. 
Colobostylus semilabris Lamarck, Crooked Id. 
Colobostylus glabratus Reeve, Turks Id. 

Colobostylus inaguensis Weinland, Little Inagua; Crooked Id. 
Chondropoma bryanti Pfr., Great Inagua. 
Cliotnlropoma revinctum Poey, Nassau, N. P., by the Grantstown road; Manzan- 

illo, Cuba. 
Chondropoma watlingense Dall, Watlings Id. 
Opisthosolen biformis Pfr., Turks Id.; Inagua; Great and Little Abaco; Flamingo 

Cay; Exuma. 
Opisthosolen biformis var. bahamensis Shuttleworth, Nassau, N. P., Andros, Abaco. 
Opisthosolen raivsoni Pfr., Watlings Id.; Inagua, Crooked Id. 
Helicina calida Weinland, Crooked Id. 
Helicina rawsoni Pfr., Inagua; Rum Cay; Watlings Id. 

Opisthosolen biformis Pfr., Turks Id.; Inagua; Great and Little Abaco; Flamingo 
Helicina fasciata Lamarck, Mangrove Cay, South Bight of Andros; Florida Keys; 

Porto Rico; Dominica; Guadeloupe; Martinique. 
Helicina Candida Pfr., Turks Id. 

Helicina bryanti Pfr., N. P.; Inagua; Mangrove Cay, Andros. 
Trochatella rupestris Pfr. (Bahamas fide Bendall, Cuba fide Pfeiffer). 
Schazicheila bahamensis Pfr., N. P.; Abaco. 

Alcadia minima Orbigny, var.? (N. P. fide Bendall, Cuba fide Orbigny). 
Truncatella cnribwensis Say, Watlings Id.; Florida, Bermuda, and the Antilles. 
TruncateUa pulchella Pfr., Watlings Id.; Andros; Southwest Florida, etc. 
Truncatella bilabiata Pfr., Long Rock, Abaco; Watlings Id.; N. P.; Florida, etc. 
Truncatella subcylindrica Pulteney, N. P. ; Watlings Id., Florida, etc. 
Trimcatella clathrus Lowe, Riding Pt., Grand Bahama; Bermuda, Key West, Porto 

Rico, St. Thomas, etc. 
As.'siminea concolor C. B. Adams, Watlings Island; Mangrove Cay, South Bight of 

Andros; Bermuda; Key West, and vicinity of Tampa, Florida. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE VIII 







Sga^^-c*-: ^ 



If- 



"^jf*- 



Fig. 1. — VIEW of raised cokal eeef. overlaid by /Eolian limestone, green cay. 




Fig. 2. — nearer view of raised coral reef 



PHYSIOGEAPPIIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 43 

MARINE FOSSILS OF THE BAHAMAS. 

Underneath the ffiolian rock in which, for the most part, the landshells 
were found, is an older formation wliich, from its structure and contents, 
appears to have been formed as a marine sediment in sliallow water. This 
forms the basement rock of the existing Islands. It is sometimes composed 
of fine calcareous sand, and other portions are composed of a calcareous gravel 
in which the worn remains of large gastropods, like Stronibus, or large bivalves, 
broken up by the action of the surf and mixed with worn pieces of coral, form 
a gravel with pebbles of appreciable size. A third variety of this rock is chiefly 
composed of minute oolitic granules, and from its fossil contents appears to 
have been deposited in lagoons where the evaporation of the sea water had 
markedly increased the proportion of salt in the water, forming " salines " or 
" salt pans " as in Watlings Island, or Turks Island of the present archipelago. 
Still another form, usually nearly or quite destitute of recognizable fossils, 
shows the oolitic structure in nodules of hxrger size, from a few millimeters to 
a couple of centimeters in diameter. 

The marine mollusks are those of the present shallow-water fauna of the 
Bahamas. All of them, so far observed, occur living and unchanged in the 
present waters of the archipelago. I have given under the heads of the se\eral 
stations a list of the species found by the expedition at each locality from which 
material was received. 

The following species may be regarded as characteristic forms of the 
sedimental Bahama limestone as collected by the Expedition. 

Corals. 
Porites. 
Meandrites. 
Favia. 
Agaricia. 

All too imperfectly preserved to be specifically identified but probably 
identical with living species of the present reefs. 

Crustaceans. 

Balanus, fragments. 
Claw of crab. 

Mollusks. 

Ostrea pa7-asitica Graelin (Mangrove oyster). 
Mytilus exustus Linne. 
Litliophaga antillarum Orb. 
Margaritipliora radiata Leach. 



44 FOSSILS AND NON-MAKINE MOLLUSKS 

Area occidentalis Phil. Plate XI, Pig. 4. 

Area umbonata Lam. 

Barhatia Candida Gmelin. 

Barbatia reticulata Gmelin. Plate XII, Figs. 7, 9. 

Scapharca transversa Say. 

Glyeymeris americana Defrance. 

Cardita {Glans) dominguensis Orb. 

Chama macerophylla Chemnitz. 

Chama sarda Reeve. 

Hemicardium medium Linne. 

Codakia orbicularis Linne. Plate XI, Fig. 2. 

Phacoides pensylvanicus Linne. Plate XI, Pig. 1. 

Phacoides radians Conrad. 

Phacoides trisulcatus Conrad. 

Phacoides nassula Conrad. 

Divaricella guadrisulcata Orb. 

Anomalocardia cimeinieris Conrad. 

Ghione cancellata Linne. 

Macrocallista nebulosa Solander. 

TeUina radiata Linne. Plate XI, Pig. 3. 

Strigilla carnaria Linne. 

Bulla striata Bruguiere. 

Olivella nivea Gmelin. 

Nassa ambigua Montagu. 

Golumbella mercatoria Linne. 

Murex nuceus Morch. 

Pyrula papyratia Say. 

Gyprwa cinerea Linne. 

Trivia pediculus Linne. 

Strombus gigas Linne. 

Bittium variu7n Pfr. 

Cerithium floridanuin Morch. 

Cerithium algicola Adams. 

Ceritlmim septemstriatum Say. 

Cerithium semiferrugineii.m Lam. 

Tectari'us muricatus Linne. 

Torinia canalifera Adams. 

Natica canrena Lam. 

Natica castrensis Dall. 

Polynices lacteus Guilding. 

Acmcea punctulata Gmelin. 

Astralium imbricatii.m Gmelin. 

Livona pica Linne. 

Nerita iiersicolor Lam. 

Nerita tesselata Gmelin. 

FissureUa listeri Orb. 

Spirula australis (Lam.) Pels. 

The absence of ecliinoderms from this list is noticeable. No attempt has 
been made to identify the foraminifera, which are not numerous. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 45 

THE FAUNA OF THE " SALT PANS." 

The fauna of the hypersaline pans or lagoons is perhaps worth a few 
paragraphs of comment. 

In 1894 the writer made a study of a quantity of material from Watlings 
Island lagoon, collected by Prof. A. Agassiz, Dr. J. J. Brown and the U. S. Fish 
Commission. This comprised species living in the highly saline waters of the 
lagoon and others which frequent the dry land on its borders, both being 
mingled in the drift on the shores of the lagoon. Several species were found 
to be characteristic of the lagoon waters, though probably all its population was 
derived from species ordinarily frequenting the shallow water of the sea adja- 
cent to the shores of the island, and which, notwithstanding the gradual increase 
in salinity after the lagoon was cut ofE from the free access of sea water, had 
managed to survive. These species under the peculiar conditions in which they 
were then placed became modified until several of them developed well-marked 
specific differences. 

The changes to which they were subjected appear to have been an increase 
in the salinity and consequently in the specific gravity of the water; higher 
temperature; and greater exposure to sunlight. 

All the lagoon species as compared with their nearest allies exhibited 
certain common differences; these were tenuity of shell, diminutive size, and 
intensification of color when the species was other than black or white. These 
differences may reasonably be ascribed to the new conditions operating upon all 
the species exposed to them. The list is as follows : 

Mytilus (lominguensis Orbigny, variety. 

Avicula atlantica Lamarck, variety. 

Melina obliqua Lamarck, dwarfed form. 

Tellina mera Hanley, variety. 
*Cyrena colorata Prime. 
*Anomalocardia leptalea Dall. 

Haminea antiUarum Orbigny, dwarfed. 
*'rornatina parviplica Dall. 

Assiminea auberiana Orbigny. 
*Ceritlimvi (PyrazDS)raiosoni Krebs. 
*Cerithmm var. clegeneratwm Dall. 
*Cerithiclea tenuis Pfeiffer. 

The species preceded by an asterisk are peculiar to the lagoons. 

More recently, through the kind offices of Mr. C. Lyon Hall and Mr. R. 
Furbush of Port au Prince, Haiti, I obtained a lot of material from the great 
salt lagoon known as Lake Henriquillo. This was somewhat adulterated hy 
the presence of a number of species from the fresh water streams which fall 



46 FOSSILS AND NON-MAKINE MOLLUSKS 

into the lake, but, abstraction made of these, the facies of the remainder is 

strikingly like that of the Watlings Island group of shells. 

Common to the Bahama and Haitian lagoons are : 

Mytilus domingue?isis Orb. 
Gerithmm degeneratuvi Dall. 
Cerithidea tenuis Pfr. 

An Anomalocardia occurs abundantly, but it has been less modified than 
A. leptalea, the place of which in the Haitian list it occupies. It is more like 
the fossil form from the salt pond on Long Island at Station 7. The most 
abundant shell by far in the lot is a Ceritliium, which occupies much the same 
place in the Haitian list that C. rawsoni does in the Bahama one, but which is 
obviously a modification of C. minimum Gmelin. 

What appears to be a species of Parastarte, a Bittium, and a Dentalium 
complete the Haitian list which, on the whole, gives the impression that the 
water must be less saline than in the Watlings lagoon, or that it has been in 
existence a shorter time, so that the surviving species have not reached so high 
a degree of modification. A careful study of the fauna of all the West Indian 
salt pans would doubtless give interesting results. 

Explanation of Plates. 
The figures are natural size except when otherwise stated. 

Plate XI. 

Characteristic Marine Bahama Fossils. 
Phacoides pensylvanicus Linne. 
Codakia orbicularis Linne. 
Tellina radiata Linne. 
Area occidentalis Philippi. 

Plate XIL 

Cepolis (Plagioptycha) inagnana Dall, profile; 3/2. See p. 38. 

Cepolis (.Plagioptycha) pharcida Dall, base. See p. 33. 

Cepolis (Plagioptycha) pharcida Dall, profile. See p. 33. 

Gerion (Strophiops) rhyssum Dall, normal. See p. 34. 

Cerion i Strophiops) agassizii Dall. See p. 33. 

Oerion (Strophiops) rhyssmn Dall, depressed mutation, shell not quite 

adult. See p. 34. 
Area (Barliatia) reticulata Gmelin, interior of left valve; 3/2. 
Cepolis (Plagioptycha) agassizii Dall. The outer lip is defective above.. 
See p. 32. 
Fig. 9. Area (Barliatia) reticulata Gmelin, exterior of right valve; 3/2. 



Fig. 


1. 


Fig. 


2. 


Fig. 


O. 


Fig. 


4. 


Fig. 


1. 


Fig. 


2. 


Fig. 


3. 


Fig. 


4. 


Fig. 


5. 


Fig. 


6. 


Fig. 


7. 


Fig. 


8. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE IX 




Fig. 1. — VIEW of ocean hole, tarpum bay, eleutheka 



■ PTO\^'^"^-'T 







^^^^.y^I^iii 



V -■'^.A. Xvk'sCZSlli 



Fig. 2. — view of old sea-cliff with cavern, new providence 



PHYSIOGRAPIIIC AND GEOLOGIC VIEWS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 47 

Plate XIII. 

Fig. 1. Helicina rawsoni Pfeiffer, base; 3/2. See p. 36. 

Fig. 2. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) inaguana Dall, base; 3/2. See p. 38. 

Fig. 3. Helicina rawsoni Pfeiffer, profile; 3/2. See p. 36. 

Fig. 4. Cepolis {HeviitrocJius) exumana Dall. base; 3/2. See p. 37. 

Fig. 5. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) gregoriana Dall. base; 3/2. See p. 37. 

Fig. 6. Cepolis duclosiana variety columbiana Dall, base; 3/2. See p. 38. 

Fig. 7. Cepolis (Hemitrochus) exumana Dall; 3/2, See p. 37. 

Fig. 8. Cepolis (Plagioptycha) gregoriana Dall, profile; 3/2. See p. 37. 

Fig. 9. Cepolis duclosiana variety colinnbiana Dall, profile; 3/2. See p. 38. 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS AT NASSAU, 
NEW PROVIDENCE 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS AT NASSAU, 
NEW PROVIDENCE 

BY 

L. P. SHIDY, 

Chief of the Tidal Division^ U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 



INTRODUCTION. 

In the latter part of June, 1903, Dr. Oliver L. I'assig, a member of the 
Bahama Expedition of the Geographical Societ}', of Baltimore, established an 
automatic tide gauge at Nassau, I^ew Providence. The gaiige, one of the 



N 



ASS AU 



BOR 



.O^^ 



Sea VAlu 



N/\VyY> 




TiaeoraTr n i „, ^ 



^f~tV 






^^^<f^ COLONIAL 

rowER House 



HOTEL'^'" 




PublioV/harf 






ScAL E OF Feet. 
Fig. 1.— Diagram Showing Location of Tide Gauge and Bench Marks. 

Saxton type, No. 49, scale 1:9 (Plate XIV, Fig. 2), was loaned by the U. S. 
Coast and C4eodetic Survey to the Geographical Society of Baltimore. Througli 
the courtesy of Mr. H. M. Flagler, this gauge was located in the Basin or 
Boat Camber of the Colonial Hotel grounds, about an eighth of a mile 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



east of the Navy Yard, and a fixed tide staff was secured to the north side of 
the gauge house (Plate XV, Pig. 1). Mr. W. C. Townsend, an employee of the 
Colonial Hotel, was engaged as tide observer, and tiroA^ed to be a faithful and 
careful man, so that the first year of records, which are now available, are quite 
satisfactory. The preceding sketch shows the location of the tide gauge and 
bench marks. 

DESCRIPTION OF BENCH MARKS. 

The three following bench marks were estaljlished In- Dr. Fassig and con- 
nected by spirit levels with the fixed tide stafi:: 

Bench Mark No. 1 (Plate XV, Pig. 2) is the raised horizontal line of a 
•circular bronze tablet, about 3 inches in diameter, and 10 inches ahove the 
ground, which is set in the side of a granite post, in the grounds of the Colonial 
Hotel, about 225 feet southeast from the tide gauge and 100 feet north of the 
eastern wing of the hotel. The stone projects about .30 inches out of the 
ground, the upper portion Ijeing dressed to about 13 x 18 inches. The base 
is cemented into a socket cut in the solid coral rock and surrounded by blocks 
of limestone set in portland cement. On the top of the stone is a bronze plate 
bearing the following inscription : 



THIS BENCH MARK WAS ESTABLISHED BY THE 

BAHAMA EXPEDITION OF THE GEOGKAPHICAL SOCIETY 

OF BALTIMOKE 

IN CO-OPEKATION WITH THE 

UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY 

AND BY THE COURTESY OF THE 

GOVERNMENT OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 

IN THE YEAR OF OUR LORD 1903 



SIR GILBERT THOMAS CARTER 

GOVERNOR BAHAMA ISLANDS 

DANIEL COIT OILMAN 

PRESIDENT GEOGRAPIirtAI. SOCIETY OF B.^-LTIMORE 

OTTO HILGARD TITTMANN 

SUPERINTENDENT UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY 

GEORGE BURBANK SHATTUCK 

DIHEt'TOH BAHAMA EXPEDITION 



On June 20, 1903, Dr. 0. L. Passig found by spirit levels that Bench Mark 
No. 1 was 10.508 feet above zero of the fixed tide stafl^. 

Bench Marl- No. 2 is the raised horizontal line of a circular bronze tablet 
aliout 3 inches in diameter, which is cemented into the north stone wall of the 
Plagler Cottage, about -t feet from the ground. This is a very old building and 
not likely to settle. On June 26, 1903, Bench Mark No. 2 was found by 
spirit levels to be 14.108 feet above zero of the fixed tide staff". 

Bench Marl: No. 3 is the raised horizontal line of a circular bronze tablet. 







;■.'-'-'-'— -*i 



ss-" 








LAND MASSES 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMOBE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE ) 



"^--^ 



.}' «1* '■ 



"■^^ 



4'->-:.. 






y .,.- 



>^#- 







A. 






A 




>!'i^^mkss 




yM.^"^^^'' 




■£-< ''■i-'J-A^Tp ' 




.m 






5V 







r 



-~s~: 





4»*> 



n 



S K 






-™^ 






^i 



'? 



./^ ^ 







«/ 










^-J;oG,5J^^< ,-- 






«■'■ ^^.^-,-<=-<S?\ 









ff 



JJ ^ 



\ 



^±1 




r0/f<^'-^ 



/ * '^le a 



'nJ- 








10 
100 
300 
500 
1000 
1500 
200O 

2500 " 30' 
Re THAN 30 

SCALE 



TO 3 FATHOMS 


^m. 


10 




100 




300 




600 


;. — 


1000 


g^MK 


1500 


■MBf 


2000 


^^Hl 


2500 


^^^1 


3000 


^^^1 


^N 3000 


^^H 



Li_ 



'<^yWy 



Smndinga are In falhoitia, elevutions in /eet 

EOGKiPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 

1905 



MAP SHOWING BAHAMA ISLANDS AND ADJACENT LAND MASSES 



i-ki^ n 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 53 

about 3 inches in diameter, wliicli is cemented into tlie west stone \v;ill of the 
Clifton Hotel, -about 5 feet above the grouml. This Ijuilding is also very old 
and therefore quite stable. On June 26, 1903, Bench Mark No. 3 was found 
by spirit levels to be 14. H 8 feet above zero of the fixed tide staff, having been 
set at exactly the same elevation as Bench Mark No. 2. 

Mean of 707 high waters on tlie fixed tide staff 4.33'2 ft. 

Mean of 707 low " '• " " " " 1.098 " 

Mean half-title level " " " " " " 3.015 " 

Mean sea level " " " " " " 2.991 " 

Mean range of tide " " " " " " 2.63-1 " 

Ele\ation of Rencb Marks. B.M.I. I!. M. 2. B. M. 3. 

ft. ft. ft. 

Above mean high water (3.176 9.776 9.776 

Above mean low water 8.810 12.410 12.410 

Above mean half-tide level 7.493 11.093 11.093 

Above mean sea level 7.517 11.117 11.117 

Mean half-tide level is the mean of all the high and low M'aters for the 
v'ear, that is, if we abbreviate to initial letters, we have 

HTL = i^{HW + LW). 

Mean sea level is the mean of the hourly heights of the sea throiigliont the 
vear, or 

MSL = -2' (/(.„ + h^ + /'o + ''■- + ''>;-,) 

in ■which 27; represents the sum of all the heights throughout the series for 
the hour designated by the subscript. In a common year n = 24 X 36.5 and in 
a leap year n = 24 X 366. 

When the harmonic constants for the station are known, the approximate 
value of mean half-tide level may be computed by the formula 

HTL = MSL + M, cos {2MI — J/',') — 0.04 ^^" + ^'^'cos {Ml — K'> — 0\) 
v\here 

HTL = mean half-tide level 

MSL = " sea level 
J/o, M\. J/j, M\, A',, K\, 0„ 0° are harmonic constants defined furtlior nn. 

tides at nassau. 
Tide Eecoeds. 
The tide record for Nassau consists of curves traced by the tide gauge, 
and these marigrams or tide curves were tabulated in order to obtain the hourly 
heights of the sea, and the times and heights of high and low waters which are 
given here. The time used is mean local civil for Nassau, the ap])roxiinate 
time meridian being ?7° 21' or 5h. 09m. west of Greenwich. The heights are 
expressed in English feet and tenths, and are reduced to the fixed tide staff, 
so that they may be referred to the bench marks. 



54 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



JULY, 1903. 



Day of Month . 


. 1 


O 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13. 


14 


15 


16 


Hours 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 



(3.8)*3.3 

1 (3.5) 3.5 

2 (2.9) 3.4 

3 (2.2) 3.1 

4 (1.7) 2.5 

5 (1.2) 1.9 

6 (0.9) 1.3 

7 0.9 0.9 

8 1.1 (1.1) 

9 1.6 1.9 

10 2.3 2.5 

11 3.1 3.1 

Noon 3.6 3.8 

13 3.8 4.3 

14 3.6 4.S 

15 3.2 4.4 

16 2.6 4.0 

17 2.0 3.5 

18 1.5 2.9 

10 1.2 2.4 

20 1.2 2.1 

21 1.6 2.1 

22 2.1 2.3 

23 2.8 2.8 



3.3 


(2.9) 


2.3 


2.0 


1.9 


2.0 


2.2 


2.7 


(2.9) 


3.2 


3.7 


3.9 


4.2 


4.4 


3.8 


(3.4) 


2.6 


2.3 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


2.2 


(2.3) 


2.6 


3.0 


3.3 


3.8 


4.1 


4.1 


(3.8) 


3.2 


2.8 


2.4 


2.1 


2.1 


2.0 


(2.0) 


2.1 


2.4 


2.7 


3.2 


3.6 


4.1 


(4.1) 


3.7 


3.3 


2.8 


2.7 


2.4 


2.1 


(2.0) 


2.0 


2.1 


2.2 


2.6 


3.0 


4.0 


(4.1) 


3.9 


3.7 


3.3 


3.2 


2.9 


2.5 


(2.3) 


2.1 


2.0 


1.9 


2.2 


2.6 


3.5 


(3.7) 


3.7 


3.8 


3.7 


3.6 


3.4 


3.0 


(2.7) 


2.5 


2.2 


1.9 


2.0 


2.8 


2.9 


(3.2) 


3.3 


3.7 


3.8 


3.9 


3.7 


3.4 


3.2 


3.1 


2.7 


2.3 


2.1 


2.2 


2.2 


(2.7) 


2.8 


3.3 


3.5 


3.8 


3.9 


3.8 


3.7 


3.6 


3.2 


2.7 


2.4 


2.3 


1.7 


9 9 


2.2 


2.8 


3.1 


3.5 


3.7 


3.9 


4.0 


3.9 


3.7 


3.2 


2.9 


2.7 


1.8 


1.7 


(1.7) 


2.2 


2.6 


3.1 


3.4 


3.8 


3.9 


4.0 


4.0 


3.7 


3.5 


3.2 


2.1 


1.7 


1.6 


1.8 


2.1 


2.5 


2.9 


3.4 


3.6 


3.9 


4.1 


4.0 


3.9 


3.8 


2.6 


1.8 


1.7 


1.6 


1.7 


2.0 


2.4 


2.9 


3.0 


3.4 


3.8 


4.0 


4.2 


4.2 


3.2 


2.3 


2.1 


1.8 


1.7 


1.7 


1.9 


2.4 


2.5 


2.9 


3.4 


3.8 


4.2 


4.4 


3.9 


3.0 


2 7 


2.2 


2.0 


l.S 


1.7 


2.0 


2.1 


2.4 


2.8 


3.4 


3.9 


4.3 


(4.5) 


3.7 


3.4 


2.8 


2.4 


2 2 


1.9 


1.8 


1.8 


2.1 


2.4 


2.9 


3.5 


4.0 


(4.6) 


4.3 


4.1 


3.5 


3.1 


2.8 


2.3 


2.1 


1.9 


2.0 


2.1 


2.4 


3.0 


3.5 


(4.5) 


4.6 


4.6 


4.1 


3.8 


3.5 


2.9 


2.5 


2.3 


2.2 


2.1 


2.1 


2.."> 


3.0 


(3.9) 


4.4 


4.7 


4.6 


4.4 


4.1 


3.7 


3.2 


2.9 


2.8 


2.3 


2.0 


2.3 


2.6 


(3.4) 


4.0 


4.5 


4.6 


4.7 


4.6 


4.3 


3.9 


3.6 


3.4 


2.7 


2.3 


2.3 


2.4 


(2.9) 


3.5 


3.9 


4.3 


4.6 


4.7 


4.7 


4.5 


4.2 


3.9 


3.3 


2.8 


2.6 


2.4 


(2.4) 


2.9 


3.3 


3.8 


4.2 


4.4 


4.7 


4.9 


4.6 


4.5 


3.9 


3.3 


3.1 


2.7 


(2.1) 


2.4 


2.6 


3.0 


3.6 


3.9 


4.5 


4.8 


4.7 


4.7 


4.3 


3.9 


3.6 


3.1, 


(2.1) 


2.1 


2.3 


2.5 


3.0 


3.4 


3.9 


4.2 


4.4 


4.6 


4.5 


4.3 


4.0 


3.6 


(2.5) 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


2.4 


2.7 


3.3 


3.6 


3.8 


4.2 


4.3 


4.4 


4.4 


4.0 



JULY, 1903. — Continued. 



Day of Montb . . . 


...17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


Hours 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 





. . . 4.2 


3.9 


3.6 


3.2 


2.6 


2.0 


1.7 


1.8 


2.4 


3.0 


3.7 


4.3 


4.6 


4.5 


4.0 


1 


. . . 4.2 


4.1 


3.9 


3.7 


3.0 


2.3 


1.8 


1.6 


1.7 


2.1 


2.9 


3.6 


4.1 


4.2 


4.2 


o 


. . . 3.8 


4.0 


4.1 


4.1 


3.6 


2.9 


2.2 


1.8 


1.5 


1.4 


2.0 


2.7 


3.4 


3.7 


3.9 


3 


. . . 3.4 


3.6 
3.1 
2.6 
2.2 


3.9 
3.6 
3.1 
2.5 


4.2 
4.0 
3.7 
3.1 


4.0 
4.2 
4.0 
3.6 


3.5 

4.0 
4.3 
4.1 


2.8 
3.6 
4.2 
4.5 


2.3 
3.1 
3.8 
4.4 


1.7 
2.3 
3.1 
3.9 


1.3 
1.7 
2.2 
3.0 


1.5 
1.4 
1.7 
2.3 


2.0 
1.5 
1.5 
1.8 


2.6 
2.0 
1.6 
1.6 


.3.1 
2.4 

1.8 
1.0 


3.4 


4 


. . . 2.8 


2.8 


5 


. . . 2.4 


2.3 


6 


. . . 2.1 


1.8 




. . . 2.0 


2.0 
2.0 


2.1 
1.9 


2.6 
2.1 


3.0 
2.4 


3.6 
2.9 


4.2 
3.6 


4.6 
4.4 


4.5 
4.8 


3.8 
4.4 


3.2 
3.9 


2.4 
3.2 


2.0 
2.6 


1.6 
2.0 


1 


8 


O 9 


1.7 


9 


, .. 2.6 


2.3 


1.9 


1.8 


1.8 


2.2 


2.9 


3.8 


4.5 


4.7 


4.5 


4.0 


3.4 


2.6 


2.0 


10 


. . . 3.2 


2.7 


2.3 


2.0 


1.6 


1.6 


2.2 


2.9 


3.8 


4.3 


4.7 


4.6 


4.1 


3.3 


2.7 


11 


. . . 3.8 


3.3 


2.8 


2.3 


1.7 


1.3 


1.5 


2.1 


2.9 


3.7 


4.4 


4.7 


4.6 


4.0 


3.4 




4.2 


3.9 

4.3 


3.6 

4.2 


3.0 
3.8 


2.1 
2.9 


1.5 
2.0 


1.2 
1.5 


1.4 
1.2 


2.0 
1.4 


2.8 
2.0 


3.8 
3.0 


4.5 
3.8 


4.7 
4.4 


4.5 
4.4 


40 


13 


, . . 4.4 


4.4 


14 


, . . 4.2 


4.5 


4.6 


4.4 


3.8 


2.9 


2.0 


1.5 


1.1 


1.4 


2.2 


3.1 


3.8 


4.2 


4.4 


15 


. . . 3.9 


4.4 
4.0 
3.5 
3.0 
2.0 
2.3 


4.8 
4.6 
4.1 
3.6 
2.9 
2.5 


4.9 
5.0 
4.8 
4.3 
3.6 
2.9 


4.5 
3.1 
5.2 
4.8 
4.3 
3.5 


3.8 
4.7 
5.3 
5.3 
5.0 
4.3 


3.0 
4.0 
4.8 
5.4 
5.4 
4.9 


2.1 
3.0 
4.0 
4.9 
5.4 
5.5 


1.4 
1.9 
2.8 
3.8 
4.8 
5.3 


1.2 
1.6 
2.1 
3.0 
4.0 
4.8 


1.6 
1.4 
1.6 
2.2 
2.9 
3.9 


2.3 

1.8 
1.6 
1.9 
2.4 
3.1 


3.2 
2.4 
2.0 

1.8 
2.1 
2.5 


3.7 
3.0 
2.5 
2.0 
1.9 
2.1 


4,2 


16 


3 4 


3 6 


17 


. . . 2.9 


3,1 


18 


, . . 2.5 


•'' 5 


19 


. . . 2.3 


o o 


20 


, . . 2.4 


2.1 


21 


, . . 2.6 


2.3 
2.6 
3.1 


2.3 
2.4 
2.7 


2.4 
2.2 
2.2 


2.7 
2.2 
1.9 


3.5 
2.6 
2.0 


4.2 
3.3 
2.4 


5.0 
4.2 
3.3 


5.3 
4.8 
3.9 


5.2 
5.1 
4.6 


4.6 
4.9 
4.9 


3.9 
4.5 

4.7 


3.1 
3.8 
4.3 


2.4 
3.0 
3.6 


2 2 


22 


. . 3.1 


26 


23 


. . 3.6 


3.1 



* The values in parentheses are interpolated. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



55 



AUGUST, 1903. 



Day of Month . 
Hours 


. 1 

ft. 


2 
ft. 


3 

ft. 


4 

ft. 


5 

ft. 


6 

ft. 


7 
ft. 


S 
ft. 


9 

ft. 


10 
ft. 


11 

ft. 


12 
ft. 


13 

ft. 


14 
ft. 


15 

ft. 


16 

ft. 





3.5 
3.8 
4.0 
3.8 
3.4 
2.8 
2.3 
1.9 
1.7 
1.8 
2.2 
2.7 
3.4 
4.0 
4.5 
4.5 
4.2 
3.8 
3.2 
2.7 
2.3 
2.1 
2.2 
2.5 


3.0 
3.5 
3.8 
3.9 
3.7 
3.3 
2.8 
2.3 
1.9 
1.8 
1.9 
2.3 
2.8 
3.5 
4.1 
4.4 
4.5 
4.1 
3.7 
3.1 
2.6 
2.1 
2.0 
2.1 


2.5 
2.9 
3.3 
3.7 
3.7 
3.5 
3.2 
2.7 
2.3 
1.8 
1.7 
1.8 
2.3 
2.9 
3.6 
4.2 
4.5 
4.5 
4.2 
3.7 
3.1 
2.6 
2.2 
2.1 


2.3 
2.6 
3.1 
3.5 
3.8 
3.9 
3.7 
3.2 
2.7 
2.3 
1.9 
1.8 
2.1 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.4 
4.7 
4.7 
4.3 
3.7 
3.1 
2.6 
2.2 


2.1 
2.3 
2.8 
3.2 
3.7 
3.9 
3.8 
3.6 
3.2 
2.7 
2.2 
1.9 
2.0 
2.2 
2.7 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 
4.8 
4.8 
4.5 
4.0 
3.4 
2.8 


2.4 
2.2 
2.3 
2.6 
3.1 
3.6 
3.9 
4.0 
4.0 
3.6 
3.1 
2.5 
2.1 
1.9 
2.0 
2.4 
3.0 
3.7 
4.3 
4.6 
4.7 
4.5 
4.0 
3.4 


2.8 
2.3 
2.0 
2.1 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
3.9 
4.0 
3.8 
3.3 
2.8 
2.3 
1.9 
1.9 
2.1 
2.6 
3.4 
4.0 
4.5 
4.7 
4.5 
4.0 
3.3 


2.7 
2.2 
2.0 
2.2 
2.5 
3.1 
3.6 
4.0 
4.1 
3.8 
3.4 
2.9 
2.3 
2.0 
1.9 
2.2 
2.7 
3.4 
4.1 
4.6 
4.7 
4.5 
4.1 
3.5 


2.8 
2.3 
2.1 
2.2 
2.5 
3.0 
3.6 
4.0 
4.3 
4.2 
3.7 
3.2 
2.6 
2.2 
2.0 
2.1 
2.5 
3.0 
3.7 
4.4 
4.7 
4.7 
4.3 
3.7 


3.1 
2.5 
2.1 
2.0 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.8 
4.1 
4.2 
3.9 
3.4 
2.9 
2.3 
2.0 
1.9 
2.2 
2.6 
3.3 
3.9 
4.4 
4.6 
4.4 
3.9 


3.3 
2.6 
2.2 
1.9 
2.0 
2.4 
3.0 
3.6 
4.1 
4.3 
4.2 
3.8 
3.2 
2.7 
2.2 
2.0 
2.2 
2.6 
3.1 
3.8 
4.3 
4.6 
4,6 
4.2 


3.7 
3.1 
2.5 
2.2 
2.1 
2.4 
3.0 
3.5 
4.1 
4.6 
4.6 
4.4 
3.9 
3.4 
2.8 
2.4 
2.4 
2.6 
3.0 
3.6 
4.1 
4.5 
4.7 
4.5 


4.1 
3.5 
2.9 
2.4 
2.1 
2.3 
2.7 
3.3 
3.9 
4.4 
4.7 
4.7 
4.3 
3.8 
3.2 
2.7 
2.5 
2.4 
2.6 
3.1 
3.7 
4.2 
4.4 
4.4 


4.1 
3.6 
2.9 
2.4 
2.1 
2.0 
2.3 
2.7 
3.4 
3.9 
4.3 
4.5 
4.4 
3.9 
3.4 
2.8 
2.4 
2.2 
2.3 
2.6 
3.1 
3.6 
4.0 
4.2 


4.0 
3.7 
3.2 
2.6 
2.1 
1.9 
2.0 
2.2 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.4 
4.6 
4.6 
4.3 
3.8 
3.3 
2.7 
2.5 
2.4 
2.6 
3.0 
3.5 
3.9 


4 ? 


1 

2 


4.3 

4 


3 


3 5 


4 


3 


5 

6 


2.5 
2 1 


7 


2 1 


8 


9 9 


9 

10 


2.8 
? 4 


11 


4 1 


Noon 

13 


4.6 
4 9 


14 


4 7 


15 


4 4 


16 


3 9 


17 

18 


3.3 

2 8 


19 


2 5 


20 


2 5 


21 


2 7 


22 


3 2 


23 


3 6 







AUGUST, 1903.— Continued. 



Day of Month 17 

Hours ft. 

4.0 

1 4.3 

2 4.3 

3 4.0 

4 3.6 

5 3.0 

6 2.5 

7 2.1 

•S 2.1 

2.4 

10 2.9 

11 3.6 

Noon 4.2 

13 4.7 

14 5.0 

15 4.9 

16 4.6 

17 4.0 

18 3.4 

19 2.8 

20 2.5 

21 2.4 

22 2.6 

23 3.1 



18 19 20 21 
ft. ft. ft. ft. 



23 
ft. 



24 
ft. 



25 26 
ft. ft. 



27 
ft. 



ft. 



29 
ft. 



30 

ft. 



31 

ft. 



3.6 


3.0 


2.4 


1.9 


1.6 


1.8 


2.1 


2.9 


3.6 


3.9 


4.2 


4.2 


3.9 


3.4 


4.1 


3.5 


2.9 


2.2 


1.6 


1.4 


1.5 


2.0 


2.7 


3.3 


3.8 


4.1 


4.1 


3.7 


4.3 


4.1 


3.6 


2.8 


2.0 


1.0 


1.2 


1.5 


2.0 


2.6 


3.2 


3.8 


4.0 


4.0 


4.3 


4.4 


4.2 


3.6 


2.7 


2.0 


1.4 


1.3 


1.5 


1.9 


2.6 


3.2 


3.6 


3.9 


4.0 


4.4 


4.6 


4.2 


3.6 


2.8 


1.9 


1.6 


1.4 


1.5 


2.0 


2.7 


3.1 


3.6 


3.5 


4.0 


4.6 


4.7 


4.3 


3.7 


2.8 


2.2 


1.7 


1.6 


1.7 


2.2 


2.6 


3.1 


2.9 


3.4 


4.2 


4.6 


4.7 


4.4 


3.6 


3.1 


2.2 


1.9 


1.8 


1.9 


2.2 


2.7 


2.3 


2.8 


3.6 


4.1 


4.7 


4.8 


4.5 


4.0 


3.1 


2.5 


2.1 


2.0 


2.0 


2.3 


2.0 


2.2 


2.8 


3.5 


4.2 


4.7 


4.9 


4.6 


3.9 


3.3 


2.7 


2.4 


2.1 


2.2 


1.9 


1.8 


2.2 


2.6 


3.4 


4.1 


4.7' 


4.9 


4.6 


4.1 


3.4 


2.9 


2.4 


2.2 


2.3 


1.8 


1.8 


1.9 


2.5 


3.3 


4.2 


4.7 


4.9 


4.6 


4.1 


3.6 


2.9 


2.5 


2.9 


2.1 


1.7 


1.4 


1.8 


2.4 


3.3 


4.2 


4.7 


4.8 


4.6 


4.2 


3.5 


3.0 


3.6 


2.7 


2.0 


1.4 


1.3 


1.6 


2.4 


3.3 


4.1 


4.6 


4.7 


4.6 


4.0 


3.6 


4.3 


3.6 


2.7 


1.8 


1.3 


1.1 


1.6 


2.5 


3.4 


4.0 


4.5 


4.7 


4.4 


4.2 


4.9 


4.4 


3.6 


2.4 


1.6 


1.2 


1.2 


1.8 


2.6 


3.4 


4.0 


4.6 


4.6 


4.5 


5.2 


5.1 


4.6 


3.3 


2.4 


1.8 


1.3 


1.4 


1.9 


2.7 


3.4 


4.1 


4.4 


4.6 


5.1 


5.3 


5.2 


4.5 


3.4 


2.6 


1.8 


1.6 


1.6 


2.1 


2.8 


3.6 


4.0 


4.5 


4.6 


5.2 


5.5 


5.2 


4.4 


3.6 


2.6 


2.0 


1.7 


1.9 


2.3 


3.0 


3.4 


4.1 


4.0 


4.6 


5.3 


5.4 


5.2 


4.5 


3.6 


2.8 


2.1 


2.0 


2.1 


2.5 


2.9 


3.6 


3.4 


4.0 


4.7 


5.1 


5.4 


5.1- 


4.4 


3.6 


2.8 


2.4 


2.2 


2.3 


2.5 


3.1 


2.7 


3.2 


3.9 


4.5 


5.1 


5.2 


4.9 


4.3 


3.5 


3.0 


2.6 


2.4 


2.3 


2.6 


2.4 


2.6 


3.1 


3.7 


4.4 


4.7 


5.0 


4.8 


4.1 


3.6 


3.1 


2.7 


2.4 


2.4 


2.3 


2.2 


2.4 


2.7 


3.5 


4.0 


4.6 


4.7 


4.5 


4.1 


3.7 


3.1 


2.6 


2.5 


2.6 


2.1 


2.0 


2.0 


2.5 


3.1 


3.8 


4.3 


4.4 


4.3 


4.0 


3.5 


3.0 


2.7 



56 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



SEPTEMBER, 1903. 



Day of Month . 


. 1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


Hours 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft;. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 



3.2 2.8 

1 3.6 3.2 

2 3.9 3.6 

3 4.1 4,0 

4 3.9 4.1 

5 3.6 3.9 

6 3.2 3.6 

7 2.7 3.1 

8 2.4 2.7 

9 2.2 2.3 

10 2.3 2.0 

11 2.7 2.1 

Noon 3.2 2.5 

13 3.8 3.0 

14 4.3 3.6 

15 4.0 4.1 

16 4.7 4.4 

17 4.5 4.5 

18 4.0 4.3 

19 3.5 3.8 

20 3.0 3.2 

21 2.6 2.7 

22 2.4 2.3 

23 2.5 2.1 



2.3 


2.4 


2.3 


2.6 


2,9 


3.1 


3.4 


3.5 


4.3 (4.1) (4.1) (4.1) (3,0) 


3.2 


2.6 


2.6 


2.3 


2.4 


2,5 


2.G 


2.8 


2.8 


3.4 (3.6) (3.7) (4.1) (4.2) 


3.7 


3.1 


2.9 


2.6 


2.5 


2,5 


2.4 


2.5 


2.3 


2.7 (2.9) (3.1) (3.7) (4.1) 


4.0 


3.5 


3.4 


3.0 


2.9 


2.8 


2.5 


(2.6) 


2.1 


(2.3) (2.4) (2.5) (3,2) (3.8) 


3.9 


3.9 


3.8 


3.6 


3.4 


3.3 


2.9 


(3.0) 


2.3 


(2.1) (2.1) (2.1) (2.7) (3.3) 


3.5 


4.0 


4.2 


4.1 


4.0 


3.9 


3.6 


(3.4) 


2.6 


(2.4) (2.1) (1.9) (2.2) (2.6) 


3.1 


3.8 


4.4 


4.4 


4,5 


4.5 


4.2 


(3.8) 


3.3 


(2.9) (2.5) (1.9) (1.8) 


1.9 


o 5 


(3.4) 


4.1 


4.5 


4.7 


4.9 


4.8 


(4,2) 


4.0 


(3.6) (3.0) (2.3) (1.0) 


1.6 


2.0 


(2.8) 


3.7 


4.2 


4.6 


5.0 


5.1 


4.5 


4.5 


(4.3) (3.8) (2.8) (2.2) 


1.7 


l.S 


(2.4) 


3.2 


3,7 


4.2 


4.7 


5.0 


4.7 


5.0 


(4.8) (4.3) (3.4) (2.8) 


2.0 


1.8 


2.1 


2.7 


3.2 


3.7 


4.1 


4.6 


4.4 


5.1 


(5.1) (4.7) (4.1) (3.4) 


2.7 


2,1 


2.0 


2.3 


2.7 


3.1 


3.5 


4.0 


3.9 


4.8 


(5.0) (4.8) (4.6) (4.1) 


3.4 


O J 


2.3 


2.1 


2.3 


2.6 


2.9 


3.3 


3.3 


4.4 


(4.5) (4.6) (4.7) (4.5) 


4.0 


3.4 


2.7 


2.4 


2.2 


2.4 


2.5 


2.8 


2.7 


3.9 


(3.9) (4.1) (4.5) (4.7) 


4.5 


4.3 


3.3 


2.8 


2.5 


2.5 


2.4 


2.5 


2.2 


3.5 


(3,2) (3.4) (4,1) 4,4 


4.6 


4..S 


3.9 


3.4 


3.0 


2.9 


2.7 


2.5 


2,0 


3,1 


(2.7) (2.8) (3.5) 3.7 


4.4 


4.9 


4.4 


4.1 


3.7 


3.5 


3.2 


2,9 


2.1 


3,0 


(2.4) (2,4) (2,8) 3.2 


4,0 


4.0 


4.7 


4.6 


4.4 


4.2 


3.9 


3.5 


2.5 


3.2 


(2.4) (2.2) (2.4) 2.6 


3,4 


4.1 


4.7 


4,8 


4.9 


4.9 


4.6 


4.1 


3.2 


3.7 


(2.7) (2.2) (2.2) 2.2 


2,8 


3.0 


4.4 


4.8 


5.0 


5.2 


5.1 


4,7 


3.9 


4.2 


(3.2) (2.6) (2.2) 2,0 


2.3 


2.9 


3.9 


4.3 


4.8 


5.1 


5,2 


5,0 


4.5 


4.7 


(3.9) (3.2) (2.4) (2.0) 


2,0 


2,2 


3.3 


3.8 


4.3 


4.7 


4,9 


5.1 


4.7 


5.2 


(4.4) (3.7) (2.9) (2,3) 


2,0 


2,0 


2.8 


3.2 


3.7 


4.2 


4.4 


4.7 


4.6 


5.3 


(4,6) (4,1) (3,4) (2,7) 


2.2 


2,0 


2.4 


2.7 


3.1 


3,5 


3.8 


4.1 


4.2 


5.1 


(4.5) (4.3) (3,9) (3.2) 


2.7 


2,3 



SEPTBMBEE, 1903. — Continued. 



Day of Month 
Hours 



17 
ft. 



18 19 20 21 
ft. ft. ft. ft. 



22 23 

ft. ft. 



24 
ft. 



25 
ft. 



26 

ft. 



27 
ft. 



28 29 30 

ft. ft. ft. 



9 ., 

10 .. 

11 . , 

Noon 

13 ., 

14 ., 

15 ., 

16 ., 

17 . 

18 ., 

19 . 

20 ., 

21 . 

22 . . 

23 ., 



3.5 
4.0 
4.3 
4.1 
3.6 
3,0 
2.4 
1.9 
1.7 
1.8 
2.2 
2.9 
3,6 
4.4 
4,9 
5,0 
4.8 
4.2 
3.5 
2.8 
2.1 
1.8 
1.9 



2.3 


1.8 


(1.6 


(1.7) 


2.3 


3.0 


3.4 


3.8 


4.0 


4.0 


3.8 


3.5 


3.3 


2.8 


2,2 


(1.7 


(1.5) 


1.7 


2.3 


2.7 


3.2 


3.6 


3.8 


3.9 


3.8 


3.6 


3.6 


2,9 


(2.2 


(1.7) 


1.0 


1.9 


2.1 


2.5 


3.1 


3.4 


3.7 


3.9 


3.8 


4.2 


3,7 


(3.0 


(2,3) 


1.8 


1.8 


1.9 


2.0 


2.0 


3,0 


3.3 


3.7 


3.9 


4.6 


4,4 


(3.4 


(3.1) 


2.4 


2 ^ 


2.0 


1.8 


2,1 


2,5 


2,9 


3,3 


3.7 


4,5 


4.8 


(4.6 


(4.1) 


3.3 


2.9 


2.5 


1.9 


1.9 


2.1 


2,4 


2,9 


3.3 


4.1 


4.9 


(5.0 


(4.8) 


4.2 


3.7 


3.4 


2.3 


2.0 


2.0 


2.1 


2,6 


2,9 


3.5 


4.5 


(5.0 


(5.1) 


4.9 


4.5 


4.1 


2.9 


2.3 


2.1 


2.1 


2,3 


2,0 


2.8 


3,7 


(4,4 


(4.9) 


5,3 


5.2 


4.8 


3.6 


2.9 


2.5 


2.3 


2.3 


2.3 


2.1 


3,0 


(3,6 


(4.3) 


5.2 


5.5 


5.1 


4.3 


3.6 


3.1 


2.6 


2.5 


2.2 


1.7 


2,1 


(2,7 


(3.5) 


4.6 


5.2 


5.2 


4.8 


4.3 


3.7 


3.1 


2.8 


2.4 


1.6 


1.6 


(1.9 


(2.6) 


3,7 


4.6 


4.8 


4.9 


4.6 


4.2 


3.7 


3.3 


2.8 


2,0 


1.5 


(1.4 


(1.9) 


2.8 


3.7 


4.1 


4.6 


4.6 


4.5 


4.1 


3.7 


3.3 


2.5 


1.8 


(1.5 


(1.4) 


2.1 


2.9 


3.3 


4.0 


4.3 


4.5 


4.3 


4,2 


3.8 


3,4 


2.4 


(1.8 


(1.5) 


1.7 


2 2 


2.5 


3.3 


3.8 


4.1 


4.3 


4.4 


4.2 


4.3 


3.3 


(2,6 


(2.0) 


1.8 


2.0 


2.0 


2.6 


3.2 


3.6 


4.0 


4.4 


4.4 


5.0 


4.3 


(3.5 


(2.8) 


2.2 


2.1 


1.9 


2.2 


2.7 


3.1 


3.5 


4.1 


4.3 


5.3 


5.0 


(4.4 


(3.8) 


3.0 


2.6 


2.1 


2.9 


2.3 


2.6 


3.0 


3.0 


4.0 


3.1 


5,3 


(5.0 


4.5 


3.8 


3.4 


2.5 


2.1 


2.1 


2.3 


2.6 


3.1 


3,5 


4.6 


5.1 


(5.2 


4.9 


4.6 


4.1 


3.2 


2.4 


2.2 


2.2 


2.3 


2.7 


3.0 


3.7 


4.5 


1 4.8 


5.1 


5.0 


4.8 


3.8 


3.0 


2.6 


2.3 


2.2 


2.5 


2.6 


2.9 


3.7 


(4,0 


4.7 


5.0 


5.0 


4.3 


3.5 


3.0 


2.7 


2.4 


2.4 


2.4 


2.1 


2.8 


(3.2 


4.0 


4.6 


4.8 


4.5 


4.0 


3.5 


3.0 


2.7 


2.6 


2.3 


1.8 


2.1 


(2.3 


3.1 


3.9 


4.2 


4.3 


4.2 


3.9 


3.5 


3.1 


2.9 


2.5 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



57 



OCTOBER, 1903. 



Day of Month . 


. 1 


o 


3 


4 


o 


G 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


l.-| 


]C, 


Hours 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


fl. 



2.9 2.6 2.3 2.4 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.6 3.2 

1 32 2.9 2.7 2.7 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.1 2.5 

2 3.6 3.4 3.1 3.1 2.6 2.3 2.2 2.0 2,2 

3 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.2 2.9 2.5 2.2 2.1 

4 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.3 3.8 3.5 3.2 2.7 (2.3) 

5 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.7 4.3 4.2 3.9 3.4 (3.0) 

6 3.3 3.7 4.2 4.7 4.7 4.T 4.5 4.2 (3.7) 

7 2.9 3.3 (3.9) 4.5 4.7 5.0 5.0 4.7 4.5 

8 2.5 2.8 (3.5) 4.0 4.4 4.9 5.1 5.1 5.1 

9 2.3 2.5 (3.0) 3.5 3.8 4.5 4.8 5.0 5.4 

10 : . 2.2 2.1 (2.6) 2.9 3.2 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.3 

11 2.4 2.1 (2.2) 2.5 2.6 3.2 3.5 4.0 4.8 

Noon 2.8 2.4 (2.2) 2.3 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.2 4.1 

13 3.2 2.9 (2.7) 2.5 2.1 2.3 2.3 2.5 3.4 

14 3.8 3.4 (3.3) 2.8 2.3 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.7 

15 4.2 4.0 (3.9) 3.4 2.8 2.6 2.2 2.1 2.4 

16 4.4 4.3 (4.4) 4.0 3.4 3.2 2.7 2.4 2.4 

17 4.3 4.5 (4.8) 4.5 4.0 3.9 3.3 2.9 2.6 

18 3.9 4.3 4.8 4.8 4.5 4.4 4.0 3.5 3.1 

19 3.4 3.9 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.5 4.1 3.8 

20 2.9 3.3 4.0 4.2 4.5 4.8 4.7 4.5 4.3 

21 2.5 2.S 3.4 3.6 4.0 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.7 

22 2.3 2.4 2.9 3.0 3.3 3.8 3.9 4.4 4.7 

23 2.3 2.2 2.5 2.5 2.7 3;i 3.3 3.8 4.4 



3.8 


4.1 


4.1 


4.0 


3.8 


3.7 


3.3 


3.1 


3.5 


3.7 


3.9 


4.0 


4.2 


3.9 


2.6 


2.9 


3.1 


3.4 


3.9 


4.5 


4.4 


2.2 


2.4 


(2.5) 


2.9 


3.5 


4.4 


4.G 


2.2 


2.2 


(2.1) 


2.3 


3.0 


4.0 


4.4 


2.5 


2.3 


(1.9) 


1.9 


2.5 


3.4 


3.9 


3.2 


2.7 


(2.0) 


1.6 


2.0 


2.8 


3.2 


3.9 


3.3 


2.5 


1.7 


1.9 


2.3 


2.7 


4.6 


4.1 


3.0 


2.2 


2.0 


2.0 


2.1 


5.2 


4.7 


3.7 


2.8 


2.3 


2.0 


1.9 


5.4 


5.1 


4.3 


3.5 


3.0 


2.4 


1.9 


5.2 


5.2 


4.7 


4.1 


3.6 


3.0 


2.4 


4.7 


4.8 


4.7 


4.4 


4.3 


3.6 


3.0 


4,0 


4.2 


4.4 


4.5 


4.7 


4.3 


3.7 


3.3 


3.5 


3.9 


4.2 


4.8 


4.7 


4.3 


2.8 


2.9 


3.2 


3.6 


4.6 


4.S 


4.8 


2.4 


2.5 


2.5 


3.0 


4.1 


4.6 


4.9 


2.4 


2.2 


2.1 


2.4 


3.5 


4.0 


4.6 


2.8 


2.4 


2.0 


2.0 


2.8 


3.3 


4.0 


3.4 


2.7 


2.0 


1.8 


2.4 


2.6 


3.3 


4.0 


3.3 


2.3 


1.9 


2.1 


2.1 


2.6 


4.5 


3.8 


2.8 


2.3 


2.3 


2.0 


2.1 


4.7 


4.2 


3.4 


2.8 


2.6 


2.1 


1.9 


4.6 


4.4 


3.8 


3.4 


3.1 


2.6 


2.0 



OCTOBER, 1903. — Continued. 



Day of Montli 17 IS 19 

Hours ft. ft. ft. 

(2.4) (2.0) 1.6 

1 (3.3) (2.8) 1.8 

2 (4.3) (3.7) 2.4 

3 (4.8) (4.5) 3.2 

4 (5.0) (5.0) 4.1 

5 (4.8) (5.1) (5.0) 

6 (4.3) (4.9) (5.2) 

7 3.6 (4.4) 5.1 

8 2.8 3.5 4.5 

9 2.2 2.6 3.7 

10 1.9 2.0 2.9 

11 1.8 1.7 2.0 

Noon 2.2 1.7 1.6 

13 2.8 2.0 1.7 

14 3.5 2.7 2.1 

15 4.3 3.5 2.7 

16 4.8 4.3 3.5 

17 4.9 4.7 4.3 

18 4.6 4.8 4.8 

19 4.4 4.4 4.9 

20 3.3 3.7 4.4 

21 2.4 3.0 3.7 

22 19 22 29 

23 1.7 1.6 2.1 



20 
ft. 



ft. ft. 



23 

ft. 



24 
ft. 



26 27 
ft. ft. 



28 
ft. 



30 
ft. 



31 
ft. 



1.7 


(2.0) 


2.6 


3.0 


3.5 


3.6 


3.6 


3,6 


3,5 


3.5 


3.0 


2.6 


1.6 


(1.6) 


1.9 


2.4 


3.0 


3.2 


3.3 


3,5 


3,7 


3.7 


3.4 


3.1 


2.0 


(1.7) 


1.7 


1.9 


2.4 


2.6 


2.8 


3,2 


3,6 


3.8 


3.7 


3.0 


2.6 


(2.2) 


1.9 


1.8 


2.0 


2.1 


2.3 


2,8 


3,3 


3.7 


3.8 


3.9 


(3.4) (3.0) 


2.3 


2.1 


1.9 


1.9 


2.1 


2.4 


2,0 


3.4 


3.7 


3.9 


(4.4) (4.0) 


3.1 


2.6 


2.2 


1.9 


1.9 


2.1 


2,5 


3.0 


3.5 


3..S 


(5.2) (4.8) 


4.0 


3.5 


2.8 


2.2 


2.0 


2.0 


2.3 


2.7 


3.1 


3.4 


(5.3) (5.3) 


4.7 


4.3 


3.5 


2.7 


2.4 


2.1 


2.2 


2.4 


2.6 


2,0 


(5.0) (5.4) 


5.2 


4.9 


4.1 


3.3 


2.9 


2.5 


2.3 


2.3 


2.3 


2.5 


4.5 


(5.0) 


5.2 


5.2 


4.7 


4.0 


3.4 


2.9 


2.6 


2.4 


2.2 


2.2 


3.6 


4.4 


4.8 


5.1 


5.0 


4.4 


3.9 


3.4 


3.0 


2.7 


2.3 


2.1 


2.7 


3.7 


4.1 


4.6 


4.8 


4.5 


4.3 


3.8 


3.5 


3.0 


2.6 


2.2 


2.1 


2.7 


3.3 


4.0 


4.4 


4.3 


4.3 


4,0 


3.9 


3.5 


3.0 


2.5 


1.7 


2.1 


2.5 


3.2 


3.7 


3.8 


4.0 


4,0 


4.1 


3.8 


3.4 


3.0 


1.8 


1.8 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 


3.1 


3.4 


3,7 


4.1 


4.0 


3.8 


3.4 


2.3 


2.0 


1.8 


2.1 


2.5 


2.6 


2.9 


3,3 


3.8 


4.0 


4.0 


3.9 


3.1 


2.5 


2.1 


2.0 


2,1 


2.1 


2.5 


2,0 


3.4 


3.8 


4.0 


4,(1 


3.9 


3.2 


2.6 


2.3 


2.0 


1.9 


2.2 


2,5 


3.0 


3.4 


3.7 


3,9 


4.5 


3.9 


3.3 


2.7 


2.2 


2.0 


2,0 


2,3 


2.7 


2.9 


3.2 


3,.-. 


4.9 


4.5 


3.9 


3.4 


2.7 


2.2 


2,1 


2,0 


2.3 


2.5 


2.7 


3.1) 


4.8 


4.7 


4.4 


3.9 


3.3 


2,7 


2,4 


2,2 


2.3 


2.2 


2.4 


2.4 


(4.1) 


4.7 


4.5 


4.2 


3.7 


3.1 


2,8 


2,5 


2.5 


2.1 


2.1 


2,0 


(3.4) 


4.0 


4.3 


4.3 


4.0 


3.5 


3,2 


2,9 


2.7 


2.3 


2.0 


l.s 


(2.7) 


3.3 


3.7 


4.0 


4.0 


3.7 


3,5 


3,3 


3.1 


2.6 


2.2 


1,8 



58 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



NOVEMBER, 1903. 



Day of Month . . 1 2 

Hours ft. ft. 

2.2 1.9 

1 2.6 2.3 

2 3.1 2.9 

3 3.6 3.5 

4 3.9 4.0 

.5 3.9 4.3 

6 3.6 4.1 

7 3.1 3.8 

8 2.6 3.2 

9 2.1 2.6 

10 1.9 2.1 

11 1.8 1.8 

Noon 2.0 1.8 

13 2.4 2.0 

14 3.0 2.5 

15 3.4 3.2 

16 3.8 3.7 

17 4.0 4.0 

18 3.8 4.0 

19 3.3 3.6 

20 2.7 3.1 

21 2.2 2.5 

22 1.8 2.0 

23 1.6 1.6 



4 
ft. 



5 

ft. 



6 

ft. 



8 
ft. 



9 
ft. 



10 
ft. 



11 

ft. 



12 
ft. 



13 

ft. 



14 
ft. 



15 
ft. 



16 

ft. 



1.6 


1.5 


1.7 


(1.8) 


2 2 


2.6 


3.2 


3.8 


4.0 


3.8 


3.4 


2.8 


2.2 


1.7 


1.9 


1.6 


1.6 


(1.5) 


1.6 


1.9 


2.3 


3.3 


3.8 


4.0 


3.9 


3.5 


3.0 


2.3 


2.5 


2.1 


1.9 


(1.5) 


1.5 


1.3 


2.0 


2.6 


3.3 


3.9 


4.1 


4.0 


3.7 


3.0 


3.1 


2.8 


2.5 


(2.0) 


1.6 


1.3 


1.6 


2.0 


2.7 


3.3 


4.0 


4.3 


4.3 


3.8 


3.8 


3.6 


3.3 


(2.8) 


2.1 


1.6 


1.3 


1.6 


2.1 


2.8 


3.6 


4.2 


4.6 


4.5 


4.2 


4.3 


4.1 


(3.5) 


2.9 


2.1 


1.6 


1.0 


1.8 


2.2 


2.9 


3.8 


4.5 


4.8 


4.4 


4.7 


4.8 


(4.3) 


3.8 


2.9 


2.2 


1.7 


1.6 


1.8 


2.4 


3.2 


3.9 


4.6 


4.2 


4.7 


5.0 


(4.8) 


4.5 


3.7 


3.0 


2.2 


1.9 


1.7 


1.9 


2.6 


3.3 


4.0 


3.6 


4.3 


4.8 


(5.0) 


4.9 


4.4 


3.8 


2.9 


2.3 


1.8 


1.7 


2.0 


2.6 


3.3 


3.0 


3.7 


4.3 


(4.7) 


5.0 


4.8 


4.4 


3.7 


2.9 


2.2 


1.8 


1.8 


2.0 


2.6 


2.4 


2.9 


3.6 


(3.9) 


4.7 


4.8 


4.8 


4.3 


3.6 


2.8 


2.1 


1.8 


1.7 


2.0 


1.9 


2.3 


2.8 


(3.0) 


4.0 


4.4 


4.8 


4.7 


4.3 


3.4 


2.7 


2.1 


1.7 


1.6 


1.6 


1.9 


2.1 


(2.2) 


3.2 


3.7 


4.3 


4.6 


4.6 


4.0 


3.3 


2.6 


2.0 


1.6 


1.7 


1.7 


1.7 


(1.8) 


2.4 


2.8 


3.6 


4.2 


4.5 


4.3 


3.9 


3.3 


2.6 


2.0 


2.1 


2.0 


1.7 


1.7 


1.8 


2.0 


2.8 


3.5 


4.0 


4.3 


4.2 


3.8 


3.3 


2.6 


2.7 


2.5 


2.1 


1.8 


1.5 


1.6 


2.1 


2.8 


3.4 


4.0 


4.3 


4.2 


3.9 


3.3 


3.3 


8.1 


2.7 


2.2 


1.6 


1.5 


1.7 


2 2 


2.8 


3.4 


3.9 


4.2 


4.3 


3.9 


3.8 


3.8 


3.3 


2.8 


2.0 


1.6 


1.6 


1.8 


'^ 2 


2.8 


3.3 


3.9 


4.2 


4.3 


4.0 


4.2 


3.9 


3.5 


2.6 


2.0 


1.7 


1.7 


1.8 


2.1 


2.7 


3.3 


3.8 


4.2 


3.9 


4.3 


4.2 


4.0 


3.3 


2.7 


2.2 


1.9 


l.C 


1.7 


2.1 


2.6 


3.2 


3.8 


3.5 


4.0 


4.2 


4.3 


3.8 


3.2 


2.8 


2.3 


1.8 


1.5 


1.6 


1.9 


2.5 


3.1 


2.8 


3.4 


3.7 


4.1 


4.0 


3.7 


3.4 


2.8 


2 2 


1.7 


1.5 


1.6 


1.8 


2.5 


2.2 


2.8 


3.1 


3.7 


3.8 


3.9 


3.S 


3.4 


2.8 


2.1 


1.7 


1.4 


1.5 


1.7 


1.7 


2.1 


2.4 


3.0 


3.3 


3.7 


4.0 


3.8 


3.4 


2.8 


2.2 


1.7 


1.4 


1.5 



NOVEMBER, 1903.~Contmued. 



Day of Month 17 

Hours ft. 

1.6 

1 1.9 

2 2.6 

3 3.5 

4 4.3 

5 4.9 

6 5.0 

7 4.8 

8 4.3 

9 3.4 

10 2.6 

11 2.0 

Noon 1.7 

13 1.8 

14 2.2 

15 2.8 

16 3.5 

17 4.0 

18 4.4 

19 4.2 

20 3.7 

21 3.1 

22 2.4 

23 1.8 



18 
ft. 



19 
ft. 



20 
ft. 



21 
ft. 



22 
ft. 



23 24 

ft. ft. 



27 
ft. 



28 
ft. 



29 30 

ft. ft. 



1.6 


1.6 


2.1 


2.4 


2.8 


3.4 


3.6 


3.6 


3.7 


3.7 


3.2 


3.1 


2.6 


1.0 


1.4 


1.7 


1.9 


2.3 


2.8 


3.2 


3.4 


3.7 


3.9 


3.6 


3.6 


3.2 


1.9 


1.6 


1.6 


1.6 


2.0 


2.3 


2.7 


3.0 


3.4 


3.8 


3.8 


4.0 


3.S 


2.7 


2.1 


1.8 


1.6 


1.8 


2.0 


2.3 


2.5 


3.0 


3.6 


3.8 


4.2 


4.1 


3.5 


2.9 


2.4 


2.0 


1.9 


1.9 


2.0 


2.2 


2.7 


3.1 


3.5 


4.0 


4.2 


4.3 


3.8 


3.1 


2.6 


2.3 


2.1 


2.0 


2.0 


2.3 


2.7 


3.1 


3.7 


4.0 


(4.8) 


4.6 


4.0 


3.3 


2.9 


2.6 


2.3 


2.1 


2.2 


2.5 


2.6 


3.2 


3.6 


5.0 


5.0 


4.6 


4.0 


3.5 


3.2 


2.7 


2.3 


2.3 


2.3 


2.3 


2.8 


3.1 


4.7 


5.0 


4.9 


4.5 


4.2 


3.8 


3.2 


2.7 


2.5 


2.3 


2.2 


2.4 


2.5 


4.0 


4.6 


4.8 


4.7 


4.6 


4.3 


3.7 


3.3 


2.9 


2.5 


2 2 


2.2 


2 2 


3.3 


3.9 


4.4 


4.5 


4.6 


4.6 


4.2 


3.7 


3.4 


2.9 


2.5 


2.3 


2.0 


2.4 


3.1 


3.7 


3.9 


4.4 


4.6 


4.4 


4.1 


3.9 


3.3 


2.9 


2.5 


2 2 


l.S 


2.4 


2.9 


3.2 


3.9 


4.2 


4.3 


4.2 


4.2 


3.7 


3.3 


3.0 


2.5 


1.6 


1.8 


2.2 


2.5 


3.2 


3.5 


3.8 


4.0 


4.2 


4.0 


3.7 


3.5 


3.0 


1.7 


1.7 


1.9 


2.0 


2.6 


2.9 


3.2 


3.5 


3.9 


4.0 


3.9 


3.8 


3.5 


2.1 


1.9 


1.8 


1.7 


2.0 


2.4 


2.7 


3.0 


3.5 


3.7 


3.9 


4.0 


3.8 


2.8 


2.4 


2.0 


1.8 


1.9 


2.1 


2.3 


2.5 


3.0 


3.3 


3.7 


3.9 


4.0 


3.4 


3.0 


2.5 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


2.1 


2.6 


2.9 


3.2 


3.6 


3.9 


3.9 


3.6 


3.0 


2.9 


2.3 


2.2 


2.0 


2.0 


2.2 


2.4 


2.6 


3.0- 


3.4 


4.1 


4.0 


3.5 


3.1 


2.8 


2.5 


2.2 


2.0 


2.0 


2.1 


2.2 


2.5 


2.9 


4.0 


4.1 


3.8 


3.5 


3.3 


2.9 


2.5 


2.3 


2.2 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


2.4 


3.4 


3.8 


3.9 


3.9 


3.7 


3.3 


2.9 


2.7 


2.5 


2.0 


2.0 


1.8 


2.0 


2.8 


3.3 


3.6 


3.8 


3.9 


3.7 


3.3 


3.1 


2.9 


2.3 


2 2 


1.9 


1.7 


2.0 


2.6 


3.0 


3.4 


3.7 


3.8 


3.5 


3.3 


3.3 


2.8 


2.6 


2.1 


1.8 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XI 






BAHAMA i'OSSILS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



50 



DECEMBER, 1003. 



Day of Montb 


. 1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


Hours 


It. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 
1.7 


ft. 





2.1 


1.6 


1.4 


1.3 


1.3 


1.6 


2.3 


(3.1) 


3.7 


(4.2) 


4.0 


3.4 


2.9 


(2,0) 


(1.3) 


1 


2.8 


2.1 


1.7 


1.2 


1.0 


1.1 


1.6 


(2.3) 


3.1 


(3.9) 


4.2 


3.9 


3.6 


(2.8) 


2.4 


(1.7) 


o 


3.5 


2.8 


2.3 


1.6 


1.1 


0.9 


1.2 


(1.8) 


2.4 


(3.1) 


3.9 


4.1 


4,2 


(3.7) 


3.2 


(2.7) 


o 


4.0 


3.5 


3.0 


2.4 


1.0 


1.1 


1.0 


(1.3) 


1.8 


(2.4) 


3.4 


4,0 


4.4 


(4.4) 


3.8 


(3,5) 


4 


4.4 


4.2 


3.9 


3.3 


2.5 


1.7 


1.3 


(1.2) 


1.5 


(1.9) (2.7) 


3.6 


4.1 


(4.5) 


4.4 


(4,1) 


5 


4.5 


4.6 


4.5 


4.2 


3.5 


2.6 


2.0 


(1.6) 


1.5 


(1.5) (2.0) 


2.9 


3.7 


(4.3) 


4.5 


(4.6) 


6 


4.1 


4.5 


4.7 


4.7 


4.2 


3.6 


2.9 


(2.5) 


1.8 


(1.5) (1.5) 


2.3 


2.9 


(3,8) 


4,2 


(4.6) 


7 


3.7 


4.2 


4.7 


5.0 


4.8 


4.4 


3.9 


3.2 


2.4 


1.9 


1.6 


1.9 


2.3 


(3,0) 


3,7 


(4.4) 


S 


3.1 


3.5 


4.2 


4.7 


5.0 


4.9 


4.7 


4.0 


3.3 


2.4 


1.8 


1.7 


1.8 


(2,3) 


3.0 


(3,8) 





2.5 


2.9 


3.5 


4.1 


4.7 


4.8 


5.1 


4.7 


4.1 


3.1 


2,3 


1,8 


1.6 


(1.8) 


2.3 


(3.1) 


10 


2.0 


2.3 


2.6 


3.3 


3.9 


4.4 


(4.9) 


5.0 


4.6 


3.8 


2.9 


2.2 


1.7 


(1.6) 


1.8 


(2.4) 


11 


1.0 


l.S 


2.0 


2.4 


3.0 


3.5 


(4.3) 


4.8 


4.0 


4,4 


3.5 


2,7 


2.0 


(1.7) 


1.6 


(1.7) 


Noon 


2.0 


1.7 


1.6 


1.7 


2.1 


2.6 


(3.4) 


4.1 


4,8 


4,6 


4.0 


3.3 


2.5 


(2.2) 


1.7 


1.6 


13 


2.3 


1.0 


1.5 


1.6 


1.6 


1.9 


(2.6) 


3.3 


4,1 


4,4 


4.2 


3.7 


3.1 


(2.7) 


2.0 


1.7 


14 


2.8 


2.3 


1.7 


1.5 


1.2 


1.3 


(1.9) 


2.4 


3.4 


3.8 


3.9 


4.0 


3.6 


(3.3) 


2 5 


2.0 


l.-| 


3.3 


2.9 


O O 


1.8 


1.2 


1.1 


(1.4) 


1.7 


2.6 


3.1 


3.4 


3.9 


3.9 


(3.7) 


3.1 


2.6 


16 


3.7 


3.5 


2.0 


2.4 


1.7 


1.1 


(1.2) 


1.4 


1.0 


2.4 


2.8 


3.5 


3.8 


(3.9) 


3,0 


3.2 


17 


3.9 


3.0 


3.5 


3.1 


2.3 


1.8 


(1.5) 


1.3 


1.6 


1.7 


2.4 


3.0 


3.4 


3.7 


3.9 


3.7 


IS 


3.7 


4.0 


3.8 


3.7 


3.1 


2.5 


(2.2) 


1.7 


1.5 


1.4 


1.6 


2.4 


2.8 


3.3 


3.7 


3.9 


10 


3.2 


3.7 


3.8 


3.9 


3.7 


3.2 


(2.7) 


2.2 


1.8 


1.3 


1.3 


1.8 


2.1 


2,6 


3.4 


3.6 


20 


2.6 


3.1 


8.5 


3.9 


4.0 


3.8 


(3.4) 


2.9 


(-2.31 


1,6 


1.3 


1.5 


1.6 


2.0 


2.8 


3.1 


21 


2.0 


2.5 


2.9 


3.3 


3.7 


4.0 


(4.0) 


3.6 


(3.0) 


2,1 


1.6 


1.3 


1.3 


1.5 


2.0 


2.5 


oo 


1.6 


1.8 


2.1 


2.5 


3.1 


3.8 


(4.1) 


4.0 


(3.0) 


2,8 


2.0 


1.6 


1.2 


1.3 


1.6 


1.9 


23 


1.5 


1.5 


1.6 


1.0 


2.3 


3.0 


(3.8) 


4.1 


(4.1) 


3.5 


2.7 


2.2 


(1.4) 


1.3 


(1.2) 


1.5 



DECEMBER, 1903.— Continued. 



Day of Month 17 IS 

Hours ft. ft. 

1.3 1.4 

1 1.6 1.3 

2 2.1 1,6 

3 2,9 2,1 

4 3.7 2,9 

5 4,4 3,7 

6 4.7 4.4 

7 4.7 4.7 

8 4.2 4.6 

9 3.5 4.0 

10 2.8 3.2 

11 2.0 2.5 

Noon 1.6 1.0 

13 1.5 1.5 

14 1.7 1.4 

15 2.0 1.7 

16 2.7 (2.3) 

17 3.3 (2.0) 

18 3.7 3.4 

19 3.8 3.7 

20 3.5 3.7 

21 3.0 3,3 

22 2. .3 2.7 

23 1,6 2,0 



19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 25 26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. ft. ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


1,5 


1,8 


2.2 


2.7 


3,2 


(3.4) (3.6) (3.7) 


3.4 


3.2 


2.8 


2.3 


I.e. 


1.3 


1,5 


1.6 


2.1 


2,7 


(3.1) (3.3) (3.7) 


3.6 


3.6 


3.3 


2.9 


2.:', 


1,3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.7 


2,2 


(2.7) (3.0) (3.4) 


3.5 


3.7 


3.6 


3.5 


3.« 


1,7 


(1.5) 


1.2 


1.5 


1.8 


(2.2) (2.6) (3.0) 


3.2 


3.7 


3.8 


4.0 


3.7 


2,4 


(2.0) 


1.0 


1.5 


1.7 


(2.0) (2.3) (2.5) 


2.8 


3.4 


3.7 


4.1 


4.1 


3,1 


(2.7) 


2.1 


1.8 


1.9 


(1.9) (2.0) (2.1) 


2.4 


2.9 


3.4 


4.0 


4.3 


3.9 


(3.4) 


2.8 


2.4 


2.2 


(2.1) (2.1) (2.0) 


2.1 


2.4 


2.9 


3.5 


4.] 


4.4 


4.0 


3.5 


3.0 


2.7 


(2.5) (2,3) (2,1) 


1.9 


(1.9) 


2.4 


3.0 


3.5 


4.6 


4.4 


4.0 


3.6 


3.2 


(3,0) (2,7) (2.3) 


2.0 


(1.8) 


2.0 


2.4 


2.0 


4.4 


4.4 


4.3 


4.1 


3.7 


(3,5) (3,1) (2,7) 


2,2 


(1.9) 


1.8 


2.0 


2.3 


3.7 


4.0 


4.2 


4.3 


4.1 


(3,0) (3,6) (3,1) 


2,5 


(2.2) 


1.8 


1.8 


1.7 


3.0 


3.4 


3.7 


, 4.1 


4.1 


(4.1) (3.0) (3.4) 


2,9 


(2.6) 


2.0 


1.8 


1.5 


2.2 


2.6 


3,1 


3,5 


3.8 


(3.9) (4.0) (3.7) 


3.3 


(3.0) 


2.4 


2.0 


1,6 


1.0 


2.0 


2,4 


2,8 


3.2 


(3.5) (3.8) 3.8 


3.5 


(3.4) 


2.8 


2,4 


1.8 


1.4 


1.5 


1,7 


2.1 


2.5 


(3.0) (3.3) 3.5 


3.5 


(3,6) 


3.2 


2,9 


2.3 


1.4 


1.4 


1.4 


1.6 


1.9 


(2.5) (2.8) 3.1 


3.1 


(3,5) 


3.4 


3,3 


2.8 


1.8 


1.6 


1.4 


1.4 


1.6 


(2.1) (2.4) 2.7 


2.8 


(3.2) 


3.4 


3.5 


3.2 


2.3 


2.0 


1.6 


l.G 


1.6 


(1.8) (2.0) 2.2 


2.3 


2.7 


3.0 


3.4 


3.5 


2.8 


2.5 


2.0 


1.9 


1.7 


(1.8) (1.9) 1.9 


1.9 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 


3.3 


3.2 


3.0 


2.6 


2.4 


2.0 


(2.1) (1.9) 1.7 


1.6 


1.7 


2.0 


2.4 


2.8 


3.5 


3.4 


3.0 


2.9 


2.5 


(2.6) (2.2) 1.9 


1.6 


1.5 


1,6 


1,7 


2,1 


3.4 


3.6 


3.4 


3.3 


2.9 


(3.0) (2.6) 2.3 


1.7 


1.5 


1,4 


1,4 


1.6 


3.0 


3.3 


3.4 


3.6 


3.3 


(3.4) (3,1) 2,7 


2,2 


l.S 


1.4 


1,2 


1,2 


2.4 


2.8 


3.2 


3.5 


3.5 


(3,6) (3,5) 3.1 


2,7 


2 "^ 


1.7 


1,2 


1,11 



GO 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



JANUARY, 1904. 



Day of Month . 


. 1 


2 


3 


-t 


5 





7 


S 





10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Hi 


Hours 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 



1.0 

1 1.6 

2 2 3 

3 3.2 

4 3.9 

5 4.3 

6 4.4 

7 4.1 

8 3.5 

9 2.8 

10 2.0 

U 1.3 

Noon 1.4 

13 1.4 

14 1.0 

15 2.4 

16 3.1 

17 3.6 

18 3.8 

19 3.4 

20 2.9 

21 2.1 

22 1.5 

23 1.1 



0.9 


1.1 


1.5 


2.0 


2.9 


.3.5 


4.3 


4.3 


3.8 


3.1 


2.6 


2.0 


1.6 


1.1 


0.9 


1.1 


0.9 


1.1 


1.4 


2.0 


2.8 


3.9 


4.3 


4.1 


3.7 


3.3 


O T 


2.1 


1.5 


1.1 


1.7 


1.1 


0.9 


0.9 


1.5 


2.1 


3.3 


3.8 


4.1 


4.1 


3.0 


3.4 


2.9 


2.0 


1.6 


2.7 


1.9 


1.2 


0.9 


1.0 


1.5 


2.6 


3.2 


3.8 


4.1 


4.2 


4.0 


3.6 


2.7 


2.2 


3.6 


2.9 


2.1 


1.3 


1.0 


1.1 


1.9 


2.3 


3.1 


3.8 


4.2 


4.3 


4.1 


3.4 


3.0 


4.4 


3.9 


3.1 


2.1 


1.3 


1.2 


1.0 


1.9 


2.5 


3.2 


3.9 


4.3 


4.3 


4.0 


3.7 


4.8 


4.6 


4.1 


3.0 


2.3 


1.6 


1.0 


1.6 


1.9 


2.6 


3.3 


3.9 


4.2 


4.1 


4.2 


4.8 


5.0 


4.8 


3.9 


3.1 


2.2 


2.0 


1.7 


1.6 


2.0 


2.7 


3.3 


3.8 


4.0 


4.3 


4.4 


4.9 


5.1 


4.7 


3.9 


3.0 


2.5 


1.9 


1.6 


1.7 


2.1 


2.7 


3.2 


3.4 


4.1 


3.7 


4.4 


5.0 


5.0 


4.5 


3.8 


3.3 


2.5 


1.8 


1.6 


1.7 


2.1 


2.6 


2.8 


3.6 


2.8 


3.5 


4.8 


4.9 


4.8 


4.4 


3.9 


3.1 


o o 


1.8 


1.6 


1.7 


2.0 


2.1 


2.9 


2.0 


2.6 


.3.5 


4.2 


4.4 


4.6 


4.4 


3.7 


2.8 


o 2 


1.7 


1.5 


1.6 


1.5 


o «> 


1.5 


1.7 


2.3 


3.2 


3.7 


4.2 


4.5 


4.1 


3.3 


2.7 


2.1 


1.7 


1.5 


1.2 


1.6 


1.3 


1.4 


1.0 


2.2 


2.8 


3.5 


4.1 


4.1 


3.6 


3.2 


2.0 


2.1 


1.6 


1.2 


1.4 


1.5 


1.2 


1.3 


1.5 


2.0 


2.8 


3.4 


3.8 


3.7 


3.6 


3.1 


2.6 


2.0 


1.5 


1.5 


1.9 


1.3 


1.1 


1.0 


1.3 


2.0 


2.7 


3.2 


3.4 


3.7 


3.5 


3.1 


2.6 


2.0 


1.9 


2.7 


2.1 


1.3 


1.0 


1.0 


1.3 


2.0 


2.6 


3.0 


3.4 


3.6 


3.5 


3.0 


2.3 


2.4 


3.4 


2.9 


2.1 


1.4 


1.0 


1.2 


1.6 


2.0 


2.3 


3.0 


3.4 


3.6 


3.4 


3.0 


2.9 


3.8 


3.6 


2.8 


2.0 


1.5 


1.3 


1.4 


1.4 


1.6 


2.4 


2.9 


3.3 


3.3 


3.3 


3.3 


3.9 


4.1 


3.5 


2.7 


2.1 


1.7 


1.4 


1.3 


1.2 


1.8 


2.3 


2.8 


3.0 


3.2 


3.5 


3.0 


4.1 


3.9 


3.4" 


2.9 


2.4 


1.9 


1.4 


1.0 


1.4 


1.7 


o o 


2.5 


2.8 


3.3 


2.9 


3.7 


3.9 


3.9 


3.6 


3.2 


2.5 


1.0 


1.2 


1.2 


1.3 


1.7 


1.9 


2.3 


2.9 


2.1 


3.0 


3.5 


3.9 


4.0 


3.9 


3.3 


2.5 


1.7 


1.4 


1.2 


1.3 


1.4 


1.6 


2.3 


1.5 


2.1 


2.7 


3.5 


4.0 


4.3 


3.9 


3.2 


2.4 


1.9 


1.4 


1.3 


1.1 


1.2 


1.7 



JANUARY, 1904. — Continued. 



Day of Month 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 

Hours ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 

1.2 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.4 

1 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.9 

2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.7 2.4 

3 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.9 

4 2.5 2.3 1.9 1.3 1.5 1.8 

5 3.3 2.0 2.6 l.S 1.8 1.8 

6 3.9 3.7 3.3 2.4 2.3 2.2 

7 4.3 4.2 3.8 3.0 2.9 2,7 

8 4.3 4.4 4.2 3.5 3.5 3.3 

9 3.9 4.3 4.3 3.8 4.0 3.7 

10 3.2 3.7 4.0 3.8 4.2 4.0 

11 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.4 3.0 4.0- 

Noon 1.8 2.3 2.9 2.9 3.4 3.6 

13 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.2 2.7 2.9 

14 1.3 1.3 1.7 1.6 2.0 2.4 

15 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.7 1.9 

16 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.3 1.6 1.7 

17 2.0 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.7 l.G 

18 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.0 2.1 1.7 

19 3.5 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.5 2.3 

20 3.6 3.5 3.3 3.0 3.0 2.8 

21 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.3 

22 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.4 3.8 3.6 

23 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.7 3.7 



24 
ft. 



26 

ft. 



27 28 
ft. ft. 



ft. 



30 

ft. 



31 

ft. 



3.5 
3.1 



1.9 
1.8 
2.0 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 
3.7 
3.0 
3.7 
3.3 



1.8 
1.5 
1.6 
1.9 
2.4 
2.8 
3.3 
3.7 



3.7 
3.5 

3.0 
2.3 
2.0 
1.8 
1.7 
1.9 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.6 
3.6 
3.3 
2.S 
2.3 
l.S 
1.5 
1.4 
1.6 
1.9 
2.5 
3.0 
3.4 



3.7 
3.7 
3.4 
3.0 

2.5 
2.0 
1.9 
l.S 
2.0 
2.4 
2.S 
3.3 
3.5 
3.5 
3.2 
2.7 
2.3 
l.S 
1.5 
1.4 
1.5 
1.9 
2.5 
3.0 



3.5 
3.7 

3.7 
3.4 
3.0 
2.5 
2.1 
l.S 
1.7 
1.9 
2.3 
2.7 
3.1 
3.4 
3.3 
3.0 
2.6 
2.1 
1.8 
1.5 
1.4 
1.6 
2.1 



3.3 

3.8 
4.0 
3.9 
3.3 
3.1 
2.0 

1.9 
1.9 
2.1 
2.5 
2.9 
3.2 
3.4 
3.4 
3.1 






1.7 
1.4 
1.4 
1.7 



2.1 
2.9 
3.6 
4.1 
4.4 
4.3 
3.9 
3.2 
2.6 
2.1 
1.7 
1.6 
1.9 
2.3 
2.8 
3.3 
3.6 
3.6 
3.3 
2.7 
2.0 
1.4 
1.5 
1.1 



1.5 

2.1 

2.9 

3.7 

4.3 

4.6 

4.5" 

4.0 

3,3 

l.S 
1.4 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
2.9 
3.5 
3.8 
3.7 
3.3 
2.6 
1.8 
1.2 
0.8 



O.S 
1.3 
2.0 
2.9 
3.9 
4,6 
5.0 
4.7 
4.1 
3.3 
2.4 
1.7 
1.4 
1.4 
1.7 
2.4 
3.1 
3.8 
4.2 
4.1 
3.6 
2.9 
2.0 
1.4 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 61 



FEBRUARY. 1004. 



Day of Month 


. 1 


2 


3 


4 


i5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 16 


Hours 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. ft. 


;. 


0.9 


0.9 


(1.7) 


2.7 


3.3 


3.S 


4.0 


3.8 


3.4 


2.8 


(2.3) 


1.8 


1.5 


1.2 


(1.3) (1.61 


1 


1.0 


0.6 


(1.0) 


l.S 


2.6 


3.3 


3.9 


4.0 


3.8 


3.4 


(3.1) 


2.4 


2.0 


1.4 


(1.2) (1.3) 


'^ 


1..J 


0.6 


(0.6) 


1.1 


1.8 


2.5 


3.3 


3.7 


4.0 


3.9 


(3.7) 


3.0 


2.6 


1.9 


(1.4) (1.4) 


3 


o o 


1.1 


(0.8) 


0.7 


1.1 


1.8 


2.7 


3.3 


3.8 


4.0 


(4.0) 


3.7 


3.2 


2.5 


(2.0) (1.71 


4 


3.2 


2.0 


(1.3) 


0.8 


0.8 


1.3 


2.0 


2.7 


3.4 


3.9 


(4.2) 


4.1 


3.8 


3.2 


(2.8) (2.5) 


."5 


4.2 


3.0 


(2.2) 


1.4 


0.9 


1.0 


1.5 


2.1 


2.8 


3.5 


(4.0) 


4.2 


4.2 


3.7 


(3.6) (3.2) 





4.9 


4.0 


(3.2) 


2 2 


1.4 


1.1 


l.:i 


1.6 


2 '^ 


2.9 


(3.5) 


4.1 


4.3 


4.1 


(4.0) (3.8) 


7 


.■5.2 


4.7 


4.0 


3.1 


2.1 


1.1 


1.4 


1.4 


l.S 


2.4 


3.0 


3.6 


4.0 


4.1 


(4.2)(4.21 


S 


4.9 


4.9 


4.0 


4.0 


3.0 


2 2 


1.8 


1.5 


1.6 


1.0 


2.4 


3.1 


3.5 


3.6 


(4.0) (4.3) 


9 


4.1 


4. .5 


4.8 


i.r, 


3.7 


2.9 


2.3 


1.8 


l.() 


1.6 


1.9 


■2.5 


2.8 


3.0 


(3.5) (3.9) 


10 


3.1 


3.8 


4..-> 


4..-> 


4.1 


3..-I 


2.9 


2.3 


1.8 


1.6 


1.7 


2.0 


2.3 


2.4 


(3.0) (3.3) 


U 


2.1 


2.8 


3.7 


4.0 


4.1 


3.8 


3.4 


2.8 


2.3 


1.9 


1.7 


1.8 


1.8 


1.7 


(2.3) (2.7) 


Xoon 


1.3 


1.8 


2.7 


3.2 


3.6 


3.0 


3.7 


3.3 


2.7 


2.3 


1.9 


1.8 


1.6 


1.4 


l.S (2.1) 


13 


0.9 


1.0 


1.8 


2.3 


2.8 


.3.2 


3.5 


3.4 


3.1 


2.8 


2.3 


2.1 


1.7 


1.4 


1.6 (1.(11 


14 


1.0 


0.7 


1.0 


1.4 


2.0 


2..-> 


3.1 


3.3 


3.3 


3.2 


2.7 


2.6 


2.0 


(1.0) 


1.7 (1.5) 


l."i 


1.4 


(0.9) 


0.8 


0.8 


1.2 


1.8 


2.6 


3.0 


3.2 


3.4 


3.1 


3.1 


2.5 


(2.1) 


1.9 (1.6) 


10 


2.1 


(1.4) 


1.0 


0.6 


0.7 


1.2 


1.9 


2.5 


2.9 


3.4 


3.4 


8.5 


3.0 


(2.7) (2.6) (2.0) 


17 


2.9 


(2.3) 


1..T 


0.9 


0.7 


0.8 


1.4 


1.9 


2.5 


3.1 


3.3 


3.6 


3.4 


(.3.2) (3.1) 2.6 


1.S 


3.6 


(3.2) 


2.4 


1..-I 


1.0 


0.8 


1.1 


1.5 


2.0 


2.7 


3.0 


3.5 


3.5 


(3.6) (3.6) 3.3 


m 


4.1 


(3.9) 


3.3 


2 2 


1.0 


1.1 


1.1 


1.2 


1.6 


2 2 


2.6 


3.2 


3.3 


(3.6) (3.0) 3.8 


20 


4.0 


(4.3) 


4.0 


3.1 


2.4 


1.7 


1.4 


1.2 


1.3 


(1.7) 


2.1 


2 7 


2.9 


(3.3) (3.8) 4.0 


21 


3.4 


(4.1) 


4.3 


3.7 


3.2 


2.0 


1.9 


1.6 


1.3 


(1.4) 


1.7 


2 2 


2.3 


(2.9) (3.4) 3.7 


22 


2.6 


(3.6) 


4.2 


4.0 


.3.8 


.3.2 


2.6 


2.1 


1.6 


(1.5) 


1.5 


1.7 


1.8 


(2.3) (2.8) 3.2 


23 


1.7 


(2.7) 


3.7, 


.3.9 


4.0 


3.8 


3.3 


2.7 


2.2 


(1.8) 


1.5 


1.5 


1.4 


(1.8) (2.2) 2.6 



FEBRUAEY. 1904. — Continued. 



Day of Month 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 

Hours ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 

2.0 2.2 2.5 

1 1.6 1.7 1.9 

2 1.4 1.3 1.5 

3 1.6 1.3 1.3 

4 2.0 1.7 1.4 

5 2.7 2.2 1.9 

6 3.4 2.0 2.5 

7 4.0 3.5 3.1 

8 4.3 3.9 3.6 

4.2 4.0 3.9 

10 3.7 3.7 3.8 

11 3.0 3.1 3.4 

Noon 2.4 2.5 2.8 

13 1.7 1.8 2.2 

14 1.4 1.4 1.7 

15 1.4 1.2 1.4 

10 1.7 1.4 1.4 

17 2.3 1.0 1.7 

IS 2.9 2.4 2.2 

19 3.4 3.0 2.9 

20 3.8 3.5 3.4 

21 3.8 3.7 3.8 

22 . 3.4 3.5 3.8 

23 2.9 3.1 3.6 



3.1 


3.5 


3.8 


3.9 


3.8 


3.6 


3.0 


2.5 


1.7 (1.1) 


2.5 


3.0 


3.5 


3.6 


3.8 


3.9 


3.6 


3.2 


2.4 (1.7) 


2.0 


2.4 


3.0 


3.2 


3.6 


4.0 


4.1 


3.9 


3.2 (2.51 


1.6 


2.0 


2.5 


2.6 


3.2 


3.7 


4.2 


4.3 


3.0 CI. 31 


1.6 


1.7 


2.0 


2.1 


2.7 


3.3 


3.9 


4.4 


4.4 (4.2l 


1.9 


l.S 


l.S 


1.7 


2.2 


2.7 


3.4 


(4.21 


4.5 (4.(!l 


2.4 


2.1 


l.S 


1.6 


1.9 


2.2 


2.S 


(3.6) 


4.2 (4.71 


3.0 


2.5 


2.1 


1.7 


1.8 


1.9 


2.2 


2.9 


(3.5) (4.2) 


3.5 


3.0 


2,5 


2.0 


1.9 


l.S 


1.8 


2.3 


(2.8) (3.5 1 


3.9 


3.5 


3.0 


2.5 


2.2 


(1.9) 


1.6 


1.8 


(2.1) (2.6) 


4.0 


3.8 


3.5 


2.9 


2.6 


(2.2) 


1.7 


1.6 


(1.5) (1.8) 


3.8 


3.7 


.3.6 


3.3 


3.1 


(2.6) 


2.1 


1.6 


(1.3) (1.21 


3.3 


3.3 


3.5 


3.4 


3.4 


(2.9) 


2.5 


2.0 


(1.51(1.0) 


2.7 


2.8 


3.2 


3.2 


3.5 


(3.2) 


3.0 


2.5 


(2.01(1.31 


2.0 


2.3 


2.7 


2.8 


3.3 


(3.3) 


3.3 


3.0 


(2.61 1.0 


1.6 


l.S 


2.2 


2.3 


2.9 


(3.1) 


3.5 


3.4 


(3.21 2.0 


1.5 


1.5 


1.7 


1.8 


2.4 


(2.8) 


3.4 


3.6 


(3.8) 3.4 


1.7 


1.5 


1.4 


1.4 


1.9 


(2.4) 


3.0 


3.5 


(4.1) 4.1 


2.1 


1.7 


1.4 


1.3 


1.6 


(1.9) 


2.5 


3.1 


(3.0) 4.4 


2.7 


2.2 


1.8 


1.4 


1.5 


(1.6) 


1.9 


2.5 


(3.4) 4.1 


3.3 


2.9 


2.3 


1.8 


1.7 


(1.3) 


1.6 


1.0 


(2.6) 3.5 


3.8 


3.4 


2.9 


2.3 


2.0 


(1.4) 


1.4 


1.4 


(1.9) 2.7 


4.0 


3.9 


3.4 


2.9 


2.5 


(1.8) 


1.5 


1.1 


(1.31 l.S 


3.9 


4.0 


3.8 


3.4 


3.1 


(2.3) 


1.9 


1.2 


(1.01 1.6 



62 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



MARCH, 1904. 



Day of Month . 


. 1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


S 





10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


Hours 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 



0.9 1.1 

1 1.2 0.8 

2 1.7 0.9 

3 2.6 1.4 

4 3.5 2.2 

5 4.4 3.3 

6 4.8 4.2 

7 4.8 4.8 

8 4.3 4.7 

9 3.4 4.2 

10 2.5 3.4 

11 1.6 2.4 

Noon 1.0 1.5 

13 0.8 0.9 

14 1.1 0.9 

15 1.6 1.2 

16 2.4 1.9 

17 3.4 2.S 

IS 4.1 3.7 

19 4.5 4.4 

20 4.3 4.7 

21 3.6 4.3 

22 2.7 3.5 

23 1.9 2.6 



1.7 


3.0 


3.6 


4.2 


(4.5) 


4.5 


4.1 


3.3 


2.7 


2.3 


2.1 


1.8 


1.6 


1.6 


1.0 


2.0 


2.8 


3.6 


(4.0) 


4.5 


4.4 


3.8 


3.2 


2.9 


2.5 


2.1 


1.7 


1.4 


0.8 


1.3 


1.9 


(2.9) (3.5) 


4.1 


4.4 


4.1 


3.7 


3.5 


3.0 


2.6 


2.0 


1.5 


1.1 


1.1 


1.3 


(2.2) (2.S) 


3.5 


4.1 


4.0 


4.0 


3.9 


3.5 


3.1 


2.6 


1.9 


1.8 


1.3 


1.1 


(1.7) (2.2) 


2.9 


3.5 


3.7 


4.0 


4.2 


4.0 


3.7 


3.3 


2.5 


2.7 


1.0 


1.4 


(1.4) (1.8) (2.3) 


2.9 


3.3 


3.7 


4.2 


4.3 


4.2 


3.7 


3.1 


3.7 


2.7 


1.9 


(1.6) (1.6) (1.9) 


2.4 


2.8 


3.3 


3.8 


4.2 


4.3 


4.1 


3.7 


4.3 


3.6 


2.7 


(2.2) 


1.9 


1.9 


2.1 


•"> o 


2.7 


3.3 


3.8 


4.1 


4.1 


4.1 


4.8 


4,3 


3.5 


2.9 


2.4 


2.0 


2.0 


1.9 


2.3 


2.8 


3.2 


3.6 


3.7 


4.1 


4.7 


4.7 


4.1 


3.5 


2.9 


2.5 


o 2 


1.9 


1.9 


2.3 


2.6 


3.0 


3.2 


3.7 


4.1 


4.5 


4.3 


4.0 


3.5 


3.0 


2.5 


2.0 


1.8 


2.0 


2.1 


2.4 


2.5 


3.1 


3.3 


3.9 


4.0 


4.1 


3.9 


3.5 


(2.8) 


2.3 


2.0 


2.0 


1.9 


2.0 


1.9 


2.5 


2.4 


3.1 


3.4 


3.9 


4.0 


3.8 


(3.2) 


2.7 


2,3 


2.2 


1.9 


1.8 


1.5 


1.9 


1.5 


2.1 


2.0 


3.3 


3.6 


3.8 


3.5 


3.1 


2.7 


2.5 


2.1 


1.9 


1.3 


1.6 


1.0 


1.4 


1.9 


2.7 


3.0 


3.6 


3.8 


3.4 


3,1 


2.9 


2.5 


2 2 


1.7 


1.6 


0.9 


1.0 


1.3 


2.0 


2.5 


3.2 


3.7 


3.4 


3.4 


3.4 


3.0 


2.7 


2.2 


1.9 


1.3 


1.0 


1.1 


1.5 


2.0 


2 7 


3.2 


3.2 


3.6 


3.7 


3.5 


3.3 


2.8 


2.5 


2.0 


1.5 


1.2 


1.3 


1.6 


2.2 


2 7 


2.8 


3.4 


3.8 


3.8 


3.7 


3.3 


3.1 


3.0 


2.2 


1.8 


1.4 


1.5 


1.9 


-^ o 


2.4 


3.0 


3.5 


3.8 


4.0 


3.8 


3.7 


4.0 


3.1 


2.6 


1.9 


1.7 


1.8 


1.8 


2.0 


2.5 


3.2 


3.5 


3.8 


3.9 


4.1 


4.7 


4.0 


3.5 


2.6 


2 "^ 


1.9 


1.7 


1.7 


2.1 


2.6 


3.0 


3.4 


3.8 


4.1 


4.9 


4.5 


4.2 


3.4 


2.0 


2.4 


1.9 


1.6 


1.8 


2.1 


2.5 


2,9 


3.3 


3.7 


4.5 


4.7 


4.7 


4.1 


3.5 


2.9 


2.3 


1.8 


1.8 


1.9 


2.0 


2,3 


2.7 


3.1 


3.8 


4.3 


4.7 


4.5 


4.2 


3.6 


2.S 


2.2 


2.0 


1.8 


1.8 


1,8 


2.1 


2.3 



MARCH, 1904. — Continued. 



Da.yof Month 17 

Hours ft. 

1.8 

1 1.4 

2 1.4 

3 1.7 

4 2.2 

5 2.9 

6 3.5 

7 3.9 

8 4.0 

9 3.7 

10 3.1 

11 2.4 

Noon 1,8 

13 1.4 

14 1.3 

15 1.(5 

16 2.1 

17 2.7 

18 3.4 

19 3.9 

20 4.0 

21 (3.8) 

22 (3.4) 

23 (2.9) 



18 10 20 
ft. ft. ft. 



21 

ft. 



23 
ft. 



24 
ft. 



20 
ft. 



28 
ft. 



30 

ft. 



31 

tt. 



(2.3) 


2.8 


3.2 


3.6 


3.8 


4.2 


4.3 


4.2 


3.6 


2.9 


2.4 


1.7 


1.3 


1.2 


(1.7) 


2.2 


2.5 


2.9 


3.2 


3.8 


4.2 


4.4 


4.1 


3.6 


3.1 


2.2 


1.6 


1.0 


(1,4) 


1.8 


2.0 


2.3 


2.7 


3.3 


3.8 


4.2 


4.3 


4.1 


3.8 


2.9 


2.1 


1.3 


(1.5) 


1.6 


1.7 


1.9 


2.1 


2.7 


3.3 


3.8 


4.3 


4.5 


4.4 


3.8 


2.8 


2.0 


(1.8) 


1.7 


1.7 


1.7 


1.7 


2 2 


2.7 


3.3 


3.9 


4.4 


4.8 


4.4 


3.7 


2.7 


(2.5) 


2.1 


2.0 


(1.9) 


1.6 


1.8 


2.1 


2.7 


3.3 


4.0 


4.8 


4.8 


4.5 


3.7 


(3.2) 


2.7 


2.6 


(2.2) 


1.8 


1.7 


1.8 


2.2 


2.7 


3.5 


4.4 


4.8 


4.9 


4.3 


3.8 


3.3 


3.2 


2.7 


2.2 


1.9 


1,8 


1.8 


2.2 


2.9 


3.7 


4.3 


4.7 


4.7 


4.0 


3.9 


3.7 


3.3 


2.7 


2.4 


2.0 


1.8 


1.9 


2.3 


2.9 


3.5 


4.1 


4.5 


3.9 


4.2 


4.0 


3.8 


3.3 


2.9 


2.4 


2.0 


1.8 


1.8 


2.2 


2.6 


3.2 


3.7 


3.4 


4.0 


3.9 


4.0 


3.6 


3.3 


2.9 


2.4 


1.9 


1.7 


1.8 


1.9 


2.3 


2.8 


2.8 


3.5 


3.5 


.3.8 


3.7 


3.6 


3.3 


2.8 


2.4 


2.0 


1.7 


1.4 


1.6 


1.9 


2.2 


2.9 


2.9 


3.2 


3.4 


3.6 


3.5 


3.2 


2.9 


2.4 


2.0 


1.4 


1.1 


1.1 


1.7 


2 2 


2.3 


2.6 


2.9 


3.3 


3.4 


3.5 


3.4 


2.9 


2.5 


1.8 


1.1 


0.8 


1.4 


1.7 


1.7 


2.0 


2.3 


2.8 


3.1 


3.5 


3.7 


3.5 


3.2 


2.6 


1.6 


0.9 


1.5 


1.5 


1.4 


1.6 


1.7 


2.3 


2.7 


3.3 


3.8 


4.0 


3.9 


3.3 


2.3 


1.4 


1.9 


1.6 


1.5 


1.4 


1.4 


1.8 


2.2 


2.8 


3.5 


4.1 


4.4 


4.1 


3.2 


2.2 


2.5 


2.1 


1.8 


1.6 


1.4 


1.5 


1.8 


2.4 


3.1 


3.9 


4.5 


4,8 


4.1 


3.2 


3.2 


2.8 


2.4 


2.0 


1.6 


1.5 


1.5 


1.9 


2.5 


3.4 


4.2 


5.0 


4.7 


4.1 


3.9 


3.5 


3.1 


2.6 


2.1 


1.7 


1.5 


1.6 


2.0 


2.8 


3.6 


4.6 


4.9 


4.7 


4.3 


4.1 


3.8 


3.3 


2.8 


2.3 


1.9 


1.6 


1.6 


2.1 


2.8 


3.8 


4.4 


4.8 


4.4 


4.4 


4.2 


3.9 


3.4 


2.9 


2.4 


1.9 


1.6 


1.7 


2.1 


3.0 


3.7 


4.3 


4.1 


4.3 


4.3 


4.2 


4.0 


3.6 


3.0 


2.4 


1.8 


1.6 


1.6 


2.2 


2.8 


3.5 


3.5 


3.8 


4.1 


4.2 


4.3 


4.0 


3.7 


3.0 


2.3 


1.9 


1.5 • 


1.6 


1.9 


2.5 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



(J3 



APRIL, 1904. 



Day of Month . 
Hours 


. 1 

ft. 


2 
ft. 


3 
ft. 


4 
ft. 


5 

ft. 


6 

ft. 


7 
ft. 


8 
ft. 


9 
ft. 


10 

ft. 


11 
ft. 


12 
ft. 


13 

ft. 


14 
ft. 


15 
ft. 


16 

ft. 





1.6 

1.1 

0.9 

1.2 

1.8 

2.7 

3.6 

4.3 

4.5 

4.2 

3.4 

2.5 

1.6 

1.0 

, 0.8 

, 1.0 

. 1.6 

, 2.5 

. 3.5 

. 4.4 

, 4.9 

. 4.8 

. 4.3 

. 3.4 


2.5 
1.7 
1.2 
1.1 
1.4 
2.0 
2.8 
3.5 
4.1 
4.2 
3.8 
3.0 
2.2 
1.4 
1.0 
0.8 
1.1 
1.8 
2.7 
3.7 
4.4 
4.8 
4.6 
4.1 


3.2 
2.3 
1.6 
1.2 
1.1 
1.4 
2.0 
2.8 
3.5 
4.0 
4.0 
3.5 
2.9 
2.1 
1.5 
1.1 
1.0 
1.4 
2.0 
2.9 
3.7 
4.4 
4.7 
4.4 


3.8 
3.0 
2.3 
1.6 
1.3 
1.3 
1.7 
2.3 
3.0 
3.6 
3.8 
3.8 
3.3 
2.7 
2.0 
1.5 
1.3 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.0 
3.7 
4.2 
4.4 


4.2 
3.7 
3.0 
2.4 
1.8 
1.6 
1.6 
1.9 
2.4 
2.9 
3.4 
3.7 
3.6 
3.1 
2.6 
2.0 
1.0 
1.4 
1.4 
1.8 
2.4 
3.1 
3.7 
4.1 


4.2 
3.9 
3.4 
2.9 
2.3 
1.9 
l.G 
1.7 
2.0 
2.5 
2.9 
3.3 
3.5 
3.4 
3.1 
2.6 
2.1 
1.8 
1.6 
1.7 
2.1 
2.7 
3.3 
2.8 


4.1 
4.2 
3.9 
3.4 

2.9 
2.4 
2.0 
1.9 
2.0 
2.3 
2.7 
3.1 
3.5 
3.6 
3.5 
3.2 
2.8 
2.4 
2.1 
1.9 
2.0 
2.4 
2.8 
3.4 


3.8 
4.1 
4.1 
3.8 
3.5 
2.9 
2.5 
2.1 
1.9 
2.0 
2.3 
2.7 
3.1 
3.4 
3.6 
3.5 
3.2 
2.8 
2.4 
2.1 
1.0 
2.0 
2.3 
2.8 


3.3 
3.7 
4.0 
4.0 
3.8 
3.4 
2.8 
2.4 
2.0 
2.0 
2.1 
2.4 
2.7 
3.1 
3.5 
3.6 
3.5 
3.3 
2.9 
2.4 
2.1 
2.0 
2.1 
2.4 


2.9 
3.3 
3.8 
4.0 
4.0 
3.8 
3.4 
2.8 
2.4 
2.0 
1.9 
2.0 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.5 
3.6 
3.5 
3.2 
2.8 
2.3 
2.0 
1.8 
2.0 


2.3 
2.8 
3.3 
3.7 
3.9 
3.8 
3.4 
2.9 
2.4 
2.0 
1.7 
1.7 
1.9 
2.3 
2.8 
3.3 
3.6 
3.8 
3.6 
3.2 
2.7 
2.1 
1.8 
1.7 


1.9 
2.3 
2.8 
3.3 
3.8 
4.0 
3.8 
3.5 
2.9 
2.4 
1.9 
1.7 
1.7 
2.1 
2.5 
3.1 
3.6 
3.9 
4.0 
3.7 
3.3 
2.7 
2.2 
1.9 


1.8 
2.0 
2.4 
3.0 
3.6 
4.0 
4.1 
3.9 
3.4 
2.9 
2.3 
1.9 
1.8 
2.0 
2.3 
2.9 
3.5 
4.1 
4.4 
4.3 
3.9 
3.3 
2.7 
2.2 


1.9 
2.0 
2.3 
2.8 
3.3 
3.8 
4.2 
4.1 
3.8 
3.2 
2.6 
2.1 
1.8 
1.8 
2.1 
2.7 
3.3 
3.9 
4.4 
4.5 
4.2 
3.7 
3.0 
2.3 


1.9 
1.7 
1.9 
2.3 
2.9 
3.5 
4.0 
4.1 
3.9 
3.4 
2.8 
2.2 
1.7 
1.4 
1.6 
2.0 
2.7 
3.3 
4.1 
4.4 
4.4 
4.0 
3.3 
2.6 


20 


1 


1 fi 


2 


1 6 


3 

4 

5 


1.9 
2.3 

?9 


6 


3 6 


7 


4 


8 


4 


9 


3 7 


10 


31 


11 


24 


Noon 

13 


1.9 

1 5 


14 

15 


1.5 
1 8 


16 


?4 


17 


3 1 


18 

19 


3.9 
4 4 


20 


4 7 


21 


46 


22 


4 


23 


33 







APRIL, 1904. — Continued. 



Day of Month 17 

Houi'3 ft. 

2.6 

1 2.0 

2 1.7 

3 1.7 

4 2.1 

5 2.6 

6 3.3 

7 3.8 

8 4.1 

9 4.0 

10 3.7 

11 3.0 

Noon 2.4 

13 1.8 

14 1.5 

15 1.5 

16 1.9 

17 2.6 

18 3.4 

19 4.1 

20 4.6 

21 4.7 

22 4.4 

23 3.9 



18 
ft. 



19 

ft. 



20 21 

ft. ft. 



22 
ft. 



23 
ft. 



24 
ft. 



ft. 



26 
ft. 



27 
ft. 



ft. 



29 
ft. 



30 
ft. 



3.1 


3.8 


4.1 


4.4 


4.7 


4.4 


3.7 


(3.1) ( 


:2.5) 1.7 


1.4 


1.5 


1.8 


2.4 


3.1 


3.4 


3.9 


4.5 


4.6 


4.2 


(3.7) (3.1) 2.3 


1.7 


1.4 


1.4 


1.9 


2.4 


2.8 


3.2 


4.0 


4.4 


4.4 


(4.2) (3.6) 3.1 . 


2.2 


1.7 


1.4 


1.7 


2.0 


2.2 


2.6 


3.4 


3.9 


4.2 


(4.3) (4.1) (3.6) 


3.0 


2.3 


1.8 


1.9 


1.8 


1.8 


2.0 


2.7 


3.3 


3.7 


(4.1) (4.3) (4.1) 


3.8 


3.1 


2.4 


2.3 


2.1 


1.8 


1.7 


2.4 


2.6 


3.1 


(3.6) (4.1) (4.4) 


4.3 


3.8 


3.2 


2.9 


2.5 


2.1 


1.7 


1.9 


2.0 


2.4 


(3.0) (3.6) (4.1) 


4.5 


4.4 


3.8 


3.6 


3.0 


2.6 


2.1 


1.9 


1.8 


1.9 


(2.4)1 


(2.8) 3.7 


4.3 


4.5 


4.3 


4.1 


3.6 


3.1 


2.6 


2.1 


1.7 


1.5 


(1.8)1 


;2.1) 3.0 


3.6 


4.2 


4.3 


4.3 


4.0 


3.6 


3.1 


2.6 


2.0 


1.5 


(1.4) (1.5)- 2.1 


2.8 


3.5 


3.9 


4.0 


4.0 


3.8 


3.6 


3.1 


2.5 


1.9 


(1.5) (1.3) 1.5 


2.0 


2.6 


3.2 


3.5 


3.7 


3.8 


3.9 


3.5 


3.0 


2.4 


(2.0) (1.4) 1.2 


1.3 


1.9 


2.3 


2.9 


3.2 


3.5 


3.9 


3.8 


3.5 


2.9 


(2.6) 


1.8 (1.8) 


1.1 


1.3 


1.6 


2.3 


2.6 


2.9 


3.5 


3.8 


3.8 


3.4 


(3.2) 


2.5 (2.4) 


1.3 


1.1 


1.2 


1.8 


2.0 


2.3 


3.0 


3.4 


3.8 


(3.9) (3.8) 


3.3 (3.0) 


1.9 


1.5 


1.2 


1.6 


1.6 


1.7 


2.5 


2.9 


3.5 


(4.0) (4.3) 


4.1 (3.6) 


2.7 


2.1 


1.6 


1.8 


1.6 


1.5 


2.0 


2.4 


3.0 


(3.5: 


1(4.3) 


4.5 (4.2) 


3.6 


3.0 


2.2 


2.3 


1.9 


1.5 


1.7 


2.0 


2.4 


(2.9) (4.1) 


4.5 (4.8) 


4.5 


4.0 


3.2 


3.1 


2.4 


1.9 


1.8 


1.7 


2.0 


(2.3) (3.5) 


4.2 (4.8) 


5.0 


4.8 


4.2 


3.8 


3.2 


2.4 


2.1 


1.8 


1.6 


(1.8) (2.8) 


3.5 4.5 


5.0 


5.2 


4.9 


4.5 


4.0 


3.2 


2.7 


2.0 


1.6 


(1.5; 


)(2.2) 


2.7 3.8 


4.6 


5.1 


5.2 


4.8 


4.5 


3.8 


3.4 


2.6 


1.9 


(1.6) (1.6) 


2.0 2.9 


3.7 


4.5 


5.0 


4.8 


4.8 


4.4 


4.0 


3.3 


2.4 


(2.0) (1.6) 


1.5 2.1 


2.9 


3.6 


4.3 


4.4 


4.6 


4.6 


4.5 


3.9 


3.0 


(2.5) (2.0) 


1.4 1.6 


2.0 


2.6 


3.5 



64 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKiS 



MAT, 1904. 



Day of Month . 


. 1 


o 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


Hours 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 



2.5 3.4 

1 1.8 2.6 

2 1.4 1.8 

3 1.4 1.5 

4 1.8 1.6 

5 2.4 2.0 

6 3.2 2.6 

7 3.9 3.3 

8 4.2 4.0 

9 4.1 4.2 

10 3.7 (3.8) 

11 2.9 (3.2) 

Noon 2.3 (2.5) 

13 1.6 (2.1) 

14 1.3 (1.7) 

15 1.3 (1.4) 

16 1.8 (2.2) 

17 2.6 (3.0) 

18 3.5 3.7 

19 4.4 (4.1) 

20 5.0 (4.5) 

21 ....5.2 (4.8) 

22 4.9 (4.8) 

23 4.2 (4.3) 



(3.6) 


4.3 


(4.4) 


4.3 


4.2 


3.8 


3.3 


2.9 


2.4 


2.0 


1.9 


1.7 


2.0 


2.3 


(3.0) 


3.7 


(3.9) 


4.2' 


4.3 


4.1 


3.7 


3.3 


2.9 


2.3 


2.0 


1.7 


1.7 


1.9 


(2.5) 


3.0 


(3.3) 


3.7 


4.1 


4.1 


4.0 


3.8 


3.3 


2.8 


2.5 


2.0 


1.8 


1.8 


(2.0) 


2.3 


(2.8) 


3.2 


3.7 


3.9 


4.0 


4.0 


3.7 


3.3 


3.0 


2.5 


2.1 


1.9 


(1.6) 


1.9 


(2.4) 


2.6 


3.2 


3.5 


3.8 


4.0 


4.0 


3.7 


3.5 


3.1 


2.7 


2.4 


(2.0) 


1.7 


(2.0) 


2.2 


2.7 


3.0 


3.4 


3.8 


3.9 


3.9 


3.9 


3.6 


3.3 


2.9 


(2.4) 


1.9 


(1.8) 


1.9 


2.3 


2.6 


3.0 


3.3 


3.6 


3.7 


4.0 


3.9 


3.8 


3.5 


2.9 


2.2 


1.9 


1.9 


2.0 


2.2 


2.5 


2.8 


3.1 


3.4 


3.7 


3.8 


4.0 


4.0 


3.5 


2.8 


2.3 


2.1 


2.0 


2.0 


2.1 


2.3 


2.6 


2.8 


3.2 


3.5 


3.9 


4.1 


4.0 


3.3 


2.8 


2.5 


2.3 


2.0 


2.0 


1.9 


2.1 


2.9 


2.6 


2.9 


3.5 


3.9 


4.1 


3.7 


3.3 


2.9 


2.6 


2.3 


2.1 


1.9 


l.S 


1.8 


2.0 


2.3 


2.8 


3.3 


3.9 


3.7 


3.6 


3.3 


3.1 


2.7 


2.4 


2.1 


1.8 


1.6 


1.6 


1.7 


2.1 


2.6 


3.4 


3.5 


3.6 


3.6 


3.5 


3.2 


2.8 


2.5 


2.1 


1.8 


1.5 


1.4 


1.6 


1.9 


2.8 


3.1 


3.3 


3.6 


3.8 


3.6 


3.3 


3.0 


2.5 


2 2 


1.8 


1.5 


1.5 


1.5 


2.2 


2.6 


3.0 


3.4 


3.8 


3.8 


3.7 


3.5 


3.1 


2.7 


2.3 


1.9 


1.7 


1.5 


1.8 


2.1 


2.6 


3.1 


3.6 


3.8 


4.0 


3.9 


3.6 


3.4 


2.9 


2.6 


2 2 


1.8 


1.6 


1.8 


2.2 


2.7 


3.3 


3.5 


4.0 


4.1 


4.0 


4.0 


3.6 


3.3 


2.9 


2.4 


1.9 


1.7 


2.0 


2.3 


2.9 


3.2 


3.7 


4.0 


4.1 


4.3 


4.2 


4.0 


3.8 


3.1 


2.3 


1.9 


1.9 


2.1 


2.5 


2.8 


3.3 


3.7 


4.0 


4.0 


4.5 


4.6 


4.4 


3.9 


3.0 


2.3 


2.1 


2.1 


2.2 


2.4 


2.8 


3.3 


3.5 


4.1 


4.5 


4.8 


4.9 


4.6 


3.8 


3.0 


2.6 


2.3 


2.2 


2.2 


2.4 


2.8 


3.0 


3.6 


4.0 


4.5 


4.9 


4.9 


4.5 


3.6 


3.2 


2.8 


2.5 


2.1 


2.2 


2.3 


2.4 


2.9 


3.4 


4.0 


4.5 


4.9 


4.8 


(4.1) 


3.7 


3.3 


2.9 


2.4 


o 2 


2.1 


2.0 


2.3 


2.0 


3.2 


3.9 


4.3 


4.7 


(4.6) 


4.2 


3.8 


3.3 


2.8 


2.4 


2.2 


1.9 


2.0 


2.0 


2.6 


3.1 


3.5 



MAY, 1904. — Continued. 



Day of Month 17 18 

Hours ft. ft. 

2.7 3.4 

1 2.0 2.6 

2 , 1.7 2.0 

3 ' 1.6 1.7 

4 1.9 1.7 

5 2.3 2.0 

6 3.0 2.5 

7 3.5 3.1 

8 4.0 3.7 

9 4.0 4.0 

10 3.6 4.0 

11 3.0 3.5 

Noon ......' 2.3 2.9 

13 1.7 2.2 

14 1.4 1.7 

15 1.5 1.4 

16 1.9 1.6 

17 2.6 2.0 

18 3.4 2.7 

19 4.1 3.5 

20 4.8 4.3 

21 5.1 4.0 

22 4.8 5.0 

23 4.1 4.7 



19 
ft. 



20 21 
ft. ft. 



22 23 

ft. ft. 



24 
ft. 



26 

ft. 



ft. ft. 



29 

ft. 



30 

ft. 



31 

ft. 



4.1 


4.6 


4.8 


4.7 


4.0 


3.2 


2.5 


1.9 


1.7 


1.6 


2.0 


2.6 


3.2 


3.3 


4.0 


4.4 


4.7 


4.5 


3.9 


3.1 


2.3 


1.9 


1.6 


1.6 


1.9 


2.4 


2.5 


3.2 


3.8 


4.4 


4.0 


4.3 


3.7 


2.9 


2.4 


1.9 


1.6 


1.7 


1.9 


1.9 


2.5 


3.1 


3.9 


4.3 


4.4 


4.2 


3.5 


3.1 


2.5 


2.0 


1.8 


1.7 


1.6 


1.9 


2.4 


3.2 


3.8 


4.1 


4.3 


4.0 


3.7 


3.1 


2.5 


2.1 


1.9 


1.7 


1.6 


1.8 


2..1 


3.0 


3.5 


4.0 


4.2 


4.2 


3.8 


3.2 


2.7 


9 O 


2.0 


1.7 


1.0 


2.0 


2.3 


2.9 


3.5 


3.9 


4.2 


4.2 


3.8 


3.3 


2.8 


2.6 


2.1 


1.8 


1.8 


1.7 


2 2 


2.8 


3.4 


3.9 


4.2 


4.1 


3.9 


3.4 


3.2 


2.6 


2 2 


1.9 


1.5 


1.6 


2,0 


2.7 


3.3 


3.8 


4.0 


4.1 


3.9 


3.8 


3.3 


2.8 


2 2 


1.7 


1.4 


1.5 


2.0 


2.0 


3.1 


3.0 


3.9 


4.1 


4.0 


3.8 


3.5 


2.8 


2.1 


1.6 


1.3 


1.5 


1.9 


2.4 


3.0 


3.4 


3.8 


3.9 


4.0 


4.0 


3.4 


2.7 


2.0 


1.5 


1.3 


1.5 


1.7 


2.3 


2.8 


3.3 


3.5 


3.9 


4.2 


4.0 


3.4 


2.7 


2.0 


1.6 


1.4 


1.3 


1.7 


2 2 


2.7 


2.9 


3.6 


4.1 


4.3 


4.0 


3.4 


2.7 


2.0 


1.7 


1.4 


1.4 


1.7 


2.1 


2.3 


3.0 


3.8 


4.3 


4.3 


4.1 


3.5 


2.8 


2.3 


l.S 


1.5 


1.5 


1.7 


1.8 


2.4 


3.3 


4.0 


4.3 


4.5 


4.2 


3.7 


3.2 


2.4 


1.9 


1.7 


1.6 


1.5 


1.9 


2.7 


3.4 


4.0 


4.6 


4.6 


4.5 


4.1 


3.3 


2.5 


2.2 


1.9 


1.6 


1.7 


2.1 


2.8 


3.4 


4.2 


4.7 


4.9 


4.7 


4.2 


3.4 


3.0 


2.4 


2.1 


1.7 


1.9 


2.2 


2 7 


3.5 


4.3 


4.9 


.5.0 


4.8 


4.3 


3.8 


3.2 


2.7 


2.1 


2.0 


1.9 


2.1 


2.8 


3.6 


4.5 


4.9 


5.1 


4.9 


4.0 


4.0 


3.6 


2.8 


2.4 


1.9 


l.S 


2 2 


2.9 


3.7 


4.4 


5.0 


5.1 


5.1 


4.6 


4.3 


3.6 


3.0 


2 2 


l.S 


l.S 


2 2 


2.9 


3.6 


4.3 


4.8 


5.0 


5.0 


4.8 


4.3 


3.7 


2.8 


2.1 


1.7 


1.8 


2 2 


2.8 


3.G 


4.1 


4.7 


4.9 


4.9 


4.7 


4.3 


3.4 


2.7 


2.0 


1.7 


1.8 


2.0 


2.7 


3.4 


4.0 


4.4 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XII 



















BAHAMA FOSSILS 













THE 


B.VII.YMA I.SL.VNDS 












65 














JUNE, 1904. 


















Day of Month 


. 1 


o 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


Hours 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. 





3.6 


4.1 


4.3 


4.3 


4.2 


3.9 


3.6 


3.2 


2.8 


2.4 


2.2 


2.1 


2.1 


2.5 


3.0 


(3.6) 


1 


2.9 


3.4 


3.7 


4.0 


4.1 


4.1 


4.0 


3.6 


3.2 


2.8 


2.5 


2.4 


2.1 


2.0 


2.2 


(3.0) 


'^ 


2.3 


2.7 


3.2 


3.5 


3.8 


4.0 


4.1 


3.8 


3.6 


3.3 


2.9 


2.8 


2.3 


1.9 


1.9 


(2.4) 


3 


1.8 


2.2 


2.6 


3.0 


3.3 


3.T 


3.9 


3.9 


3.9 


3.7 


3.3 


3.3 


2.7 


2.2 


1.9 


(1.9) 


4 


1.7 


1.8 


2.1 


2.5 


2.8 


3.2 


3.6 


3.7 


3.9 


4.0 


3.9 


3.9 


3.3 


2.7 


2.2 


(1.7) 


5 


1.9 


l.S 


1.9 


2.1 


2.4 


2.7 


3.1 


3.3 


3.6 


3.9 


4.1 


4.2 


3.9 


3.3 


2.8 


(2.0) 


6 


2.4 


1.9 


2.0 


1.9 


2.0 


2.3 


2.5 


2.7 


3.2 


3.6 


4.0 


4.2 


4.2 


3.9 


3.4 


(2.4) 


7 


3.0 


2.4 


2.3 


2.1 


1.9 


2.0 


2.2 


2.3 


2.7 


3.1 


3.6 


3.8 


4.2 


4.3 


3.9 


2.8 


S 


3.5 


3.0 


2.7 


2.5 


2.1 


2.0 


2.0 


1.0 


2.2 


2.6 


3.0 


3.3 


4.0 


4.4 


4.3 


3.5 


9 


3.9 


3.5 


3.2 


2.9 


2.5 


2.2 


2.1 


1.8 


1.9 


2.1 


2.4 


2.7 


3.3 


4.0 


4.3 


4.1 


10 


3.9 


3.8 


3.6 


3.4 


3.0 


2.6 


2.4 


2.0 


1.9 


1.8 


2.0 


2.1 


2.7 


3.4 


3.9 


4.3 


11 


3.7 


3.8 


3.8 


3.7 


3.4 


3.1 


2.8 


2.4 


2.1 


1.9 


1.8 


1.9 


2.1 


2.7 


3.2 


4.0 


Noon 


3.2 


3.6 


3.7 


3.9 


3.8 


3.6 


3,3 


3.0 


2.6 


2.3 


2.0 


1.9 


1.8 


2.0 


2.5 


3.5 


13 


2.7 


3.2 


3.4 


3.7 


3.8 


3.9 


3.8 


3.5 


3.2 


2.8 


2.5 


2.2 


1.8 


1.7 


1.9 


2.8 


14 


2.1 


2.7 


3.0 


3.4 


3.6 


4.0 


4.1 


3.9 


3.8 


3.4 


3.1 


2.8 


2.1 


1.6 


1.5 


2.1 


15 


l.S 


2.2 


2.5 


3.0 


3.3 


3.9 


4.1 


4.2 


4.2 


4.1 


3.9 


3.5 


2.7 


1.9 


1.6 


1.6 


16 


1.8 


1.9 


2.1 


2.5 


2.9 


3.5 


3.9 


4.1 


4.5 


4.5 


4.5 


4.3 


3.5 


2.6 


2.0 


1.5 


17 


2.1 


1.9 


1.9 


2.2 


2.5 


3.1 


3.5 


3.8 


4.3 


4.7 


5.0 


4.9 


4.3 


3.5 


2.8 


1.7 


18 


2.7 


2.3 


2.1 


2.1 


2.2 


2.6 


3.1 


3.3 


4.0 


4.5 


5.0 


5.2 


5.0 


4.4 


3.7 


2,2 


19 


3.4 


2.8 


3.5 


2.3 


2.2 


2.3 


2.7 


2.8 


3.5 


4.0 


4.7 


5.1 


5.3 


5.1 


4.5 


3.2 


20 


4.0 


3.4 


3.0 


2.6 


2.3 


2.2 


2.3 


2.4 


3.0 


3.5 


4.1 


4.6 


5.2 


5.4 


5.0 


4.0 


21 


4.0 


4.0 


3.6 


3.1 


2.8 


2.4 


2.2 


2.2 


2.5 


2:9 


3.3 


3.9 


4.7 


5.2 


5.2 


4.8 


22 


4.8 


4.4 


4.1 


3.6 


3.2 


2.8 


2.4 


2.2 


2.2 


2.4 


2.7 


3.2 


4.1 


4.6 


(5.0) 


5.1 


23 


4.6 


4.5 


4.4 


4.0 


3.6 


3.2 


2.8 


2.4 


2.2 


2.1 


2.3 


2.5 


3.1 


3.8 


(4.3) 


5.0 



JUNE, 1904.— Continued. 



Day of Month 17 18 19 

Hours ft. ft. ft. 

4.5 4.7 4.7 

1 3.7 4.0 4.3 

2 2.9 3.2 3.7 

3 2.1 2.4 2.9 

4 1.6 1.7 2.2 

5 1.5 1.5 1.7 

6 IS 1.7 1.4 

7 2.4 2.1 1.6 

8 3.1 2.8 2.0 

9 3.8 3.5 2.7 

10 4.3 4.1 3.4 

11 4.2 4.3 4.0 

Noon 3.8 4.1 4.3 

13 3.2 3.6 4.1 

14 2,5 3.0 3.7 

15 1.9 2.3 3.1 

16 1.6 1.7 2.4 

17 1.6 1.5 1.9 

18 2.0 1.7 1.6 

19 2.7 2.1 1.7 

20 a.G 2.9 2.1 

21 4.3 3.7 2.7 

22 4.9 4.3 3.5 

23 5.0 4.7 4.1 



20 
ft. 



21 
ft. 



ft. 



23 

ft. 



24 

ft. 



25 
ft. 



26 
ft. 



27 

ft. 



28 29 30 
ft. ft. ft. 



4.5 


4.0 


3.6 


3.0 


2.3 


1.9 


1.9 


2.1 


2.6 


3.0 


3.5 


4.4 


4.4 


4,1 


3.5 


2.8 


'> 2 


1.9 


1.9 


2.1 


2.4 


2.9 


4.1 


4.4 


4.4 


4.1 


3.4 


2.7 


2.3 


2.0 


2.0 


2.1 


2.3 


3.5 


4.1 


4.4 


4.4 


3.9 


3.3 


2.8 


2.3 


2.1 


2.0 


2.1 


2.8 


3.5 


4.0 


4.3 


4.2 


3.8 


3.4 


2.9 


2.6 


2.3 


2.1 


2.1 


2,7 


3.5 


4.0 


4.2 


4.2 


3,9 


3,5 


3.1 


2.8 


2.5 


l.fl 


2.1 


3.0 


3.4 


3.9 


4.1 


4.1 


3.9 


3.7 


3.3 


2.9 


1.4 


1.7 


2.1 


2.8 


3.3 


3.8 


4.0 


4.1 


4.1 


3.8 


3.5 


1.6 


1.0 


1.7 


2.1 


2.6 


3.1 


3.6 


3.9 


4.2 


4.2 


4.0 


2.1 


1.9 


1.6 


1.7 


1.9 


2.4 


3.0 


3.5 


3.9 


4.1 


4.2 


2.8 


2.4 


2.0 


1.7 


1.5 


1.8 


2.3 


2.8 


3.4 


3.8 


4.1 


3.5 


3.0 


2.5 


2.0 


1.5 


1.5 


1.8 


2.2 


2.7 


3.2 


3.7 


4.1 


3.8 


3.3 


2.6 


1.9 


1.6 


1.5 


1.7 


2.2 


2.7 


3.1 


4.4 


4,3 


4.0 


3.4 


2.5 


2.0 


1.6 


1.6 


1.8 


2.2 


2.0 


4.4 


4.7 


4.6 


4.1 


3.3 


2.7 


2.1 


1.8 


1.8 


1.9 


2.2 


4.0 


4.6 


4.9 


4.7 


4.1 


3.4 


2.8 


2.3 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


3.4 


4.2 


4.8 


5.0 


4.7 


4.2 


3.7 


3.1 


2.6 


2.3 


2.1 


2.7 


3.6 


4.5 


4.9 


5.0 


4.8 


4.5 


3.8 


3.4 


3.0 


2 Ti 


2.2 


2.9 


3.8 


4.4 


4.9 


5.0 


5.0 


4.6 


4.1 


3.7 


3.2 


1.9 


2.3 


3.1 


3.7 


4.4 


4.8 


5.1 


5.1 


4.8 


4.4 


3.9 


2.0 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 


3.6 


4.3 


4.8 


5.1 


5.1 


4.9 


4.5 


2.3 


2.0 


2.1 


2.3 


2.9 


3.3 


4.1 


4.7 


4.9 


5.0 


4.S 


2.9 


2.4 


2.1 


2.0 


2.2 


2.7 


3.4 


4.0 


4.4 


4.8 


4.8 


3.5 


2.9 


2.4 


2.0 


1.9 


2.1 


2.6 


3.3 


3.8 


4.2 


4.5 



66 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



HIGH AND LOW WATERS. 



Date. ' High Waters. Low Waters. 

A. M. P. M. A. M. P. M. 

1903. ' Time. Height. Time. Height. Time. Height. Time. Height. 

h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. 

July 1 100 3.8 (6 30) (1.0) (7 10) (1.7) 

2 100 3.5 2 00 4.5 (7 30) (1.3) 8 20 2.1 

3 2 50 4.2 (3 05) (4.6) 8 20 1.7 (9 25) (2.1) 

4 (3 25)* (4.1) 4 10 4.6 9 40 1.6 10 30 2.1 

5 4 00 3.9 4 40 4.7 10 20 1.6 1115 2.0 

6 5 00 3.8 5 53 4.7 11 10 1.6 

7 6 00 3.8 6 20 4.8 00 1.9 1150 1.7 

8 6 20 3.9 6 50 4.8 35 2.0 12 20 1.7 

9 7 10 3.9 7 45 4.8 1 15 2.0 1 GO 1.7 

10 8 00 4.0 (8 20) (4.8) 2 10 2.0 2 00 1.9 

11 8 20 4.0 8 50 4.7 (2 35) (2.0) 2 10 1.9 

12 8 50 4.1 9 15 4.7 3 00 2.0 2 50 2.0 

13 9 40 4.2 10 00 4.6 3 50 2.0 3 30 2.1 

14 10 50 4.1 10 45 4.5 4 30 2.0 4 30 2.1 

15 1140 4.3 1150 4.4 5 10 2.0 5 15 2.3 

16 12 15 4.5 5 50 2.2 6 15 2.4 

17 20 4.3 100 4.5 6 50 2.0 7 10 2.4 

18 1 00 4.2 2 00 4.5 7 20 2.0 8 10 2.3 

19 2 00 4.1 3 00 4.8 S 15 1.9 9 10 2.3 

20 3 00 4.2 3 55 5.0 9 10 ~ 1.8 10 15 2.2 

21 4 00 4.2 4 50 5.2 10 15 1.6 1115 1.9 

22 5 00 4.3 5 40 5.4 11 00 1.4 

23 6 00 4.5 6 30 5.5 15 1.7 12 00 1.3 

24 7 00 4.6 7 35 5.6 50 1.6 100 1.2 

25 8 00 4.S 8 25 5.4 2 00 1.5 2 00 1.3 

26 8 50 4.7 9 20 5.2 2 50 1.3 2 50 1.2 

27 10 00 4.7 10 25 5.0 3 40 1.3 3 50 1.4 

28 10 50 4.8 1115 4.8 4 30 1.4 4 50 1.7 

29 11 45 4.7 5 20 1.6 5 45 1.8 

30 00 4.5 12 40 4.6 6 30 1.6 7 00 1.9 

31 1 00 4.2 1 40 4.5 7 10 1.6 7 50 2.1 

Aug. 1 2 00 4.0 2 30 4,6 S 10 1.8 9 00 2.2 

2 3 00 3.9 3 35 4.5 15 1.8 10 00 2.1 

3 3 50 3.8 4 30 4.6 10 00 1.8 1100 2.1 

4 4 55 3.0 5 15 4.7 10 50 1.9 1150 2.1 

5 5 20 4.0 6 20 4.8 11 25 1.9 

6 7 20 4.0 7 50 4.7 115 2.1 100 1.8 

7 8 00 3.9 8 00 4.6 2 10 2.0 1 50 1.7 

8 8 00 4.1 8 00 4.7 2 00 2.0 2 00 1.9 

9 8 10 4.2 8 30 4.7 2 20 2.0 2 15 1.9 

10 8 50 4.2 8 55 4.5 3 00 2.0 2 50 1.8 

11 9 10 4.2 9 35 4.6 3 00 1.9 3 15 2.0 

12 9 55 4.6 10 00 4.6 4 00 2.1 3 50 2.3 

13 10 20 4.7 10 30 4.4 4 00 2.1 4 35 2.4 

14 1100 4.5 1100 4.1 4 40 1.9 5 25 2.1 

■ 15 12 30 4.7 5 25 1.9 6 50 2.3 

16 35 4.3 115 4.8 6 50 2.0 7 30 2.4 

17 1 30 4.3 2 15 5.0 7 40 2.1 8 50 2.4 

18 2 35 4.4 3 15 5.1 8 35 1.9 9 45 2.3 

19 3 30 4.4 4 10 5.3 9 35 1.7 10 40 2.1 

20 4 30 4.6 5 10 5.5 10 35 1.7 1150 1.9 

21 5 30 4.7 6 00 5.4 11 35 1.4 

22 6 20 4.8 7 00 5.4 30 1.5 12 30 1.2 

23 7 20 4.8 7 50 5.2 120 1.3 125 1.1 

24 8 15 4.9 8 40 5.1 2 00 1.1 2 30 1.2 

25 9 10 5.0 9 25 4.8 3 00 1.3 3 20 1.4 

26 10 10 4.9 10 20 4.5 3 50 1.4 4 25 1.6 

27 10 55 4.8 11 00 4.4 4 30 1.5 5 10 1.9 

28 1150 4.8 5 30 1:7 6 10 2.1 

29 10 4.3 1 00 4.8 6 10 1.9 7 15 2.3 

30 1 10 4.1 2 00 4.6 7 15 2.0 8 25 2.3 

31 2 15 4.0 2 45 4.6 8 15 2.1 9 30 2.4 

* The values in parentheses are interpolated. 



THE BAHAirA ISLANDS 



67 



HIGH AND LOW WATERS.— Continued. 



Date. High Waters. 

A. M. r. M. 

1903. Time. Heiglit. Time. Height. 

h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. 

Sept. 1 3 00 4.1 3 45 4.7 

2 4 GO 4.1 4 50 4.5 

3 5 10 4.0 3 25 4.8 

4 5 55 4.3 G 20 4.0 

5 6 50 4.5 7 00 5.1 

6 7 15 4.7 7 20 5.2 

7 7 50 5.0 7 50 5.2 

8 8 25 5.1 8 30 5.1 

9 9 00 4.7 10 4.7 

10 9 50 5.1 10 00 5.3 

11 (10 40) (5.1) (10 50) (4.6) 

12 (1130) (4.8) (1145) (4.3) 

13 (12 20) (4.7) 

14 (0 35) (4.1) (110) (4.7) 

15 (1 30) (4.2) 2 00 4.7 

16 2 25 4.0 (2 55) (4.9) 

17 3 10 4.3 3 50 5.0 

18 4 20 4.7 5 00 5.3 

19 5 30 5.0 6 10 5.3 

20 (6 25) (5.0) (7 00) (5.2) 

21 (7 15) (5.1) 7 50 5.1 

22 8 10 5.3 8 30 5.1 

23 9 00 3.5 9 00 5.0 

24 9 40 3.3 10 00 4.5 

25 10 40 4.9 11 00 4.2 

26 11 30 4.7 11 45 4.0 

27 12 25 4.6 

.28 45 4.0 1 25 4.4 

'29 1 50 3.9 2 20 4.4 

30 2 35 3.9 3 15 4.4 

Oct. 1 3 25 3.9 4 15 4.4 

2 4 25 4.1 5 00 4.5 

3 5 15 4.3 (5 40) (4.8) 

4 5 40 4.8 6 15 4.8 

5 6 25 4.8 7 00 4.7 

6 7 10 5.0 7 20 4.8 

7 7 50 5.1 7 50 4.7 

8 8 30 5.1 8 50 4.7 

9 9 15 5.4 9 30 4.7 

10 10 10 5.4 10 00 4.7 

11 10 45 5.3 10 45 4.4 

12 11 25 4.8 

13 00 4.0 12 40 4.5 

14 1 10 4.0 1 50 4.8 

15 2 15 4.5 2 50 4.9 

16 3 00 4.6 3 50 4.9 

17 (4 00) (5.0) 4 50 5.0 

18 (4 55) (5.1) 5 40 4.9 

19 (5 50) (5.2) 40 4.9 

20 (6 45) (3.3) 7 20 4.9 

21 (7 45) (5.4) 8 00 4.7 

22 8 40 5.3 8 50 4.5 

23 9 20 5.2 9 40 4.3 

24 10 20 5.0 10 30 4.0 

25 11 00 4.5 11 15 3.7 

26 11 40 4.3 

27 00 3.6 12 25 4.1 

28 1 00 3.7 1 20 4.1 

29 1 50 . 3.8 2 30 4.1 

30 3 00 3.8 3 10 4.1 

31 3 40 3.9 4 00 4.0 



Low Waters. 

A. M. I'. M. 

Time. Height. Time. Height. 



h. m. 


Feet. 


h. 


ra. 


Feet. 


9 10 


2.2 


10 


10 


2.4 


10 30 


2.0 


11 


10 


2.1 


10 45 


2.0 


11 


33 


2.4 






12 


00 


2.1 


20 


2.2 


12 


50 


2.2 


1 10 


2.4 


1 


15 


2.4 


1 40 


2.5 


1 


50 


2.4 


2 00 


2.4 


2 


25 


2.4 


2 28 


2.4 


3 


15 


2.0 


3 20 


2.1 


4 


10 


3.0 


(4 05) 


(2.1) 


(5 


05) 


(2.4) 


(5 00) 


(2.1) 


(6 


00) 


(2.2) 


(5 50) 


(1.9) 


(6 


50) 


(2.2) 


(6 40) 


(1.8) 


(7 


45) 


(2.0) 


7 30 


1.6 


8 


40 


1.9 


8 30 


1.7 


9 


20 


1.9 


9 10 


1.7 


10 


25 


1.8 


10 40 


1.6 


11 


25 


1.8 


11 50 


1.5 








(0 15) 


(1.6) 


(12 


40) 


(1.4) 


(1 10) 


(1.5) 


(1 


30) 


(1.4) 


2 00 


1.6 


2 


25 


1.7 


2 30 


1.8 


3 


00 


2.0 


3 00 


1.8 


4 


00 


1.9 


4 10 


1.8 


5 


10 


2.0 


5 15 


1.9 


6 


10 


2.1 


6 00 


2.0 


7 


00 


2.2 


6 40 


2.1 


8 


00 


2.2 


7 40 


2.3 


8 


45 


2.4 


8 50 


2.2 


9 


50 


2.3 


9 50 


2.2 


10 


25 


2.3 


10 50 


2.1 


11 


20 


2.2 


11 30) 


(2.2) 


11 


50 


2.4 






12 


10 


2.3 


20 


2.1 


1 


00 


2.1 


1 00 


2.2 


1 


35 


2.3 


1 30 


2.1 





00 


2.1 


2 10 


2.0 


2 


40 


2.0 


2 35 


2.1 


3 


35 


2.3 


3 35 


2.2 


4 


35 


2.4 


4 20 


2.2 


5 


15 


2 2 


(5 15) 


(1.9) 


G 


15 


2.0 


6 15 


1.6 


7 


15 


1.7 


7 10 


1.9 


8 


25 





8 25 


2.0 


9 


00 


2.0 


9 20 


1.9 


10 


10 


1.9 


10 40 


1.8 


(10 


50) 


(1.7) 


11 20 


1.6 


11 


35 


1.6 






12 


25 


1.0 


25 


1.6 


1 


2.3 


1.7 


(1 15) 


(1.6) 





00 


1.7 


2 00 


1.6 


3 


00 


1.8 


2 50 


1.8 


3 


30 


2.0 


3 40 


1.9 


4 


40 


2.0 


4 25 


1.9 


5 


25 


1.9 


3 25 


1.0 


6 


10 


2.0 


00 


2.0 


7 


01) 


2.0 


7 00 


2.2 


7 


50 


2.2 


8 25 


2.3 


S 


50 


2.1 


9 00 


2.1 


9 


43 


2.0 


10 00 


2.1 


10 


25 


1.8 



68 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



HIGH AND LOW WATERS. — Continued. 



Date. 
1003. 



High Waters. 

A. M. r. M. 

Time. Height. Time. Height. 



Low Waters. 

A. M. V. M. 

Time. Height. Time. Height. 



a. m. 

Nov. 1 4 3.5 

2 5 15 

3 5 50 

4 6 30 

5 7 10 

6 (8 00) 

7 8 45 

8 9 30 

9 10 25 

10 11 20 

11 00 

12 1 00 

13 2 15 

14 3 20 

15 4 15 

16 5 10 

17 6 00 

18 7 00 

19 7 30 

20 8 25 

21 9 00 

22 9 45 

23 10 25 

24 11 00 

25 11 40 

26 25 

27 1 20 

28 2 10 

29 3 00 

30 3 40 

Dec. ■ 1 4 35 

2 5 20 

3 6 20 

4 7 00 

5 7 50 

6 8 25 

7 9 20 

8 10 10 

9 11 00 

10 11 50 

11 50 

12 2 00 

13 3 00 

14 (3 55) 

15 4 50 

10 (5 40) 

17 6 30 

18 7 10 

19 8 10 

20 8 30 

21 9 15 

22 10 00 

23 10 30 

24 (11 10) 

25 (11 55) 

20 (0 20) 

27 1 00 

28 2 15 

29 3 10 

30 4 00 

31 5 00 



Feet. 


h. 


m. 


Feet. 


h. m. 


Feet. 


h. 


m. 


Feet, 


3.9 


4 


30 


4.0 


10 50 


1.8 


10 


50 


1,7 


4.3 


5 


25 


4.1 


11 35 


1.8 


11 


35 


1,5 


4.4 


6 


00 


4.0 






12 


25 


1,6 


4.8 


7 


00 


4.4 


00 


1.5 


1 


00 


1,8 


4.3 


7 


25 


4.3 


45 


1.6 


1 


35 


1.7 


(5.01 


8 


10 


4.3 


(1 30) 


(1.5) 


■> 


25 


1,7 


5.0 


9 


00 


4,0 


2 10 


1.4 


3 


15 


1.5 


4.9 


10 


00 


3.9 


3 10 


1.3 


4 


15 


1.5 


4.9 


11 


00 


4.0 


4 00 


1.5 


5 


00 


1.5 


4.8 








5 00 


1.6 


6 


00 


1.7 


4.0 


12 


15 


4.6 


5 45 


1.6 


7 


00 


1.6 


4.1 


1 


20 


4.4 


7 00 


1.7 


8 


00 


1.5 


4.1 


2 


30 


4.3 


8 15 


1.7 


9 


00 


1.5 


4.3 


3 


25 


4.3 


9 30 


1.7 


10 


00 


1.4 


4.6 


4 


25 


4.3 


10 30 


1.7 


10 


50 


1.4 


4.8 


5 


25 


4.3 


11 30 


1.6 


11 


40 


1,5 


5.0 





10 


4.4 






12 


20 


1,7 


5.0 


7 


00 


4.1 


30 


1.5 


1 


10 


1,6 


5.0 


7 


45 


4.1 


1 15 


1.4 


1 


50 


1,6 


3.0 


8 


45 


3.9 


1 50 


1.6 


2 


40 


1,7 


4.7 


9 


00 


3.9 


2 25 


1.5 


3 


15 


1,7 


4.8 


10 


00 


3.9 


3 15 


1.7 


4 


15 


1.9 


4.6 


10 


50 


3.8 


3 50 


1.9 


4 


40 


2.0 


4.4 


11 


30 


3.6 


4 45 


2.0 


5 


40 


2,0 


4.2 








5 20 


2.0 





20 


2,0 


3.8 


12 


30 


4.3 


6 15 


2 '' 


7 


00 


2,1 


3.9 


1 


30 


4.0 


7 30 


2.3 


8 


00 


2,0 


3.8 


2 


30 


3.9 


8 20 


2.1 


8 


40 


1,9 


4.2 


3 


00 


4.0 


9 45 


2 2 


9 


25 


1.8 


4.0 


4 


00 


4.0 


10 00 


2.0 


10 


13 


1.7 


4.5 


5 


00 


3.9 


11 00 


1.9 


11 


00 


1.3 


4.6 


5 


35 


4.0 






12 


00 


1.7 


4.8 


6 


25 


3.9 


00 


1.4 


1 


00 


1.4 


5.0 


7 


00 


4.0 


35 


1.2 


1 


30 


1.5 


5.0 


8 


00 


4.0 


1 20 


1.1 


2 


25 


1,1 


5.0 


8 


50 


4.0 


2 10 


0.0 


3 


00 


1,1 


5.1 


(9 


40) 


(4.1) 


3 00 


1.0 


(3 


55) 


(1.2) 


5.0 


10 


35 


4.2 


(3 50) 


(1.2) 


4 


50 


1.3 


4.9 


(11 


40) 


(4.2) 


4 '40 


1.5 


6 


00 


1.5 


4.6 








(5 35) 


(1.5) 


7 


00 


1.3 


4.2 


1 


00 


4.2 


6 30 


1.6 


7 


50 


1.3 


4.2 


2 


00 


4.0 


8 00 


1.7 


9 


00 


1.3 


4.4 


3 


10 


3.9 


9 15 


1.0 


9 


45 


1.2 


(4.5) 


(4 


10) 


(3.9) 


(10 15) 


(1.6) 


10 


35 


1.2 


4,5 


5 


10 


3.9 


11 15 


1.6 


(11 


15) 


(1.2) 


(4.6) 


5 


50 


3.9 






(12 


10) 


(1,6) 


4.7 


6 


45 


3.9 


00 


1.3 


1 


00 


1.5 


4.7 


7 


10 


3.8 


50 


1.3 


2 


00 


1.4 


4.6 


8 


00 


3.5 


1 35 


1.2 


2 


30 


1,3 


4.5 


S 


50 


3.0 


2 10 


1.3 


3 


00 


1.4 


4.3 


9 


35 


3.5 


2 45 


1.2 


3 


40 


1,4 


4.3 


10 


15 


3.6 


3 30 


1.4 


4 


20 


1.5 


4.2 


(10 


55 I 


(3,5) 


4 00 


1.7 


5 


10 


1,6 


(4.1) 


(11 


35) 


(3,6) 


(4 45) 


(1.9) 


(5 


45) 


(1,.S) 


(4.0) 








(5 30) 


(2.0) 


(6 


25) 


(1,9) 


(3.7) 


(12 


35) 


(3.8) 


(6 15) 


(2.0) 


7 


00 


1.7 


3.6 


1 


20 


3.6 


7 00 


l.U 


7 


45 


1.5 


3.8 


(2 


20) 


(3.6) 


(S 15) 


(1.81 


8 


45 


1.3 


3.9 


3 


15 


3.5 


9 30 


1.8 


9 


40 


1.3 


4.1 


4 


10 


3.6 


10 30 


1.7 


10 


40 


1.1 


4.3 


5 


IS 


3.5 


11 35 


1.5 


11 


30 


1.0 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



G9 



HIGH AND LOW WATERS.— Continued. 

bate. High Watei-s. Low Watpf.s. 

A. M. P. IL A. JI. 1'. .M. 

1904. Time. Heiglit. Time, lleiglit. Time. Height. Time. Height. 

h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. 

Jan. 1 5 45 4..^ -> oO .■J.S 12 2.") 1.4 

2 (140 4.0 4.-) 3.0 l.". l.n 1 L", l..-'. 

3 7 25 5.0 7 35 4.2 1 00 ii.O 2 Id 1.2 

4 S 15 5.2 8 30 4.0 2 00 0.0 :! 00 1.1 

5 20 5.0 n 30 4.0 2 40 0.0 3 45 1.0 

6 50 ' 4.8 10 30 4.1 3 40 1.0 4 30 0.0 

7 10 50 4.0 11 35 4.4 4 30 1.1 5 15 1.2 

8.... 1145 4.5 5 3S 1.0 6 20 1.3 

9 30 4.3 12 40 4.2 6 30 1.6 7 10 1.3 

10 120 4.2 140 3.7 7 45 1.6 8 00 1.1 

11 2 30 4.2 2 45 3.7 8 50 1.6 00 1.2 

12 3 30 4.3 3 50 3.6 10 00 1.6 9 55 1.2 

13 4 20 4.3 4 50 3.7 11 10 1.5 10 40 1.3 

14 5 10 4.3 5 15 3.4 12 00 1.5 1145 1.1 

15 00 4.2 6 15 3.3 12 25 1.2 

16 6 50 4.3 7 00 3.5 20 1.1 120 1.4 

17 7 30 4.3 7 45 3.6 50 1.1 1 35 1.3 

18 8 10 4.4 8 10 3.5 1 30 1.3 2 25 1.3 

19 8 50 4.3 9 00 3.4 2 15 1.3 3 15 1.4 

20 9 30 3.9 9 35 3.4 3 10 1.2 3 50 1.3 

21 9 55 4.2 10 20 3.8 3 40 1.4 4 15 1.0 

22 10 30 4.1 10 50 3.7 4 30 1.8 4 45 1.6 

23 11 00 3.9 11 35 3.8 4 50 1.8 5 10 1.5 

.24 1135 3.6 6 00 1.7 6 00 1.4 

25 30 3.8 12 25 3.0 6 50 1.8 7 00 1.4 

26 130 3.8 125 3.4 7 45 1.7 7 50 1.4 

27 2 15 4.0 2 13 3.5 8 40 1.9 8 35 1.4 

28 3 15 4.2 (3 20) (3.6) (9 40) (1.7) 9 35 1.3 

29 4 13 4.4 4 30 3.7 10 45 1.6 10 25 1.0' 

30 •. 5 10 4.6 5 10 3.8 11 30 1.4 11 30 0.8 

31 6 00 5.0 6 20 4.3 12 35 1.4 

Feb. 1 7 00 5.2 7 20 4.1 25 0.9 140 0.9 

2 7 50 4.9 18 15) (4.3) 120 0.5 (2 25) (0.7) 

3 8 50 4.8 9 10 4.4 (2 20) (0.6) 3 13 0.8 

4 9 35 4.5 10 10 4.1 3 20 0.7 3 50 0.6 

5 10 20 4.2 11 00 4.1 4 15 0.8 4 40 0.7 

6 1110 3.9 5 10 1.0 5 35 0.8 

7 00 4.0 12 00 3.7 6 10 1.3 6 30 1.0 

8 1 00 4.0 1 15 3.4 7 20 1.4 7 23 1.1 

9 2 00 3.9 2 25 3.3 8 25 1.5 8 25 1.3 

10 3 00 4.1 3 25 3.5 9 20 1.7 9 20 1.4 

11 (4 00) (4.21 4 20 3.4 10 30 1.7 10 15 1.5 

12 3 00 4.2 5 15 3.6 11 33 1.8 11 20 1.5 

13 5 50 4.3 6 00 3.5 12 10 1.0 

14 6 30 4.1 (6 40) (3.7) 00 1.1 12 33 1.3 

15 (7 05) (4.2) (7 20) (3.9) (0 40) (1.2) 1 30 1.0 

16 (7 33) (4.3) 8 00 4.0 (120) (1.3) (2 00) (1.5) 

17 8 10 4.3 8 30 3.9 2 00 1.4 2 25 1.4 

18 8 50 4.0 9 10 3.7 2 30 1.3 3 00 1.3 

19 9 20 3.0 9 35 3.9 3 15 1.2 3 20 1.4 

-'0 9 50 4.0 10 10 4.0 3 40 1.6 4 00 1.5 

21 10 20 3.8 1100 4.0 4 20 1.7 4 40 1.4 

22 11 13 • .3.6 1145 3.8 5 25 1.7 5 25 1.4 

23 12 OO 3.4 6 10 1.5 GOO 1.3 

24 0.50 3.8 12.50 3.5 6 50 1.7 7 00 1.5 

23 135 4.0 (2 001 (3.3) 7 50 1.7 (.8 00) (1.3) 

20 (2 45) i4.2) 3 00 3.6 9 10 1.7 9 00 1.4 

2" 3 50 4.4 4 15 3.7 10 10 1.6 10 20 1.1 

28 4 50 4.5 (3 131 14.1) (1100) (1.3) (1110) (1.0) 

29 (3 40) (4.7) 6 10 4.4 (1155) (1.0) 



70 



TIDES AND BENCH MARES 



HIGH AND LOW WATERS.— Continued. 



Date. 


High Watei-s. 


Low Waters. 




A. M. P. M. 


A. JI. P. M. 


1904. 


Time. Heiglit. Time. Heiglit. 


Time. Heiglit. Time. Heiglit. 



h. m. 

Mar. 1 6 30 

2 7 25 

3 8 15 

4 9 20 

5 10 00 

6 10 45 

7 11 35 

8 15 

9 1 30 

10 2 20 

11 3 20 

12 4 25 

13 5 20 

14 5 50 

15 6 25 

16 7 30 

17 7 45 

18 8 00 

19 9 10 

20 9 20 

21 10 00 

22 10 40 

23 11 25 

•24 20 

25 1 10 

26 2 10 

27 3 25 

28 4 25 

* 29 5 20 

30 10 

31 7 10 

Apr. 1 7 50 

2 8 40 

3 9 30 

4 10 15 

5 11 20 

6 

7 35 

S 1 30 

9 2 40 

10 3 25 

11 4 20 

12 5 10 

13 5 50 

14 6 30 

15 7 00 

16 7 40 

17 8 20 

18 00 

19 9 45 

20 (10 35) 

21 11 30 

22 00 

23 1 10 

24 2 00 

25 (3 00) 

26 (4 00) 

27 (5 00) 

28 6 00 

29 50 

30 7 35 



Feet. 


h. 


m. 


Feet. 


4.9 


7 


15 


4.5 


4.8 


7 


50 


4.7 


4.9 


S 


50 


4.9 


4.7 


9 


45 


4.7 


4.4 


10 


30 


4.8 


4.1 


11 


25 


4.6 


4.0 








4.5 


12 


40 


3.9 


4.4 


2 


00 


3.8 


4.1 


2 


40 


3.4- 


4.1 


4 


00 


3.6 


4.2 


4 


50 


3.8 


4.3 


5 


35 


3.9 


4.3 


6 


00 


4.0 


4.1 


7 


00 


3.9 


4.2 


7 


25 


4.1 


4.0 


7 


50 


4.0 


4.0 


8 


40 


4.4 


4.1 


9 


10 


4.5 


4.0 


9 


45 


4.4 


4.0 


10 


25 


4.3 


3.7 


11 


15 


4.3 


3.G 








4.3 


12 


20 


3.5 


4.4 


1 


30 


3.6 


4.4 


2 


50 


3.S 


4.5 


4 


00 


4.0 


4.9 


4 


50 


4.5 


4.9 


5 


50 


5.0 


5.0 


G 


35 


4.9 


4.7 


7 


35 


4.9 


4.5 


8 


'Tt 


5.0 


4.3 


9 


10 


4.9 


4.1 


10 


10 


4.7 


3.9 


10 


50 


4.4 


3.7 


11 


40 


4.2 




12 


00 


3.5 


4.2 


1 


00 


3.7 


4.2 


2 


15 


3.6 


4.1 


3 


10 


3.7 


4.1 


4 


10 


3.6 


3.9 


4 


45 


3.8 


4.0 


5 


40 


4.0 


4.1 





20 


4.4 


4.2 


6 


50 


4.5 


4.1 


7 


30 


4.5 


4.0 


8 


15 


4.7 


4.1 


8 


45 


4.8 


4.3 


9 


30 


4.9 


4.1 


10 


10 


4.8 


(3.8) 


(11 


051 


(4.0) 


4.0 








4.7 


12 


30 


3.8 


4.(1 


1 


25 


3.8 


4.4 


(2 


25) 


(4.0) 


(4.3) 


(3 


301 


(4.4) 


(4.3) 


4 


35 


4.6 


(4.4) 


(5 


35) 


(4.0) 


4.5 


G 


35 


5.1 


4.5 


7 


15 


5.2 


4.4 


S 


10 


5.2 



li. m. 


Feet. 


h. 


m. 


Feet. 


00 


0.9 


12 


45 


0.8 


1 15 


0.7 


1 


45 


0.8 


2 00 


0.8 


2 


35 


0.9 


3 00 


1.1 


3 


25 


1.0 


3 50 


1.1 


4 


00 


1.1 


(5 00) 


(1.4) 


5 


00 


1.3 


(5 55) 


(1.6) 


5 


50 


1.4 


6 45 


1.8 


6 


50 


1.7 


7 50 


1.0 


7 


50 


1.7 


8 45 


1.9 


8 


40 


1.6 


10 00 


1.8 


9 


45 


1.8 


10 40 


2.0 


10 


30 


1.8 


11 30 


1.8 


11 


25 


1.8 






12 


10 


1.8 


10 


1.6 


12 


35 


1.4 


1 00 


1.4 


1 


35 


1.6 


1 40 


1.3 


1 


35 


1.3 


(2 25) 


(1.4) 


2 


10 


1.4 


3 10 


1.6 


3 


00 


1.5 


3 30 


1.7 


3 


25 


1.4 


4 00 


1.7 


4 


00 


1.4 


5 00 


1.6 


4 


35 


1.4 


6 00 


1.7 


5 


25 


1.4 


G 35 


1.7 


6 


30 


1.5 


7 50 


1.7 


7 


30 


1.0 


8 50 


1.8 


8 


40 


1.6 


9 50 


1.7 


9 


50 


1.6 


10 40 


1.7 


10 


45 


1.5 


11 30 


1.4 








00 


1.3 


12 


30 


1.1 


50 


1.0 


1 


15 


0.7 


1 50 


0.9 


2 


00 


0.8 


2 50 


1.1 


2 


45 


0.8 


3 40 


1.1 


3 


40 


1.0 


4 25 


1.3 


4 


15 


1.3 


5 25 


1.5 


5 


25 


1.4 


6 25 


1.6 


6 


10 


1.6 


7 10 


1.9 


7 


10 


1.9 


8 10 


1.9 


8 


10 


1.9 


9 00 


2.0 


9 


00 


2.0 


9 50 


1.9 


10 


10 


l.S 


10 35 


1.7 


10 


45 


1.7 


11 10 


1.7 


11 


40 


1.8 






12 


00 


1.7 


25 


1.9 


12 


30 


1.7 


1 00 


1.7 


1 


10 


1.4 


1 40 


1.6 


1 


35 


1.5 


2 25 


1.7 


2 


20 


1.4 


3 15 


1.7 


3 


00 


1.0 


3 50 


1.8 


3 


30 


1.5 


4 40 


l.S 


(4 


20) 


(1.5) 


(5 40) 


(1.7) 


5 


15 


1.7 


6 '35 


1.8 


•6 


20 


1.7 


7 30 


1.7 


7 


40 


1.6 


8 25 


1.5 


(8 


35) 


(1.5) 


(9 15) 


(1.4) 


(9 


25) 


(1.5) 


(10 10) 


(1.3) 


10 


20 


1.4 


11 00 


1.2 


11 


50 


1,4 






12 


00 


1.1 


35 


1.4 


12 


40 


1.1 


1 30 


1.3 


1 


35 


1.1 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XIII 



'J 








•m 





BAHAMA FOSSILS 



THE BAIIAJIA ISLANDS 



71 



HIGH AND LOW WATEES.- 

Date. High Watet-s. 

A. M. P. M. 

1904. Time. Height. Time. Height. 

h. m. Feet. h. m. Feet. 

May 1 8 25 4.2 8 50 5.2 

2 9 00 4.2 (9 35) (5.0) 

3 10 00 4.1 10 20 4.8 

4 10 50 3.8 (11 10) (4.6) 

5 11 35 3.G 

6 00 4.3 12 40 3.6 

7 50 4.3 .1 45 3.9 

8 1 35 4.2 2 30 3.8 

9 2 40 4.1 3 30 4.0 

10 3 40 4.0 4 20 4.1 

11 4 30 4.0 5 00 4.1 

12 5 10 3.9 5 40 4.4 

13 5 55 4.0 6 25 4.5 

14 6 25 3.9 7 00 4.8 

15 7 15 4.0 7 45 5.0 

16 S 00 4.1 8 20 5.0 

17 8 35 4.0 9 00 5.1 

IS 9 25' 4.0 10 00 5.0 

19 10 20 4.0 10 40 4.9 

20 11 00 4.0 11 50 4.8 

21 12 00 4.2 

22 30 4.8 1 30 4.3 

23 2 00 4.6 2 30 4.4 

24 2 40 4.4 3 45 4.6 

25 4 00 4.3 4 30 4.7 

26 5 00 4.2 5 30 5.0 

27 5 35 4.3 6 00 5.0 

28 6 30 4.2 7 00 5.1 

29 7 20 4.2 7 50 5.1 

30 S 00 4.1 8 25 5.1 

31 9 00 4.1 9 00 5.0 

June 1 9 40 4.0 10 00 4.8 

2 10 40 3.9 11 00 4.5 

3 11 25 3.9 11 20 4.4 

4 12 00 3.9 

5 20 4.3 12 35 3.8 

6 1 15 4.1 2 00 4.0 

7 2 00 4.1 2 30 4.1 

8 2 35 3.9 3 20 4.2 

9 3 15 3.9 4 15 4.5 

10 4 15 4.0 5 00 4.7 

11 5 00 4.1 5 25 5.1 

12 5 35 4.2 6 15 5.2 

13 6 25 4.3 7 20 5.3 

14 7 35 4.4 8 10 5.4 

15 8 40 4.4 9 00 5.2 

16 10 00 4.3 10 10 5.2 

17 10 20 4.3 10 40 5.0 

18 11 00 4.3 11 30 4.8 

19 12 10 4.3 

20 20 4.5 1 20 4.4 

21 1 25 4.5 2 15 4.7 

22 2 30 4.5 3 15 5.0 

23 3 20 4.4 4 15 5.0 

24 4 30 4.2 5 13 5.0 

25 5 25 4.2 6 00 5.0 

26 6 10 4.1 6 50 5.1 

27 7 10 4.1 7 30 5.1 

28 7 45 4.2 8 15 5.1 

29 8 25 4.2 9 00 5.0 

30 9 10 4.2 9 30 4.9 



-Continued. 



Low Waters. 

A. M. P. M, 

Time. Height. Time. Height. 



h. m. 


Feet. 


h. 


m. 


Feet. 


2 00 


1.3 


2 


25 


1.2 


3 10 


1.5 


(3 


05) 


(1.4) 


(4 05) 


(1.6) 


3 


50 


1.6 


5 00 


1.7 


5 


00 


1.7 


(5 50) 


(1.8) 


5 


40 


1.9 


6 35 


1.9 


6 


30 


2.0 


7 30 


2.0 


7 


45 


2.2 


8 25 


1.9 


8 


50 


2.1 


8 50 


2.0 


9 


25 


2.1 


9 40 


1.9 


10 


25 


2.1 


10 25 


1.8 


11 


10 


1.9 


11 00 


1.6 


11 


50 


1.0 


11 50 


1.5 








30 


1.6 


12 


20 


1.4 


1 20 


1.7 


12 


30 


1.5 


2 00 


1.7 


1 


40 


1.4 


2 40 


1.6 


2 


20 


1.4 


3 30 


1.6 


3 


00 


1.4 


4 25 


1.6 


4 


10 


1.5 


5 20 


1.6 


5 


30 


1.6 


6 00 


1.6 


6 


20 


1.9 


7 00 


1.8 


7 


20 


1.9 


8 20 


1.5 


8 


40 


1.7 


9 00 


1.4 


9 


45 


1.7 


10 00 


1.3 


11 


00 


1.7 


11 00 


1.3 


11 


50 


1.7 


11 40 


1.4 








35 


1.5 


12 


30 


1.3 


1 30 


1.6 


1 


20 


1.3 


2 25 


1.6 


2 


00 


1.5 


3 00 


1.7 


o 


35 


1.6 


3 50 


1.7 


3 


30 


1.7 


4 40 


1.8 


4 


35 


1.8 


5 35 


1.9 


5 


10 


1.9 


20 


1.9 


6 


00 


2.1 


6 50 


1.9 


7 


00 


2.2 


7 25 


1.9 


8 


00 


2.2 


8 30 


2.0 


9 


00 


2.2 


9 00 


1.8 


9 


30 


2.2 


9 35 


1.9 


10 


30 


2 2 


10 30 


1.8 


11 


20 


2.1 


11 15 


1.8 


11 


^6 


2.1 


11 40 


1.8 








25 


2.0 


12 


30 


1.7 


1 30 


1.9 


2 


00 


1.6 


2 30 


l.S 


2 


25 


1.3 


3 30 


1.6 


4 


00 


1.5 


5 00 


1.5 


4 


30 


1.5 


5 00 


1.5 


3 


00 


1.0 


6 00 


1.4 


6 


20 


1.6 


7 00 


1.4 


7 


15 


1.9 


8 00 


1.6 


8 


20 


2.0 


8 35 


1.6 


9 


30 


2.1 


9 40 


1.7 


10 


25 


2.0 


10 30 


1.5 


11 


30 


1.0 


11 20 


1.5 








15 


1.9 


12 


10 


1.5 


1 00 


1.9 


12 


50 


1.6 


2 00 


2.0 


1 


33 


l.S 


2 40 


2.0 


2 


20 


1.9 


3 20 


2.0 


3 


10 


2.0 



72 tides and bench marks 

Reduction of Eecobds. 
The tide follows the moon much more closely than it does the sun, so that 
there is a tendency for the tide to occur when the moon is in a given position 
in the heavens. The difference bet-ween the time of tide and the time of the 
moon's transit or meridian passage, is called the hmltidal interval for the 
station. Both upper and lower transits of the moon are usually compared with 
the time of the first high water and first low water which follows the given 
transit; hence we may express the operation as follows : 

HWI = Time of HW — 3's transit 
LWI = Time of LW _ a)'s transit 
where 

HWI = high water lunitidal interval 
LWI = low water lunitidal interval. 
The purpose of the tabulation given here, called " First Reduction,'' is to 
compute the lunitidal intervals for high and low ^vaters, and also to find the 
mean range of tide and mean half-tide level. In this kind of work the time 
of the moon's transits should have been reduced to the meridian of iSTassau, but 
in order to save work the unmodified Greenwich transits were used, and the 
final result corrected by the general formula : 

X = -i [0.035 {E — L)+ S — /.] minutes of time, 
where x = Correction to the lunitidal intervals, in minutes of time. 

E = AVest longitude of the meridian for which the Ephemeris gives the 

moon's transits. 
S = West longitude of the time meridian used for recording the obser- 
vations, expressed in degrees and decimals. 
L = West longitude of the station or local meridian expressed in degrees 
and decimals. 
In this ease E ^ 0, as Greenwich transits are used. 

O 1j i i ,il It .OS. 

Substituting these values in the equation it becomes: 

.X = — 0.14 L = ~.UX 77.35 = — 10.83 minutes. 
Hence the mean intervals for Ijoth high and ]o\v ivaters are diminished 
by 10.8 minutes. If, for any purjjose. lunitidal intervals in any portion of 
the First Reduction are required, they should be corrected by the same con- 
stant. The mean lunitidal interval for high water at full and change of the 
moon is called the Estahlisliment of ilie Port, and the mean of all the high 
water intervals is known as the corrected establishment of the port. For 



THE BAIIAilA ISLANDS 



73 



Nassau the establishment is Tli. 38. Tm., and the corrected establishment 7h. 
82.8ni., from this year of record. Further remarks upon hmitidal intervals 
follow the table of harmonic constants. 



FIRST REDUCTION. 

Lat. 25°05' N. Long. 77°21' W. 

Note. — Automatic tide gauge No. 49, scale 1 : 9. W. C. Townsend. Observer. Observa- 
tions made in mean local time. Unmodified Greenwich transits are used. Correction to luni- 
tldal intervals is x = — 10.8 m. 

Date. Time of — Lunitldal Interval. Height of — 

Year Moon's High Low High Low High Low 

1903. Transits. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. 

mo. d. h. m. h. m. h. m. b. m. h. m. feet. feet. 

July 1 (5 26)» .. .. (6 30) . .. (104) .. (1.0) 

17 51 13 00 (19 10) (7 34) 1 19 3.8 (1.7) 

2 (0 15) 100 (7 30) 7 09 (115) 3.5 (1.3) 

IS 39 14 00 20 20 (7 45) 1 41 4.5 2.1 

3 (7 03) 2 50 8 20 8 11 (117) 4.2 1.7 

19 27 (15 05) (21 25) (8 02) 1 58 (4.0) (2.1) 
4 (7 51) (3 25) 9 40 7 58 (149) (4.1) 1.6 

20 15 16 10 22 30 (8 19) 2 15 4.0 2.1 
5 (8 39) 4 00 10 20 7 45 (1 41) 3.9 1.6 

21 03 16 40 23 15 (8 01) 2 12 4.7 2.0 
6 (9 27) 5 00 1110 7 57 (143) 3.8 1.6 

21 51 17 35 .... (8 08) ... 4.7 . . 
7 (10 15) 6 00 00 8 09 2 09 3.8 1.9 

22 40 18 20 11 50 (8 05) (1 35) 4.8 1.7 
8 (11 04) 6 20 35 7 40 1 55 3.9 2.0 

23 28 18 50 12 20 (7 40) (1 16) 4.8 1.7 
9 (11 51) 7 10 1 15 7 42 1 47 3.9 2.0 

.... 19 45 13 00 (7 54) (1 09) 4.8 1.7 

10 15 8 00 2 10 7 45 1 55 4.0 2.0 

(12 38) (20 20) 14 00 (7 42) (1 22) (4.8) 1.9 

11 1 01 8 20 (2 35) 7 19 1 34 4.0 (2.0) 

(13 24) 20 50 14 10 (7 26) (0 46) 4.7 1.9 

12 1 46 8 50 3 00 7 04 1 14 4.1 2.0 

(14 08) 21 15 14 50 (7 07) (O 42) 4.7 2.0 

13 2 30 40 3 50 7 10 120 4.2 2.0 

(14 52) 22 00 15 30 (7 08) (0 38) 4.0 2.1 

14 3 14 10 50 4 30 7 36 1 10 4.1 2.0 

(15 35) 22 45 16 30 (7 10) (0 55) 4.5 2.1 

.15 3 57 1140 5 10 7 43 113 4.3 2.0 

(16 19) 23 50 17 15 (7 31) (0 56) 4.4 2.3 

16 4 41 .... 5 50 ... 1 09 . . 2.2 

(17 04) 12 15 18 15 7 34 (1 11) 4.5 2.4 

* 30 31 SO 31 

Half monthly sums 217 800 29 916 129.3 68.7 

17 5 26 20 6 50 (7 16) 1 24 4.3 2.0 

(17 50) 13 00 19 10 7 34 (1 20) 4.5 2.4 

18 6 14 100 7 20 (7 10) (106) 4.2 2.0 

(18 39) 14 00 20 10 7 40 (1 31) 4.5 2.3 

* The values in parentheses in the columns of time and height are interpolated. A similar 

marking indicates the moon's lower transits and the lunitldal intervals obtained therefrom, 
which are not interpolated. 



74 



TIDES AND BENCH MAEKS 



FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. 



Date. 




Time of — 


Lunitidal Interval. 


Height of — 


Year 


Moon's 


High Low 


High Low 


High Low 


1903. 


Transits. 


Water. Water. 


Water. Water. 


Water. Water. 



mo. d. h. m. 

July 19 7 05 

(19 31) 
20 7 59 

(20 27) 
21 8 56 

(21 26) 
22 9 57 

(22 28) 
23 10 59 

(23 30) 
24 

12 00 
25 (0 30) 

13 00 
26 (1 29) 

13 57 
27 (2 25) 

14 52 
28 (3 18) 

15 44 
29 (4 09) 

16 34 
30 (4 59) 

17 23 
31 (5 48) 

18 12 

Half monthly sums. . . . 

Aug. 1 (6 36) 

19 00 
2 (7 24) 

19 49 
3 (8 13) 

20 37 
4 (9 01) 

21 25 
5 (9 48) 

22 12 
6 (10 35) 

22 59 
7 (11 22) 

23 44 
8 

(12 06) 
9 29 

(12 51) 
10 1 13 

(13 34) 
11 1 56 

(14 IS) 



h. 


m. 


2 


00 


15 


00 


3 


00 


15 


55 


4 


00 


10 


00 


5 


00 


17 


40 


6 


00 


18 


30 


7 


00 


19 


35 


8 


00 


20 


25 


8 


50 


21 


20 


10 


00 


22 


25 


10 


50 


23 


15 


11 


45 





00 


12 


40 


1 


00 


13 


40 



2 00 

14 30 

3 00 

15 35 

3 50 

16 30 

4 55 

17 15 

5 20 

18 20 

7 20 

19 50 

8 00 

20 00 
8 00 

20 00 

8 10 

20 30 

8 50 

20 55 

9 10 

21 35 



h. 


m. 


8 


15 


21 


10 


9 


10 


22 


15 


10 


15 



23 15 

11 00 

15 

12 00 
50 

13 00 
2 00 

14 00 

2 50 

14 50 

3 40 

15 50 

4 30 

16 50 

5 20 

17 45 

6 30 
10 00 

7 10 
19 50 



8 


10 


21 


00 


9 


15 


22 


00 


10 


00 


23 


00 


10 


50 


23 


50 


11 


25 


1 


15 


13 


00 


2 


10 


13 


50 


2 


00 


14 


00 


2 


20 


14 


15 


3 


00 


14 


50 


3 


00 


15 


15 



h 

(7 
7 


m. 
21) 
55 


7 


29) 
06 


(7 

(7 
7 


33) 
54 
34) 
43 


(7 

7 


32) 
31 


(T 

7 


30) 
35 


(7 
7 


30) 
25 


(7 

7 


21) 
23 


7 


35) 
33 


(7 

7 


32) 
31 


(7 


36) 


7 
(7 


26 
41) 


7 

(7 


37 
52) 


29 
303 981 


7 
(7 


48 
54) 


8 
(8 


00 
11) 


8 
(8 


01 
17) 


8 
(S 


IS 
14) 


7 
(8 


32) 


9 
(9 


08 
15) 


9 

(8 


01 
38) 


8 
(7 


16 
54) 


7 
(7 


41 
39) 


7 
(7 


37 

21) 


7 
(7 


14 

17) 



h. m. 

1 10 

(1 39) 


feet. 
4.1 
4.8 


feet. 
1.9 
2.3 


1 11 

(1 48) 


4.2 
5.0 


1.8 
2.2 


1 10 

(1 49) 

1 03 


4.2 
5.2 
4.3 
5.4 


1.6 
1.9 
1.4 


(1 47) 
1 01 


4.5 

5.5 


1.7 
1.3 


(1 20) 
1 00 


4.6 
5.6 


1.6 
1.2 


(1 30) 
1 00 


4.8 
5.4 


1.5 
1.3 


(1 21) 
53 


4.7 
5.2 


1.3 

1.2 


(1 15) 
08 


4.7 
5.0 


1.3 

1.4 


(1 12) 
1 06 


4.8 
4.8 


1.4 
1.7 


(1 11) 
1 11 


4.7 


1.6 

1.8 


(1 31) 
1 37 


4.5 
4.6 


1.6 

1.9 


(1 22) 
1 38 


4.2 
4.5 


1.6 

2.1 


23 
37 673 


29 
136.8 


29 
49.3 


(1 34) 
2 00 


4.0 
4.6 


1.8 
2.2 


(1 51) 
2 11 


3.9 

4.5 


1.8 
2.1 


(1 47) 
2 23 


3.8 
4.6 


1.8 
2.1 


(1 40) 
2 25 


3.9 

4.7 


1.9 
2.1 


(1 37) 


4.0 
4.8 


1.9 


3 03 

(2 25) 


4.0 
4.7 


2.1 
1.8 


3 11 

(2 28) 


3.9 
4.0 


2.0 
1.7 


2 16 
(1 54) 


4.1 
4.7 


2.0 
1.9 


1 51 
(1 24) 


4.2 
4.7 


2.0 
1.9 


1 47 
(1 16) 


4.2 
4.5 


2.0 
1.8 


1 04 
(0 57) 


4.2 ■ 
4.6 


1.9 

2.0 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



75 



FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. 



Date. 

Year Moon's 

1903. Transits. 

mo. d. h. m. 

Aug. 12 2 40 

(15 02) 

13 3 25 

(15 47) 
14 4 11 

(16 34) 
15 4 59 

(17 24) 
16 5 50 

(18 17) 

Half montlily sums 

17 6 44 

(19 12) 

18 7 41 

(20 11) 

19 8 41 

(21 11) 

20 9 41 

(22 11) 

21 10 41 

(23 11) 
22 11 40 

23. (0 08) 

12 36 
24 (1 04) 

13 30 
25 (1 57) 

14 23 
26 (2 49) 

15 14 

27 (3 40) 

16 05 
28 (4 30) 

16 54 
29 (5 19) 

17 44 
30 (6 08) 

IS 33 
31 (6 57) 

19 21 

Half monthly sums. . . . 

Sept. 1 (7 45) 

20 08 
2 (S 32) 

20 55 
3.' (9 18) 

21 41 



Time of — 

Higli Low 

Water. Water. 



Lunitidal Interval. 

High Low 

Water. Water. 



Height of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



h. 


m. 


9 


55 


22 


00 


10 


20 


22 


30 


11 


00 


23 


00 


12 


30 





35 


13 


15 



h. m. 
4 00 

15 50 
4 00 

16 35 

4 40 

17 25 

5 25 

18 50 

6 50 

19 30 



h. m. 

7 15 

(6 58) 

6 55 
(6 43) 

49 

(6 26) 

7 31. 
(7 11) 



1 30 

14 15 

2 35 

15 15 

3 30 

16 10 



4 


30 


17 


10 


5 


30 


18 


00 


6 


20 


19 


00 


7 


20 


19 


50 


8 


15 


20 


40 


9 


10 


21 


25 


10 


10 


22 


20 


10 


55 


23 


00 


11 


50 





10 


13 


00 


1 


10 


14 


00 


2 


15 


14 


45 



7 40 

20 50 

8 35 

21 45 

9 35 

22 40 

10 35 

23 50 

11 35 

30 

12 30 

1 20 

13 25 

2 00 

14 30 

3 00 

15 20 

3 50 

16 25 

4 30 

17 10 

5 30 

18 10 

6 10 

19 15 

7 15 

20 25 

8 15 

21 30 



336 864 

(7 13) 
7 31 

(7 23) 
7 34 

(7 19) 
7 29 



3 


00 


15 


45 


4 


00 


16 


50 


5 


10 


17 


25 



10 

22 10 
10 30 

23 10 
10 45 
23 35 



19) 

29 

19) 

19 

09) 

20 

12) 

14 

11) 
10 

(7 13) 

7 02 

(7 21) 

7 06 

(7 15) 

6 55 
(7 20) 

7 16 
(7 41) 

7 26 
(7 52) 

7 42 
(7 48) 

29 
303 668 

7 39 
(8 00) 

7 52 
(8 18) 

8 15 
(8 07) 



h. m. 
1 20 

(0 48) 

35 

(0 48) 

29 

(0 51) 

26 
(1 26) 

1 00 
(1 13) 

31 
36 909 

56 
(1 38) 

54 
(1 34) 

54 
(1 29) 

54 
(1 39) 

54 

(1 19) 
50 

(1 12) 

49 
(0 56) 

1 00 

(1 03) 

57 

(1 01) 

1 11 

(0 50) 
1 05 

(1 00) 
1 16 

(0 51) 
1 31 

(1 07) 

1 52 

(1 18) 

2 09 

20 
19 909 



(1 25) 
2 02 

(1 58) 
2 15 

(1 27) 
1 54 



feet. 
4.6 
4.6 
4.7 
4.4 
4.5 
4.1 

4.7 
4.3 

4.8 



31 
136.9 

4.3 
5.0 
4.4 
5.1 
4.4 
5.3 
4.6 
5.5 
4.7 
5.4 
4.8 
5.4 
4.8 
5.2 
4.9 
5.1 
5.0 
4.8 
4.9 
4.5 
4.8 
4.4 
4.8 

4.3 

4.8 
4.1 
4.6 

4.0 
4.6 

29 
133.5 

4.1 

4.7 
4.1 
4.5 
4.0 
4.8 



feet. 
2.1 
2.3 
2.1 
2.4 
1.9 
2.1 
1.9 
2.3 
2.0 
2.4 

31 
63.3 

2.1 
2.4 
1.9 
2.3 

1.7 
2.1 

1.7 
1.9 
1.4 

1.5 
1.2 

1.3 
1.1 

1.1 
1.2 

1.3 
1.4 
1.4 
1.6 
1.5 
1.9 
1.7 
2.1 
1.9 
2.3 
2.0 
2.3 
2.1 
2.4 

29 
60.8 

2.2 
2.4 
2.0 
2.1 

2.0 
2.4 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. 



Date. 




Time of — 


Liinitidal Interval. 


Height of — 


Year 


Moon's 


High Low 


High Low 


High Low 


1903. 


Ti-ansits. 


Watei-. Water. 


Water. Water. 


Water. Water. 



mo. d. h. m. 

Sept. 4 (10 04) 

22 26 
5 (10 48) 

23 10 
6 (11 32) 

23 54 

7 

(12 16) 

8 39 

(13 01) 

9 1 23 

(13 46) 

10 2 09 

(14 33) 

11 2 57 

(15 22) 

12 , 3 47 

(16 12) 

13 4 39 

(17 06) 

14 5 34 

(18 02) 

15 6 30 

(18 59) 

16 7 28 

(10 57) 

Half montlily sums. . . . 

17 S 26 

(20 55) 

18 . 9 24 

(21 52) 

19 10 20 

(22 48) 

20 11 15 

(23 42) 

21 

12 08 
22 (0 35) 

13 01 
23 (1 27) 

13 53 
24. .. . (2 18) 

14 44 

25 (3 09) 

15 35 
26 (4 00) 

16 25 
27 (4 50) 

17 14 



h. m. 

5 55 

18 20 

6 50 

19 00 

7 15 
19 20 

7 50 

19 50 

8 25 

20 30 

9 00 

21 10 
9 50 

22 00 
(10 40) 
(22 50) 
(11 30) 
(23 45) 

(12 201 

(0 35) 

(13 10) 

(1 30) 

14 00 

2 25 

(14 55) 



3 10 
15 50 



4 

17 

5 



18 10 

(6 25) 

(19 00) 

(7 15) 

• 19 50 

8 10 

20 30 

9 00 

21 00 
9 40 

22 00 

10 40 

23 00 

11 30 ■ 
23 45 

12 25 



h. m; 

12 00 

20 

12 50 

1 10 

13 15 



h. m. 
8 14 



1 
13 



40 
50 
2 00 

14 25 

2 28 

15 15 

3 20 

16 10 
(4 05) 

(17 05) 
(5 00) 

(18 00) 
(5 50) 

(18 50) 
(6 40) 

(19 45) 

7 30 

20 40 

8 30 

21 20 



10 

22 25 

10 40 

23 25 

11 50 

(0 15) 
(12 40) 

(1 10) 

(13 30) 

2 00 

14 25 

2 30 

15 00 

3 00 
10 00 

4 10 
17 10 

5 15 
IS 10 

6 00 
19 00 



(8 
8 
(8 


16) 

24 

12) 


8 


05 

48) 


(7 


56 
34) 




46 
29) 




37 
24) 




41 

27) 


J 


43 

28) 


(7 


43 
33) 


7 


41 


•; 


29) 
36 


'; 


281 
30 


7 


26) 

27 


31 
228 908 


(7 


13) 
24 




25) 
36 




38) 
50 




37) 
45 




33) 
42 




35 1 




29 




33) 
07 




22) 
16 




31) 
25 




30) 
20 


(7 


35) 



h. m. 

(1 56) 

1 54 
(2 02) 

2 00 
(1 43) 

1 46 

(1 34) 

1 21 

(1 241 

1 05 

(1 29) 

1 11 

(1 37) 

1 08 

(1 43) 

1 13 

(1 48) 

1 11 

(1 44) 

1 06 

(1 43) 

1 00 

(1 41) 

1 02 

(1 23) 

31 
35 825 

44 
(1 30) 

1 16 
(1 33) 

1 30 

(1 27) 
1 25 

(1 28) 

1 22 

(1 25) 

1 24 

(1 03) 

1 07 

(0 42) 

1 16 

(1 01) 
1 35 

(1 15) 
1 45 

(1 10) 
1 46 



feet. 

4.3 

4.9 

4.5 

5.1 

4.7 

5.2 

5.0 

5.2 

5.1 

5.1 

4.7 

4.7 

5.1 

5.3 

(5.1) 

(4.6) 

(4.8) 

(4.3) 

(4.7) 
(4.1) 
(4.7) 
(4.2) 
4.7 
4.0 
(4.9) 

31 
UB.3 

4.3 
5.0 
4.7 
5.3 
5.0 
5.3 
(5.0) 
(5.2) 
(5.1) 
5.1 
5.3 
5.1 
5.5 
5.0 
5.3 
4.5 
4.9 
4.2 
4.7 
4.0 

4.6 



feet. 

2.1 
2.2 
2.2 

2.4 
2.4 

2.5 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.0 

2.1 

3.0 

(2.1) 

(2.4) 

(2.1) 

(2.2) 

(1.9) 

(2.2) 

(1.8) 

(2.0) 

1.6 

1.9 

1.7 

1.9 

31 
67.4 

1.7 
1.8 
1.6 
1.8 
1.5 

(1.6) 

(1.4) 

(1.5) 

(1.4) 

1.6 

1.7 

1.8 

2.0 

1.8 

1.9 

1.8 

2.0 

1.9 

2.1 

2.0 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XIV 















F 




■ 




i 


5 


i 


? 







1 


i 
1 










■1 






2 


S 


0^^ 


1^ 






1 fl 




7S 


^ 




^ 






1 


^^m 


tg 


^° ^ 


S 


^ 








^i-1 


wsst^^^^ 


Xu;v^ 


' 








■■1 


!S 




1- '^ 








::i^-x^^^>^i^:: 


iio^'^ii^- 




t__„ 




1 
i 

_ J 






D 



P4 



1-:; 

6 




O 



Till: BAHAMA ISLAXDS 



FIISST UEDUC'TIOX. — Contiuued. 



Date. 
Year 
1903. 


Moon's 
Transits. 


Time 
High 
Water. 


of— 

Low 
Water. 


Lunitidal Interval. 

High Low 

Water. Water. 


Ueight of— 

High Low 

Water. Water. 


mo. d. 
Sept. 28 


h. 
(5 
IS 


m. 

39) 

03 


h. m. 

45 

13 25 


h. 

6 

20 


m. 
40 
00 


h. m. 

7 31 

(7 46) 


h. m. 
(1 01) 
1 57 


feet. 
4.0 
4.4 


feet.. 
2.1 
2.2 


29 


(6 
18 


26 1 
50 


1 50 
14 20 


7 
20 


40 
45 


7 

(7 


47 
54) 


(1 14) 
1 55 


3.9 
4.4 


2.3 
2.4 


30 


(7 
19 

sums 


13) 
36 


2 35 
15 15 


8 
21 


50 
50 


7 45 
(8 02) 

. 190 851 


(1 37) 
2 14 


3.U 
4.4 


2.2 
2.3 


Half monthly 


27 
26 703 


a7 
128.1 


27 
60.8 


Oct. 1 


(7 
20 


59) 

•to 


3 25 
16 15 


9 
22 


50 
25 


7 

(8 


40 
16) 


(1 51) 
2 03 


3.0 
4.4 


2 2 
2.3 


-1 


(8 
21 


44) 
06 


4 25 
17 00 


10 
23 


50 
20 


8 

(8 


03 
16) 


(2 06) 
2 14 


4.1 
4.5 


2.1 




2.2 


3 . . . 


(9 
21 


28) 
50 


5 15 

(17 40) 


(11 
23 


30) 
50 


8 
(8 


09 
12) 


(2 02) 
2 00 


4.3 

(4.8) 


(2.2) 




2.4 


4 


(10 
22 


12) 
34 


5 40 
18 15 


12 


10 


7 
(8 


50 
03) 


(1 58) 


4.8 
4.8 


2.3 




(10 
23 


57) 
19 


6 25 
19 00 



13 


20 
00 


(8 


51 
03) 


1 46 
(2 03) 


4.8 
4.7 


2.1 




2.1 


6 


(11 


42) 


7 10 
19 20 


1 
13 


00 
35 


7 

(7 


51 
38) 


1 41 
(1 53) 


5.0 
4.8 


2.2 
2.3 


7 



(12 


06 
29) 


7 50 
19 50 


1 
14 


30 
00 


7 
(7 


44 

21) 


1 24 

(1 31) 


5.1 
4.7 


2.1 
2.1 


8 



(13 


53 

18) 


8 30 
20 50 


2 
14 


10 
40 


7 

(7 


37 
32) 


1 17 - 
(1 22) 


5.1 

4.7 


2.0 




2.0 


9 


1 
(14 


43 
09) 


9 15 
21 30 


2 
15 


35 
35 


7 
(7 


32 
21) 


52 
(1 26) 


5.4 
4.7 


2.1 
2.3 


10 


(15 


35 

02) 


10 10 
22 00 


3 
16 


35 
35 


7 
(6 


35 
58) 


1 00 
(1 33) 


5.4 
4.7 


2.2 
2.4 


11 


3 

(15 


30 

58) 


10 45 
22 45 


4 
17 


20 
15 


(6 


15 

47) 


50 
(1 17) 


5.3 
4.4 


2.2 
2.2 


12 


4 

(16 


26 
54) 


11 25 


(5 
IS 


15) 
15 


6 


59 


49 

(1 21) 


4.8 


(1.9) 
2.0 


13 


5 

(17 


22 
51) 


00 

12 40 


6 

19 


15 
15 


(7 
7 


06) 
18 


53 
(1 24) 


4.0 
4.5 


1.6 
1.7 


14 


6 

(18 


19 

47) 


1 10 
13 50 


20 


10 
25 


(7 
7 


19) 
31 


51 
(1 38) 


4.0 

4.8 


1.9 

2.2 


15 


7 
(19 


15 
43) 


2 15 
14 50 


8 
21 


25 
00 


(7 
7 


28) 
35 


1 10 

(1 17) 


4.5 
4.9 


2.0 
2.0 


16 


8 10 
(20 37) 

sums 


3 00 
15 50 


9 

22 


20 
10 


(7 
7 


17) 
40 


1 10 
(1 33) 

31 
33 865 


4.6 
4.9 

81 
145.4 


1.9 
1.9 


Half montlilv 


41 
. 231 89S 


31 
66.1 


17 


9 

(21 


04 
30) 


(4 00) 
16 50 


10 
122 


40 
50) 


(7 
7 


23) 
46 


1 36 

(1 20) 


(5.0) 
5.0 


1.8 
(1.7) 


18 


9 

(22 


56 

22) 


(4 55) 
17 40 


11 
23 


20 
35 


(7 
7 


25) 
44 


1 24 
(1 13) 


(5.1) 
4.9 


l.G 
1.6 


19 


. 10 
(23 


48 
14) 


15 50) 
18 40 


12 


25 


(7 
7 


28) 
52 


1 37 


(5.2) 
4.9 


1.6 


20 


. 11 


40 


(6 451 
10 20 



13 


25 
25 


(7 


31) 
40 


(1 11) 
1 45 


(5.3) 
4.9 


1.8 
1.7 



78 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. 



Date. 

Year Moon's 

1903. Transits. 

mo. d. h. m. 

Oct. 21 (0 05) 

12 31 
22 (0 57) 

13 23 

23 (1 48) 

14 14 

24 (2 39) 

15 05 

25 (3 30) 

15 54 
26 (4 19) 

16 43 
27 (5 06) 

17 30 

28 (5 53) 

18 16 
29 (6 38) 

19 00 
30 (7 22) 

19 44 

31 (8 06) 

20 28 



Time of — 

High Low 

Water. Water. 



Lunitidal Interval. 

High Low 

Water. Water. 



Height of — 
nigh Low 

Water. Water. 



Half monthly sums. 



Nov. 1 (8 50) 

21 12 

2 (9 35) 

21 58 
3 (10 22) 

22 46 
4 (11 10) 

23 35 

(12 01) 

6 28 

(12 55) 

7. .: 1 23 

(13 51) 

8 2 20 

(14 48) 

9 3 18 

(15 46) 

10 4 15 

(16 44) 

11 5 11 

(17 39) 

12 6 06 

(18 33) 

13 6 59 

(19 25) 



h. m. 
(7 45) 
20 00 


h. m. 
(1 15) 
14 00 


h. m. 

(7 40) 

7 29 


h. 
(1 


m. 
10) 
29 


feet. 

(5.41 

4.7 


feet. 

(1.6) 

1.7 


8 40 
20 50 


2 00 
15 00 


(7 43) 

7 27 


(1 


03) 
37 


5.3 

4.5 


1.6 

1.8 


9 20 
21 40 


2 50 
15 50 


(7 32) 
7 26 


(1 


02) 
36 


5.2 
4.3 


1.8 
2.0 


10 20 
22 30 


3 40 
16 40 


(7 41) 
7 25 




01) 
35 


5.0 
4.0 


1.9 
2.0 


11 00 
23 15 


4 25 
17 25 


(7 30) 
7 21 




.55) 
31 


4.5 
3.7 


1.9 
1.9 


11 40 


5 25 
18 10 


(7 21) 




06) 

27 


4.3 


1.9 
2.0 


00 
12 25 


6 00 
19 00 


7 17 

(7 19) 




54) 
30 


3.6 
4.1 


2.0 
2.0 


1 00 
13 20 


7 00 
19 50 


7 30 
(7 27) 




07) 
34 


3.7 
4,1 


2.2 
2.2 


1 50 
14 30 


8 25 
20 50 


7 34 

(7 52) 




47) 
50 


3.8 
4.1 


2.3 
2.1 


3 00 
15 10 


9 00 
21 45 


8 00 

(7 48) 




38) 
01 


3.8 
4.1 


2.1 

2.0 


3 40 
16 00 


10 00 
22 25 


7 56 
(7 54) 

29 
. 204 961 

8 07 
(8 00) 




54) 
57 


3.9 

4.0 


2.1 
1.8 




29 
38 830 

(2 00) 
1 38 


29 
130.1 

3.9 
4.0 


29 
64.0 


4 35 
16 50 


10 50 
22 50 


1.8 
1.7 


5 15 
17 25 


11 35 
23 35 


8 03 
(7 50) 


(2 
1 


00) 
37 


4.3 
4.1 


1.8 
1.5 


5 50 
18 00 


12 25 


7 52 
(7 38) 


(2 


03) 


4.4 
4.0 


1.6 


6 30 
19 00 


00 
13 00 


7 44 

(7 50) 


1 
(1 


14 
00) 


4.8 
4.4 


1.5 
1.8 


7 10 
19 25 


45 
13 35 


7 35 
(7 24) 


1 

(1 


10 
34) 


5.0 
4.3 


1.6 
1.7 


(8 00) 
20 10 


(1 30) 
14 25 


7.32 

(7 15) 


1 

(1 


02 
30) 


(5.0) 
4.3 


(1.5) 
1.7 


8 45 
21 00 


2 10 
15 15 


7 22 
(7 09) 



(1 


47 
24) 


5.0 
4.0 


1.4 
1.5 


9 30 
22 00 


3 10 
16 15 


7 10 
(7 12) 



(1 


50 

27) 


4.9 
3.9 


1.3 

1.5 


10 25 
23 00 


4. 00 
17 00 


7 07 
(7 14) 




(1 


42 
14) 


4.9 
4.0 


1.5 


11 20 


5 00 
IS 00 


7 05 




<1 


45 
16) 


4.8 


1.6 
1.7 


00 
12 15 


5 45 
19 00 


(7 16) 
7 04 




(1 


34 
21) 


4.0 
4.0 


1.6 

1.0 


1 00 
13 20 


7 00 
20 00 


(7 21) 
7 14 




(1 


54 

27) 


4.1 
4.4 


1.7 
1.5 


2 15 
14 30 


S 15 
21 00 


(7 42) 
7 31 


1 

(1 


16 
35) 


4.1 
4.3 


1.7 
1.5 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



79 



FIEST REDUCTION. — Contluiiocl. 



Date. 
Year 
1903. 



Moon's 
Transits. 



Time of — 

High Low 

Watei-. Watei-. 



Lunitidal Interval. 

High Low 

Water. Water, 



Height of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



mo. d. h. m. 

Nov. 14 7 50 

(20 16) 

15 8 41 

(21 06) 

16 9 31 

(21 56) 



h. 


m. 


3 


20 


15 


25 


4 


15 


16 


25 


5 


10 


17 


25 



h. m. 

30 

22 00 

10 30 

22 50 

11 30 

23 40 



(7 55) 

7 35 

(7 59) 

7 44 

(8 04) 

7 54 



Half monthly sums 231 



1 40 

(1 44) 

1 49 

(1 44) 

1 59 

(1 44) 

31 

38 960 



feet. 

4.3 

4.3 

4.6 

4.3 

4.8 

4.3 



130.1 



feet. 
1.7 
1.4 

1.7 
1.4 
l.G 



31 
49.1 



17 10 22 

(22 47) 

18 11 12 

(23 38) 

19 

12 03 

20 (0 29) 

12 54 
21 (1 20) 

13 45 
22 (2 10) 

14 34 
23 (2 50) 

15 22 
24 (3 46) 

16 09 
25 (4 32) 

16 54 
26 (5 16) 

17 38 
27 (0 00) 

18 22 
28 (6 43) 

19 05 
29 ,. (7 27) 

19 49 
80 (8 12) 

20 35 

Half monthly sums. . . . 



6 


00 


18 


10 


7 


00 


19 


00 


7 


30 


19 


45 


S 


25 


20 


45 


9 


00 


21 


00 


9 


45 


22 


00 


10 


25 


22 


50 


11 


00 


23 


30 


11 


40 





25 


12 


30 


1 


20 


13 


30 


O 


10 


14 


30 


3 


00 


15 


00 


3 


40 


16 


00 



12 20 

30 

13 10 

1 15 

13 50 

1 50 

14 40 

2 25 

15 15 

3 15 

16 15 

3 50 

16 40 

4 45 

17 40 

5 20 
IS 20 

6 15 

19 00 

7 30 

20 00 

8 20 

20 40 

9 45 

21 25 
10 00 

22 15 



(8 04) 

7 48 

(8 13) 

7 48 

(7 52) 

7 42 

(7 56) 

7 51 

(7 40) 

7 15 

(7 35) 
26 



26) 



7 
(7 

7 28 
(7 14) 

7 21 
■(7 08) 

7 31 

(7 14) 

7 42 

(7 30) 

7 48 

(7 47) 

7 55 

(7 33) 

7 51 

(7 48) 

27 
191 936 



1 58 

(1 43) 

1 58 

(1 37) 

1 47 

(1 21) 

1 40 

(1 05) 

1 30 

(1 05) 

1 41 

(0 51) 

1 18 

(0 59) 

1 31 

(0 48) 

1 26 

(0 59) 

1 22 

(1 30) 

1 38 

(1 37) 

1 35 

(2 18) 

1 36 

(1 48) 

1 40 



27 
24 987 



5.0 
4.4 
5.0 
4.1 
5.0 
4.1 
5.0 
3.9 
4.7 
3.9 
4.8 
3.9 
4.6 
3.8 
4.4 
3.6 
4.2 

3.8 
4.3 
3.9 
4.0 
3.8 
3.9 
4.2 
4.0 
4.2 
4.0 

27 
114.5 



1.7 
1.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.6 
1.6 
1.7 
1.5 
1.7 
1.7 
1.9 
1.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.2 
2.1 
2.3 
2.0 
2.1 
1.9 
2.2 
1.8 
2.0 
1.7 

27 
60.1 



Dec. 1 (8 59) 

21 23 
2 (9 48) 

22 15 
3 (10 41) 

23 09 
4 (11 38) 

5 00 

(12 36) 

6 1 06 

(13 30) 



4 


35 


17 


00 


5 


20 


17 


35 


6 


20 


18 


25 


7 


00 


19 


00 


7 


50 


20 


00 


8 


25 


20 


50 



11 00 
23 00 

12 00 
00 

13 00 

35 

13 30 

1 20 

14 25 

2 10 

15 00 



8 00 

(8 01) 

7 57 
(7 47) 

8 05. 
(7 44) 

7 51 

(7 22) 

7 44 

(7 24) 

7 19 

(7 14) 



(2 01) 
1 37 

(2 12) 

1 45 

(2 19) 

1 26 

(1 52) 

1 14 

(1 49) 

1 04 

(1 24) 



4.5 
3.9 
4.6 

4.0 
4.8 
3.9 
5.0 
4.0 
5.0 
4.0 
5.0 
4.0 



1.9 
1.5 

1.7 
1.4 
1.4 
1.2 
1.5 
1.1 
1.1 
0.9 
1.1 



80 



TIDES AND DENCH MARKS 



FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. 



Date. 




Time of — 


Lunitidal Interval. 


Height of — 


Year 


Moon's 


High Low 


Higli Low 


High Low 


1903. 


Transits. 


Watei-. Water. 


Water. Water. 


Water. Water. 



mo. d. h. m. h. m. h. m. h. m. 

Dec. 7 i! 00 9 20 3 00 7 14 

(14 35) (21 40) (15 55) 

8 3 05 10 10 (3 50) 

(15 33) 22 35 16 50 

9 4 02 11 00 4 40 

(16 29) (23 40) 18 00 

10 4 56 11 50 (0 35) 

(17 22) .... 19 00 

11 5 48 50 6 30 

(18 14) 13 00 19 50 

■ 12 6 39 2 00 8 00 

(19 04) 14 00 21 00 

13 7 28 3 00 9 15 

(19 53) 15 10 21 45 

14 8 IS (3 55) (10 15) 

(20 42) (16 10) 22 35 

15 9 07 4 50 11 15 

(21 32) 17 10 (23 15) 

16 9 57 (5 40) .... 

(22 22) 17 50 (12 10) 

Half monthly .sums 

17 10 47 6 30 

(28 12) 18 45 

18 11 37 7 10 

.... 19 10 

19 (0 02) 8 10 

12 27 20 00 
20 (0 52) 8 30 

13 16 • 20 50 
21 (1 40) 9 15 

14 03 21 35 
22 (2 26) 10 00 

14 49 22 15 
23 (3 12) 10 30 4 00 

15 34 (22 55) 17 10 
24 (3 55) (11 10) (4 45) 

16 17 (23 35) (17 45) 
25 (4 38) (11 55) (5 30) 

17 00 .... (18 25) 
26 (5 21) (0 20) (6 15) 

17 43 (12 35) 19 00 
27 (6 05) 1 00 7 00 

18 27 13 20 19 45 
28 (6 49) 2 15 (8 15) 

19 12 (14 20) 20 45 
29 (7 36) 3 10 9 30 

20 01 15 15 -21 40 
30 (S 26) 4 00 10 30 

20 53 16 10 22 40 
31 (9 20) 5 00 11 35 

21 48 17 18 23 30 



00 

13 00 

50 

14 00 

1 35 

14 30 

2 10 

15 00 

2 45 

15 40 

3 30 

16 20 



(7 


05) 


7 


05 


(7 


02) 


6 


58 


(7 


11) 


6 


54 


(7 


28) 


7 


12 


(T 


46) 


7 


21 


(7 


56) 


7 


42 


(8 


02) 


7 


52 


(8 


08) 


8 


03 


(8 


08) 


7 


53 




SI 


223 


808 


(8 


08) 


7 


58 


(7 


58) 


7 


33 


(8 


08) 


7 


33 


(7 


38) 


7 


34 


(7 


35) 


7 


32 


(7 


34) 


7 


20 


(7 


18) 


7 


21 


(7 


15) 


7 


18 


(7 


17) 


7 


20 


(7 


14) 


7 


17 


(7 


15) 


7 


48 


(7 


31) 


7 


58 


(7 


39) 


7 


59 


(7 


44) 


8 


07 


(7 


58) 



Half monthl.v sums 306 896 



h. m. 

54 
(1 20) 

45 
(1 17) 

38 
(1 31) 

39 
(1 38) 

42 
(1 36) 

1 21 
(1 56) 

1 47 
(1 52) 

1 57 
(1 53) 

2 08 
(1 43) 

2 13 

30 

30 993 

(1 38) 

2 13 
(1 38) 

2 23 
(1 33) 

2 03 
(1 18) 

1 44 
(1 05) 

1 37 
(1 04) 

1 31 
(0 48) 

1 36 
(0 50) 

1 28 
(0 52) 

1 25 
(0 54) 

1 17 
(0 55) 

1 18 
(1 26) 

1 33 
(1 54) 

1 39 
(2 04) 

1 47 
(2 15) 

1 42 

SO 
30 930 



feet. 
5.1 

(4.1) 
5.0 
4.2 
4.9 

(4.2) 
4.6 

4.2 
4.2 
4.2 
4.0 
4.4 
3.9 
(4.5) 
(3.9) 
4.5 
3.9 
(4.6) 
3.9 

31 
136 

4.7 

3.9 

4.7 

3.8 

4.6 

3.5 

4.5 

3.6 

4.3 

3.5 

4.3 

3.6 

4.2 

(3.5) 

(4.1) 

(3.6) 

(4.0) 

(3.7) 
(3.8) 
3.6 
3.6 
3.8 
(3.6) 
3.9 
3.5 
4.1 
3.6 
4.3 
3.5 

■a 
113.4 



feet. 
1.0 

(1.2) 

(1.2) 
1.3 
1.5 
1.5 

(1.5) 
1.3 
1.6 
1.3 
1.7 
1.3 
1.6 
1.2 

(1.6) 
1.2 
1.8 

(1.2) 

(1.6) 

80' 
41.3 

1.3 
1.5 

1.3 

1.4 

1.2 

1.3 

1.3 

1.4 

1.2 

1.4 

1.4 

1.5 

1.7 

1.6 

(1.9) 

(1.8) 

(2.0) 

(1.9) 

(2.0) 

1.7 

1.9 

1.5 

(1.8) 

1.5 

1.8 

1.3 

1.7 

1.1 

1.5 

1.0 

30 
45.9 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



81 



FIKST REDUCTION.— Continued. 



Date. Time of — Lunitidai Interval 

Year Moon's HIgli Low Higli Low 

1904. Transits. Water. Water. Water. Water. 

mo. a. h. m. li. m. li. m. li. m. 

Jan. 1 (10 IT) 5 45 .... 7 57 

22 47 17 50 12 25 (7 32) 

2 (11 17) 6 40 15 7 53 

2?. 48 IS 45 13 15 (7 28) 

3 7 25 1 00 7 37 

(12 18) 19 35 14 10 (7 17) 

4 49 8 15 2 00 7 26 

(13 19) 20 30 15 00 (7 11) 

5 1 49 9 20 2 40 7 31 

(14 18) 21 30 15 45 (7 12) 

6 2 47 9 50 3 40 7 03 

(15 15) 22 30 16 30 (7 15) 

7 3 42 10 50 4 30 7 08 

(16 09) 23 35 17 15 (7 26) 

8 4 35 11 45 5 35 7 10 

(17 01) .... 18 20 ... 

9 5 26 30 6 30 (7 29) 

(17 51) 12 40 19 10 7 14 

10 6 16 1 20 7 45 (7 29) 

(18 40) 13 40 20 00 7 24 

11 7 05 2 30 8 50 (7 50) 

(19 30) 14 45 21 00 7 40 

12 7 54 3 30. 10 00 (8 00) 

(20 19) 15 50 21 55 7 56 

13 8 44 4 20 11 10 (8 01) 

(21 09) 16 50 22 40 8 06 

14 9 34 5 10 12 00 (8 01) 

(21 58) 17 15 23 45 7 41 

15 10 23 6 00 .... (8 02) 

(22 47) 18 15 12 25 7 52 

16 1112 6 50 20 (8 03) 

(23 36) 19 00 13 20 7 48 

31 
Half monthly sums 223 763 

17 1159 7 30 50 (7 54) 

.... 19 45 13 35 7 46 

18 (0 23) 8 10 1 30 (7 47) 

12 46 20 10 14 25 7 24 
19 (1 08) 8 50 2 15 (7 42) 

13 31 21 00 15 15 7 29 
20 (1 53) 9 30 3 10 (7 37) 

14 14 21 35 15 50 7 21 
21 (2 36) 9 55 3 40 (7 19) 

14 57 22 20 16 15 7 23 
22 (3 19) 10 30 4 30 (7 11) 

15 40 22 50 16 45 7 10 
23 (4 01) 1100 4 50 (6 59) 

16 23 23 35 17 10 7 12 
24 (4 45) 1135 00 (6 50) 

17 07 .... 18 00 ... 



Height of— 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



h. m. 

(2 OS) 


feet. 
4.5 
3.8 


feet. 
1.4 


1 28 
(1 58) 


4.9 
3.9 


1.0 
1.3 


1 12 
(1 52) 


5.0 
4.2 


0.9 
1.2 


1 11 

(1 41) 


5.2 
4.0 


• 0.9 
1.1 


51 

(1 27) 


5.0 
4.0 


0.9 
1.0 


53 
(1 15) 


4.8 
4.1 


1.0 
0.9 


48 
(1 06) 


4.6 
4.4 


1.1 
1.2 


1 00 
(1 19) 


4.5 


1.6 
1.3 


1 04 
(1 19) 


4.3 
4.2 


1.6 
1.3 


1 29 
(1 20) 


4.2 
3.7 


1.6 
1.1 


1 45 
(1 30) 


4.2 
3.7 


1.6 
1.2 


2 06 
(1 36) 


4.3 
3.6 


1.6 
1.2 


2 26 
(1 31) 


4.3 
3.7 


1.5 
1.3 


2 26 
(1 47) 


4.3 
3.4 


1.5 
1.1 


2 02 


4.2 
3.3 


1.2 


(1 33) 
2 08 


4.3 
3.5 

31 
130.1 


1.1 
1.4 


30 
33 791 


SO 
37.] 


(1 14) 
1 36 


4.3 
3.6 


1.1 
1.3 


(1 07) 
1 39 


4.4 
3.5 


1.3 
1.3 


(1 07) 
1 44 


4.3 
3.4 


1.3 
1.4 


(1 17) 
1 36 


3.9 
3.4 


1.2 
1.3 


(1 04) 
1 IS 


4.2 
3.8 


1.4 
1.6 


(1 11) 
1 05 


4.1 
3.7 


1.8 
1.6 


(0 49) 
47 


3.9 
3.8 


1.8 
1.5 


(1 13) 
53 


3.6 


1.7 
1.4 



82 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. 



Date. 




Time of — 


Limitidal Interval. 


Height of — 


Year 


Moon's 


High Low 


Higli Low 


High Low 


1904. 


Ti-ansits. 


Water. Water. 


Water. Water. 


Water. Water. 



mo. d. h. m. 

.Ian. 25 (5 30) 

17 53 
26 (6 16) 

18 41 
27 (7 07) 

19 33 
28 (8 00) 

20 28 
29 (8 57) 

21 26 
30 (9 56) 

22 27 
31 (10 58) 

23 28 



h. 


12 

1 
13 



m. 



30 

25 
30 
25 

2 15 
14 15 

3 15 
(15 20) 

4 15 

16 30 

5 10 

17 10 

6 00 

18 20 



7 
(7 

7 
(7 



37 
09) 
34 
08) 
7 42 
(7 20) 
7 47 
(7 33) 
7 44 
(7 14) 
7 33 
(7 22) 

29 
Half monthly sums 200 905 



h. m. 

6 50 
19 00 

7 45 

19 50 

8 40 

20 35 
(9 40) 

21 35 

10 45 

22 25 

11 30 

23 30 

12 35 



h. m. 

7 23 

(6 55) 



h. m. 

(1 20) 

1 07 

(1 29) 
1 09 

(1 33) 
1 02 

(1 40) 
1 07 

(1 48) 

59 
(1 34) 

1 03 

(1 37) 
25 730 



feet. 
3.8 
3.6 
3.8 
3.4 
4.0 
3.5 
4.2 

(3.6) 
4.4 
3.7 
4.6 
3.8 
0.0 
4.3 

29 
113.6 



feet. 
1.8 
1.4 
1.7 
1.4 
1.9 
1.4 

(1.7) 
1.3 
1.6 
1.0 
1.4 
0.8 

1.4 

29 
41.8 



Feb. 1 (1158) 7 00 25 

.... 19 20 13 40 

2 28 7 50 1 20 

(12 58) (20 15) (14 25) 

3 1 27 8 50 (2 20) 

(13 55) 21 10 15 15 

4 2 23 9 35 3 20 

(14 50) 22 10 15 50 

5 3 17 10 20 4 15 

(15 43) 23 00 16 40 

6 4 09 11 10 5 10 

(16 35) .... 17 35 

7 3 00 00 10 

(17 26) 12 00 IS 30 

8 5 51 1 00 7 20 

(18 16) 13 15 19 25 

9 6 41 2 00 8 25 

(19 06) 14 25 20 25 

10 7 31 3 00 9 20 

(19 56) 15 25 (21 20) 

11 8 20 (4 00) 10 30 

(20 45) 16 20 22 15 

12 9 09 5 00 11 35 

(21 33) 17 15 23 20 

13 9 56 5 50 .... 

(22 20) 18 00 12 10 

14 10 43 6 30 00 

(23 06) (18 40) 12 35 

15 11 28 (7 05) (0 40) 

(23 51) (19 20) 13 30 

16 (7 35) (1 20) 

12 13 20 00 (14 00) 



Half monthly sums. 



7 32 
(7 22) 

7 22 
(7 17) 

7 23 
(7 15) 

7 12 
(7 20) 

7 03 
(7 17) 

7 01 

(7 25) 
7 00 

(7 34) 
7 24 

(7 44) 
7 44 

(7 54) 

7 54 
(8 04) 

8 00 
(8 15) 

8 06 

(8 17) 

8 04 
(S 10) 

7 57 
(7 59) 

7 52 
(7 44) 

7 47 

SI 

234 778 



57 
(1 42) 

52 
(1 27) 

53 
(1 20) 

57 
(1 00) 

58 
(0 57) 

1 01 
(1 00) 

1 10 
(1 04) 

1 29 
(1 09) 

1 44 
(1 19) 

1 49 
(1 24) 

2 10 
(1 30) 

2 26 
(1 47) 

2 14 
(1 40) 

1 52 
(1 34) 

2 02 

(1 29) 
1 47 

31 
29 943 



5.2 

4.1 
4.9 
(4.3) 
4.8 
4.4 
4.5 
4.1 
4.2 
4.1 
3.9 

4.0 
3.7 
4.0 
3.4 
3.9 
3.3 
4.1 
3.5 
(4.2) 
3.4 
4.2 
3.6 
4.3 
3.5 
4.1 
(3.7) 
(4.2) 
(3.9) 
(4.3) 
4.0 

31 

126.8 



0.9 

0.9 

0.5 
(0.7) 
(0.6) 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.8 

0.7 
1.0 
0.8 
1.3 
1.0 
1.4 
1.1 
1.5 
1.3 
1.7 

(1.4) 
1.7 
1.5 
1.8 
1.5 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XV 




FUJ. .1. — Mt.W l)t llDAl' CAMBER AM) TIDE GAUGE HOUSE, XASSAU 




Fig. 2. — view or bench maek no. 1 and monument, Nassau 



VIEAVS ILLUSTRATING WORK ON TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



S3 



FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. 



Date. 

Tear Moon's 

1904. Transits. 

mo. d. h. m. 

Feb. 17 (0 34) 

12 56 

18 (1 17) 

13 39 
19 (2 00) 

14 22 
20 (2 43) 

15 05 
21 (3 27) 

15 50 
22 (4 13) 

IG 36 
23. . (5 00) 

17 25 
24 (5 51) 

18 17 
25 (0 44) 

19 12 

26 (7 40) 

20 09 
27 (8 38) 

21 08 
28 (9 38) 

22 07 
29 (10 37) 

23 06 

Half monthly sums 

Mar. 1 (11 35) 

2 04 

(12 32) 
3 1 00 

(13 28) 
4 1 55 

(14 22) 
5 2 48 

(15 15) 
6 3 41 

(16 08) 
7 4 34 

(16 59) 
8 5 25 

(17 50) 
9 6 15 

(18 40) 
10 7 05 

(19 29) 
11 7 53 

(20 17) 



Time of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



Lunitidal Interval. 

Higli Low 

Water. Water. 



Ileiglit of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



h. m. 

8 10 

20 30 


h. m. 

2 00 

14 25 


h. 

7 


m. 
36) 
34 


h. m. 

(1 26) 

1 29 


feet. 

4.3 

3.9 


feet. 
1.4 
1.4 


S 50 
21 10 


2 30 
15 00 


(7 
7 


33) 
31 


(1 13) 
1 21 


4.0 
3.7 


1.3 
1.3 


9 20 
21 35 


3 15 
15 20 


(7 

7 


20) 
13 


(1 15) 
38 


3.9 
3.9 


1.2 

1.4 


9 50 
22 10 


3 40 
16 00 


( 7 

7 


07) 
05 


(0 57) 
55 


4.0 
4.0 


1.6 
1.5 


10 20 

23 00 


4 20 
16 40 


(0 


53) 
10 


(0 33) 
50 


3.8 
4.0 


1.7 
1.4 


11 15 
23 45 


5 25 
17 25 


( 7 


02) 
09 


(1 12) 
49 


3.6 
3.8 


1.7 
1.4 


12 00 


6 10 
18 00 


(7 


00) 


(1 10) 
35 


3.4 


1.5 
1.3 


50 
12 50 


6 50 
19 00 


7 
(6 


25 
59) 


(0 30) 
43 


3.8 
3.5 


1.7 
1.5 


1 35 

(14 00) 


7 50 
(20 00) 


7 
(7 


IS 
16) 


(1 06) 

48 


4.0 
(3.3) 


1.7 

(1.3) 


(2 45) 
15 00 


9 10 
21 00 


7 
(7 


33 

20) 


(1 30) 
51 


(4.2) 
3.6 


1.7 
1.4 


3 50 
16 15 


10 10 
22 20 


(7 


41 

37) 


(1 32) 
1 12 


4.4 
3.7 


1.6 
1.1 


4 50 
(17 15) 


(11 00) 
(23 10) 


(7 


42 
37) 


(1 22) 
1 03 


4.5 
(4.1) 


(1.3) 
(1.0) 


(5 40) 
18 10 


(11 55) 


7 
(7 


33 
33) 


(1 IS) 

as 
14 S07 


(4.7) 
4.4 


(1.0) 




. 1T:3 


(ill 


25 
98.5 


25 
36.4 


6 30 
19 15 


00 
12 45 


7 

(7 


24 
40) 


54 
(1 10) 


4.9 
4.5 


0.9 
0.8 


7 25 
19 50 


1 15 
13 43 


(7 


21 
18) 


1 11 
(1 13) 


4.8 
4.7 


0.7 
0.8 


8 15 
20 50 


2 00 
14 35 


7 
(7 


15 

22) 


1 00 
(1 07) 


4.9 
4.0 


0.8 
0.9 


20 
21 45 


3 00 
15 25 


7 
(7 


25 
23) 


1 05 
(1 03) 


4.7 
4.7 


1.1 
1.0 


10 00 
22 30 


3 50 
16 00 


7 
(7 


12 
15) 


1 02 
(0 45) 


4.4 
4.8 


1.1 
1.1 


10 45 
23 25 


(5 00) 
17 00 


7 
(7 


04 
17) 


1 19 

(0 52) 


4.1 
4.6 


(1.4) 
1.3 


11 35 


(5 55) 
17 50 


7 


01 


1 21 
(0 51) 


4.0 


(1.6) 
1.4 


15 
12 40 


6 45 
16 50 


7 


16) 
13 


1 20 
(1 00) 


4.5 
3.9 


1.8 

1.7 


1 30 
14 00 


7 50 
19 50 


(7 


40) 
45 


1 35 

(1 10) 


4.4 
3.8 


1.9 

1.7 


2 20 
14 40 


8 45 
20 40 


(7 

7 


40) 
35 


1 40 
(1 11) 


4.1 
3.4 


1.9 
1.6 


3 20 
10 00 


10 00 
21 45 


(7 
8 


51) 
07 


2 07 

(1 28) 


4.1 
3.6 


1.8 
1.8 



84 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. 



, Date. 
Year Moon's 

1904. Transits. 

mo. d. h. m. 

Mar. 12 8 40 

(21 03) 
13 9 26 

(21 48) 
14 10 10 

(22 32) 
15 10 54 

(23 16) 
16 11 37 

(23 58) 

Half monthly sums 

17 

12 20 
18 (0 42) 

13 04 
19 (1 26) 

13 48 
20 (2 11) 

14 34 
21 (2 58) 

15 22 
22 (3 47) 

16 13 
23 (4 39) 

17 06 
24 (5 33) 

18 00 
25 (6 28) 

18 56 
26 (7 25) 

19 54 
27 (8 22) 

20 50 
28 (9 19) 

21 47 
29 (10 15) 

22 42 
30 (11 10) 

23 38 
31 

(12 05) 

Half monthly sums 

Apr. 1 32 

(12 59) 

2 1 26 

(13 53) 

3 2 20 

(14 47) 



Time of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



Lunitidal Interval. 

High Low 

Water. Water. 



Height of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



h. m. 

4 25 

16 50 

5 20 

17 35 

5 50 

18 00 

6 25 

19 00 

7 30 
19 25 



7 


45 


19 


50 


8 


00 


20 


40 


9 


10 


21 


10 


9 


20 


21 


45 


10 


00 


22 


25 


10 


40 


23 


15 


11 


25 





20 


12 


20 


1 


10 


13 


30 


2 


10 


14 


50 


3 


25 


16 


00 


4 


25 


16 


50 


5 


20 


17 


50 


6 


10 


IS 


35 


7 


10 


19 


35 



7 


50 


20 


25 


8 


40 


21 


10 


9 


30 


22 


10 



h. 


m. 


10 


40 


22 


30 


11 


30 


23 


25 


12 


10 





10 


12 


35 


1 


00 


13 


35 



1 


40 


13 


35 


(2 


25) 


14 


10 


3 


10 


15 


00 


3 


30 


15 


25 


4 


00 


10 


00 


5 


00 


16 


35 


6 


00 


17 


25 


6 


35 


18 


30 


7 


50 


19 


30 


8 


30 


20 


40 


9 


SO 


21 


50 


10 


40 


22 


43 


11 


30 





00 


12 


30 





30 


13 


13 



1 


50 


14 


00 


o 


50 


14 


45 


3 


40 


15 


40 



h. m. 

8 08) 

8 10 

8 17) 

8 09 

8 02) 

7 50 

7 53) 

8 06 
8 14) 
7 48 



.'SI 
26 703 



7 47) 
7 30 
7 18) 
7 36 
7 44) 
7 22 
7 09) 
7 11 
7 02) 
7 03 

6 53) 

7 02 

6 46) 

7 14 

6 47) 

7 10 
7 02) 
7 14 
7 25) 
7 31 
7 38) 
7 35 
7 31) 
7 33 
7 35) 
7 28 
7 25) 
7 32 
7 30) 



29 
200 753 



7 18 
7 26) 
7 14 
7 17) 
7 10 



23) 



h. m. 


feet. 


feet. 


2 00 


4.2 


2.0 


(1 27) 


3.8 


1.8 


2 04 


4.3 


1.8 


(1 37) 


3.9 
4.3 


1.8 


2 00 


4.0 


1.8 


(1 38) 


4.1 


1.6 


1 41 


3.9 


1.4 


(1 44) 


4.2 


1.4 


1 58 


4.1 


1.6 


SI 
31 693 


31 

133.6 


31 
44.3 


(1 42) 


4.0 


1.3 


1 15 


4.0 


1.3 


(1 43) 


4.0 


(1.4) 


1 06 


4.4 


1.4 


(1 44) 


4.1 


1.6 


1 12 


4.5 


1.5 


(1 19) 


4.0 


1.7 


51 


4.4 


1.4 


(1 02) 


4.0 


1.7 


38 


4.3 


1.4 


(1 13) 


3.7 


1.6 


22 


4.3 


1.4 


(1 21) 


3.6 


1.7 


19 




1.4 


(1 02) 


4.3 


1.7 


30 


3.5 


1.5 


(1 22) 


4.4 


1.7 


34 


3.6 


1.6 


(1 25) 


4.4 


1.8 


46 


3.8 


1.6 


(1 28) 


4.5 


1.7 


1 00 


4.0 


1.6 


(1 21) 


4.9 


1.7 


5S 


4.5 


1.5 


(1 15) 


4.9 
5.0 


1.4 


1 18 


5.0 


1.3 


(1 20) 


4.9 


1.1 


1 12 


4.7 


1.0 


(1 10) 


4.9 


0.7 


w 
21 688 


29 
124.6 


29 
43.7 


1 IS 


4.5 


0.9 


(1 01) 


5.0 


0.8 


1 24 


4.3 


1.1 


(0 52) 


4.9 


0.8 


1 20 


4.1 


1.1 


(0 53) 


4.7 


1.0 



THE BAHAMA ISLAXDS 



85 



FIRST REDUCTION. — Continued. 



Date. 

Year Moon's 

1904. Transits. 

mo. d. h. m. 

Apr. 4 3 13 

(15 40) 

5 4 06 

(10 32) 

6 4 57 

(17 22) 

7 5 47 

(18 11) 

8 6 35 

(18 59) 

9 7 22 

(19 44) 

10 8 07 

(20 29) 

11 8 51 

(21 12) 

12 9 34 

(21 55) 

13 10 17 

(22 39) 

14 11 00 

(23 23) 

15 11 45 

16 (0 08) 

12 31 

Half montiily sums 

17 (0 55) 

13 19 
18 (1 44) 

14 10 
19 (2 36) 

15 02 
20 (3 29) 

15 56 
21 (4 24) 

16 52 
22 (5 ^) 

17 48 
23 (6 15) 

18 43 
24 (7 10) 

19 38 

25 (8 05) 

20 32 

26 (8 58) 

21 25 

27 (9 52) 

22 18 



Time of — 
Higli Low 

Water. Water. 



Lunitidai Interval. 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



Height of— 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



h. 


m. 


10 


15 


22 


50 


11 


20 


23 


40 


12 


00 





35 


13 


00 


1 


30 


14 


15 


2 


40 


15 


10 


3 


25 


16 


10 


4 


20 


16 


45 


5 


10 


17 


40 


5 


50 


IS 


20 


6 


30 


18 


50 


7 


00 


19 


30 


7 


40 


20 


15 



h. 


m. 


4 


25 


16 


15 


5 


25 


17 


25 


6 


25 


18 


10 


7 


10 


19 


10 


8 


10 


20 


10 


9 


00 


21 


00 


9 


50 


22 


10 


10 


35 


22 


45 


11 


10 


23 


40 


12 


00 





25 


12 


30 


1 


00 


13 


10 


1 


40 


13 


35 



8 20 


2 25 


20 45 


14 20 


9 00 


3 15 


21 30 


15 00 


9 45 


3 50 


22 10 


15 30 


(10 35) 


4 40 


(23 05) 


(16 20) 


11 30 


(5 40) 




17 15 


00 


6 35 


12 30 


IS 20 


1 10 


7 30 


13 25 


19 40 


2 00 


8 25 


(14 25) 


(20 35) 


(3 00) 


(9 15) 


(15 30) 


(21 25) 


(4 00) 


(10 10) 


16 35 


22 20 


(5 00) 


11 00 


(17 35) 


23 50 



h. m. 
7 02 
7 10) 
7 14 
7 OS) 

7 03 
7 13) 
7 13 
7 19) 
7 40 
7 41) 
7 48 

7 41) 

8 03 
7 51) 
7 54 
7 58) 
S 06 

7 55) 

8 03 
7 51) 
7 50 
7 37) 
7 45 
7 32) 
7 44 



31 
230 849 



7 25) 
7 26 
7 16) 
7 20 
7 09) 
7 OS 
7 06) 
7 09 
7 06) 

7 08 
7 10) 
7 22 
7 10) 

7 17 
7 15) 

7 22 
7 25) 

7 28 
7 37) 

7 35 
7 43) 



h. Di. 
1 12 

35) 

1 19 

53) 

1 2S 

48) 

1 23 

59) 

1 35 
1 11) 
1 38 
1 16) 
1 43 
1 41) 
1 44 
1 33) 
1 36 
1 45) 



1 43 
1 46) 
1 30 
1 37) 
1 25 
1 32) 
1 04 



31 
26 1004 



1 30) 
1 01 
1 31) 

50 

1 14) 

28 

1 11) 

24 

1 16) 

23 

1 15) 

32 

1 15) 

57 

1 15) 

57 

1 10) 

53 

1 12) 

55 

1 OS) 
1 32 



feet. 
3.9 
4.4 
3.7 

4.2 

3.5 

4.2 

3.7 

4.2 

3.6 

4.1 

3.7 

4.1 

3.6 

3.9 

3.8 

4.0 

4.0 

4.1 

4,4 

4.2 

4.5 

4.1 

4.5 

4.0 

4.7 

.SI 
138.6 

4.1 

4.8 
4.3 
4.9 
4.1 

4.8 
(3.8) 
(4.6) 

4.0 

4.7 
3.8 
4.6 
3.8 
4.4 
(4.0) 

(4.3) 
(4.4) 

(4.3) 
4.6 
(4.4) 
(4.9) 



feet. 
1.3 
1.3 
1.5 
1.4 
1.6 
1.6 
1.9 
1.9 
1.9 
1.9 
2.0 
2.0 

i.y 

1.8 
1.7 
1.7 
1.7 
1.8 

1.7 
1.9 
1.7 
1.7 
1.4 
1.6 
1.5 

31 
48.1 

1.7 
1.4 
1.7 
1.6 

1.8 
1.5 
1.8 
(1.5) 
(1.7) 
1.7 
1.8 
1.7 
1.7 
l.U 

1.5 
(1.5) 

(1.4) 

(1.5) 

(1.3) 

1.4 

1.2 
1.4 



86 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. 



Date. 

Year Moon's 

1904. Transits. 

mo. d. li. m. 

Apr. 2S (10 45) 

23 11 
29 (11 38) 

30 05 

(12 32) 

Half montlilj^ sums 

May 1 59 

(13 26) 

2 1 52 

(14 19) 

3 2 46 

(15 12) 

4 3 37 

(16 03) 

5 4 27 

(16 52) 

6 5 15 

(17 39) 

7 6 02 

(18 24) 

8 6 46 

(19 08) 

9 7 29 

(19 51) 

10 8 12 

(20 34) 

11 8 55 

(21 17) 

12 9 39 

(22 02) 

13 10 25 

(22 48) 

14 11 13 

(23 37) 

15 

12 03 

16 (0 29) 

12 56 

Half monthly sums 

17 (1 23) 

13 50 
18 (2 18) 

14 47 

19 (3 15) 

15 43 

20 (4 12) 

16 39 



Time of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



Lunitidal Interval. 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



Height of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



h. m. 
6 00 

18 35 

6 50 

19 15 

7 35 

20 10 



8 35 

21 00 

9 25 

22 00 

10 20 

22 40 

11 00 

23 50 



h. m. 

12 00 

35 

12 40 

1 30 

13 35 



8 25 


2 00 


20 50 


14 25 


9 00 


3 10 


(21 35) 


(15 05) 


10 00 


(4 05) 


22 20 


15 50 


10 50 


5 00 


(23 10) 


17 00 


11 35 


(5 50) 




17 40 


00 


6 35 


12 40 


18 30 


50 


7 30 


13 45 


19 45 


1 35 


8 25 


14 30 


20 50 


2 40 


8 50 


15 30 


21 25 


3 40 


9 40 


16 20 


22 25 


4 30 


10 25 


17 00 


23 10 


5 10 


11 00 


17 40 


23 50 


5 55 


11 50 


18 25 




6 25 


30 


19 00 


12 20 


7 15 


1 20 


19 45 


12 50 


8 00 


2 00 


20 20 


13 40 



2 


40 


14 


20 


3 


30 


lo 


00 


4 


25 


16 


10 


5 


20 


17 


30 



87 
189 633 



h. m. 

7 42 
7 50) 
7 39 
7 37) 
7 30 
7 38) 



26 

24) 

08 

16) 

14 

OS) 

13 

07) 

OS 



7 08) 



7 11) 
7 43 
7 11) 
7 44 

7 32) 

8 01 

7 49) 

8 08 

7 56) 

8 05 

7 53) 

8 01 

7 53) 

8 00 
7 37) 
7 47 
7 38) 
7 42 
7 31) 
7 24 



81 
222 743 



7 12) 
7 10 
7 07) 
7 13 
7 05) 
6 57 

6 48) 

7 11 



h. m. 

(1 15) 

1 24 

(1 02) 

1 25 

(1 03) 



31 
23 106S 



(1 17) 

30 

(1 12) 

13 

(1 10) 

27 

(1 08) 

51 



feet. 

4.5 

5.1 

4.5 

5.2 

4.4 

5.2 



31 
131.6 

4.0 
5.1 
4.0 

5.0 
4.0 
4.9 
4.0 
4.8 



feet. 

1.1 
1.4 
1.1 
1.3 
1.1 



27 
18 6,i8 


27 
120.5 


27 
40.4 


1 01 

(0 59) 


4.2 
5.2 


1.3 
1.2 


1 18 
(0 46) 


4.2 
(5.0) 


1.5 
(1.4) 


1 19 

(0 38) 


4.1 

4.8 


(1.6) 
1.6 


1 33 

(0 57) 


3.8 
(4.6) 


1.7 
1.7 


1 23 

(0 48) 


3.6 


(1.8) 
1.9 


1 20 

(0 51) 


4.3 
3.6 


1.9 
2.0 


1 28 
(1 21) 


4.3 
3.9 


2.0 
2.2 


1 39 

(1 42) 


4.2 
3.8 


1.9 
2.1 


1 21 
(1 34) 


4.1 
4.0 


2.0 
2.1 


1 28 
(1 51) 


4.0 
4.1 


1.0 
2.1 


1 30 

(1 53) 


4.0 
4.1 


1.8 
1.9 


1 21 

(1 48) 


3.9 
4.4 


1.6 
1.9 


1 25 


4.0 
4.5 


1.5 


(1 42) 
1 07 


3.9 

4.8 


1.6 
1.4 


(1 43) 
47 


4.0 
5.0 


1.7 
1.5 


(1 31) 
44 


4.1 
5.0 


1.7 
1.4 



1.6 
1.4 
1.6 
1.4 
1.6 
1.5 
1.6 
1.6 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



87 



PIEST REDUCTION.— Continued. 



Date. 

Year Moon's 

1904. Transits. 

mo. a. b. m. 

May 21 (3 07) 

17 34 
22 (6 01) 

18 28 
23 (6 54) 

19 20 
24 (7 46) 

20 12 

25 (8 37) 

21 03 
26 (9 29) 

21 55 
27 (10 21) 

22 48 
28 (11 14) 

23 41 
29 

(12 07) 

30 34 

(13 00) 

81 1 26 

(13 52) 



Time of — Lunitidal Interval. Helglit of — 

High Low Higli Low Higli Low 

Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. Water. 



Half montlily sums. 



June 1 2 18 

(14 43) 
2 3 07 

(15 31) 
3 3 55 

(16 18) 
4 4 40 

(17 03) 
5 5 24 

(17 46) 
6 6 07 

(18 29) 
7 6 50 

(19 12) 
8 7 33 

(19 55) 
9 8 18 

(20 40) 
10 9 04 

(21 28) 
11 9 53 

(22 18) 
12 10 45 

(23 12) 
13 11 40 



h. m. 
12 00 


li. m. 

6 00 

18 20 


h. m. 
(6 53) 


li. m. 

(0 53) 

46 


feet. 
4.2 


feet. 
1.6 
1.9 


30 
13 30 


7 00 
19 20 


6 36 

(7 29) 


(0 59) 
52 


4.8 
4.3 


1.8 
1.9 


2 00 
14 30 


8 20 
20 40 


7 32 
(7 36) 


(1 26) 
1 20 


4.6 
4.4 


1,5 
1.7 


2 40 
15 45 


9 00 
21 45 


7 20 
(7 39) 


(1 14) 
1 33 


4.4 
4.6 


1,4 
1.7 


4 00 
16 30 


10 00 
23 00 


7 48 
(7 53) 


(1 23) 
1 57 


4.3 
4,7 


1.3 
1.7 


5 00 
17 30 


11 00 
23 50 


7 57 
(8 01) 


(1 31) 
1 55 


4.2 
5.0 


1.3 
1.7 


5 35 
18 00 


11 40 


7 40 

(7 39) 


(1 19) 


4.3 
5.0 


1.4 


6 30 
19 00 


35 
12 30 


7 42 
(7 46) 


1 47 
(1 16) 


4.2 
5.1 


1,5 
1,3 


7 20 
19 50 


1 30 
13 20 


7 39 
(7 43) 


1 40 
(1 13) 


4.2 
5.1 


1,6 
1,3 


8 00 
20 25 


2 25 
14 00 


7 26 
(7 25) 


1 51 
(1 00) 


4.1 
5.1 


1.6 

1.5 


9 00 
21 00 


3 00 
14 35 


7 34 
(7 OS) 


1 34 
(0 43) 

29 
20 909 


4.1 
5.0 


1.7 
1.6 




ail 
. 200 919 


29 


29 
45.3 

1.7 
1.7 


9 40 
22 00 


3 50 
15 30 


7 22 
(7 17) 


1 32 
(0 47) 


4.0 
4.8 


10 40 
23 00 


4 40 
16 35 


7 33 
(7 29) 


1 33 

(1 04) 


3.9 

4.5 


1.8 
1.8 


11 25 
23 20 


5 35 
17 W) 


7 30 
(7 02) 


1 40 
(0 52) 


3.9 

4.4 


1.9 
1.9 


12 00 


6 20 
18 00 


7 20 


1 40 
(0 57) 


3.9 


1.9 
2.1 


20 
12 35 


6 50 
19 00 


(7 17) 
7 11 


1 26 
(1 14) 


4.3 

3.8 


1.9 
2.2 


1 15 
14 00 


7 25 
20 00 


(7 29) 
7 53 


1 18 
(1 31) 


4,1 
4,0 


1.9 

2,2 


2 00 
14 30 


8 30 
21 00 


(7 31) 
7 40 


1 40 

(1 -18) 


4,1 
4,1 


2,0 
2,2 


2 35 
15 20 


9 00 
21 30 


(7 23) 
7 47 


1 27 
(1 35) 


3.9 
4.2 


1.8 
2.2 


3 15 
16 15 


9 35 
22 30 


(7 20) 
7 57 


1 17 
(1 50) 


3.9 
4.5 


1.9 
2.2 


4 15 
17 00 


10 30 
23 20 


(7 35) 
7 56 


1 26 

(1 52) 


4.0 
4,7 


1.8 
2.1 


5 00 
17 25 


11 15 
23 55 


(7 32) 
7 32 


1 22 
(1 37) 


4,1 
5,1 


1.8 
2.1 


5 35 
18 15 


11 40 


(7 17) 
7 30 


55 


4.2 
5.2 


1.8 


6 25 
19 20 


25 
12 30 


(7 13) 
7 40 


(1 13) 
50 


4.3 
5.3 


2.0 
1.7 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



FIRST REDUCTION.— Continued. 



Date. 

Year Moon's 

1904. Transits. 

mo. d. h. m. 

June 14 (0 08) 

12 36 
15 (1 06) 

13 35 
16 (2 04) 

14 33 



Time of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



Lunitidal Interval. 

Higli Low 

Water. Water. 



h. m. 

7 35 

20 10 

8 40 

21 00 
10 00 

22 15 



h. 

1 

14 

O 

14 
3 



m. 
30 
00 
30 
25 
30 



16 00 



Half monthly sums. 



h. m. 
(7 27) 

7 34 
(7 34) 

7 25 
(7 56) 

7 42 

31 
217 954 



h. m. 
(1 22) 
1 24 

(1 24) 

50 
(1 26) 

1 27 

Rl 
26 1039 



Height of — 
High Low 

Water. Water. 



feet. 
4.4 
5.4 
4.4 
5.2 
4.3 
5.2 

31 
136.1 



feet. 
1.9 
1.6 
1.8 
1.5 
1.6 
1.5 

31 
68.6 



17 (3 01) 

15 29 
18 (3 57) 

16 24 
19 (4 51) 

17 17 
20 (5 43) 

18 09 
21 (6 35) 

19 00 
22 (7 25) 

19 51 
23 (8 16) 

20 42 
24 (9 08) 

21 34 
25 (10 00) 

22 26 
26 (10 52) 

23 18 
27 (11 44) 

28 10 

(12 35) 

29 1 00 

(13 24) 

30 1 48 

(14 12) 



10 


20 


22 


40 


11 


00 


23 


30 


12 


10 





20 


13 


20 


1 


25 


14 


15 


2 


30 


15 


15 


3 


20 


16 


15 


4 


30 


17 


15 


5 


25 


18 


00 


6 


10 


18 


50 


7 


10 


19 


30 


7 


45 


20 


15 


8 


25 


21 


00 


9 


10 


21 


30 



5 00 

16 35 

5 00 

17 00 

6 00 

18 20 

7 00 

19 15 

8 00 

20 20 

8 35 

21 30 

9 40 

22 25 

10 30 

23 30 

11 20 

15 

12 10 

1 00 

12 50 

2 00 

13 35 

2 40 

14 20 

3 20 

15 10 



(7 19) 

7 11 

(7 03) 

7 06 

(7 19) 

7 03 

(7 37) 

7 16 

(7 40) 

7 30 

(7 50) 

7 29 

(7 59) 

7 48 

(8 07) 

7 51 

(S 00) 

7 44 

(7 58) 

7 52 

(7 46) 

7 35 

(7 40) 

7 25 

(7 36) 

7 22 

(7 18) 



(1 59) 

1 06 

(1 03) 

36 

(1 09) 

1 03 
(1 17) 

1 

(1 
1 



06 

25) 

20 

10) 
39 



Half monthly sums 191 S04 



(1 
1 

(1 24) 
1 43 

(1 22) 
1 36 

(1 20) 

1 49 

(1 18) 

1 42 

(1 06) 

1 50 

(1 00) 

1 40 

(0 56) 

1 32 

(0 58) 

27 
24 749 



4.3 
5.0 
4.3 

4.8 

4.3 
4.5 
4.4 
4.5 
4.7 
4.5 
5.0 
4.4 
5.0 
4.2 
5.0 
4.2 
5.0 
4.1 
5.1 
4.1 
5.1 
4.2 
5.1 
4.2 
5.0 
4.2 
4.9 

27 
124.1 



1.5 
1.5 
1.5 
1.5 
1.4 
1.6 
1.4 
1.9 
1.6 
2.0 
1.6 
2.1 
1.7 
2.0 
1.5 
1.9 
1.5 

1.9 

1.5 

1.9 

1.6 

2.0 

1.8 

2.0 

1.9 

2.0 

2.0 

27 
46.8 



NOTE.- 



RECAPITDLATION. 
Lat. 25°05' N. Long. 77°21' W. 
-Half monthly sums. 



1903-1904. Hfw.°'^°L!w, 

1903. 
July 1-16 30 

17-31 29 

Aug. 1-16 31 

17-31 29 



Lunitidal Interval. 
High Water. Low Water. 



Mean. 
H. W. L.W. 





h. 


m. 


h. 


m. 


feet. 


feet. 


31 


217 


800 


29 


916 


129.3 


58.7 


29 


203 


981 


27 


673 


136.8 


49.3 


31 


227 


864 


35 


909 


135.9 


62.3 


29 


202 


668 


19 


909 


138.5 


50.8 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XVI 




Pig. 1. — -MARVIN METEOROGRAPH. PUBLISHED BY COURTESY OF MARY'LAND WEATHER 

SERVICE 




Fig. 2. — kite a>'d mabvin meteorograph, published by courtesy of Maryland 

WEATHER service 



VIEWS OF PHYSICAL APPARATUS 



'rHE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



89 



RECAPITULATION.— Continued. 



1903-1904. 



No. of Ob.s. 
H. W. L. W. 



Lunitidal IntervaL 
High Water. Low Water. 



Mean. 
H. W. L. W. 



1903. 
Sept. 1-16 

17-30 

Oct. 1-16 

17-31 

Nov. 1-16 

17-30 

Dec. 1-16 

17-31 



31 
27 
31 
29 
31 
27 
31 
29 



1904. 

Jan. 1-16 31 

17-31 29 

Feb. 1-16 31 

17-29 25 



Mar. 1-16. 

17-31 . 

Apr. 1-16. 



31 

29 

31 

17-30 27 



May 1-16. 

17-31. 

June 1-16. 



31 

29 

31 

17-30 27 



31 
27 
31 
29 
31 
27 
30 
30 



30 
29 
31 
25 
31 
29 
31 
27 
31 
29 
31 
27 



h. 

226 
190 
221 
204 
221 
191 
222 
206 



223 
200 
224 
173 
225 
200 
220 
189 
222 
200 
217 
191 



m. 
f)08 
Sol 
S96 
961 
808 
926 
808 
896 



763 

90.T 
778 
647 
703 
753 
849 
633 
743 
949 
954 
804 



h. 

35 
26 
32 
28 
28 
24 
30 
30 



33 

25 
29 
14 
31 
21 
25 
18 
23 
20 
25 
24 



m. 
825 
702 
855 
830 
950 
987 
993 
930 



791 
730 
943 
807 
093 
688 

1004 
658 

1058 
909 

1039 
749 



feet. 
145.2 
128.1 
145.4 
130.4 
136.1 
114.5 
135.0 
113.4 



130.1 
113.6 
125.8 
98.5 
132.6 
124.6 
128.6 
120.5 
131.5 
131.5 
136.1 
124.1 



feet. 
67.4 
50.6 
65.1 
54.5 
49.1 
50.1 
41.2 
45.9 



37.1 

41.8 
35.8 
35.4 
44.3 
42.7 
48.1 
40.4 
53.9 
45.3 
58.5 
46.8 



707 

Mean 

Correction 



707 



5014 19848 

7 33.6 

— 10.8 



631 20548 

1 22.6 

—10.8 



3086.1 
4.37 



1175.1 
1.66 



Corrected Intervals 7 22.8 1 11.8 

4.37 — 1.66 = 2.71 = uncorrected mean range. 

The mean range of tide, as given by the direct summation of high and low 
waters, usually requires to be corrected for the longitude of the moon's ascend- 
ing node, there being whole series of years during which the mean annual 
range is greater than an average for the lunar cycle, followed by another 
series of years having a smaller mean annual range than the average. For 
the series at Nassau the longitude of the moon's node is iV =: 181°. 8 for the 
middle of the series, which gives / = 18°. 3 for the inclination of the lunar 
orbit to the terrestrial equator. The corrected mean range is equal to the 
product of the observed mean range by the factor F(Mn) obtained from 
Table 14, of Appendix 7, Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 189-1. This 
gives, putting Mn for the corrected mean range, 

Mn = 2.71 X 0.972 = 2.634 ft. 

Another determination of the corrected mean range is given after the table 
of harmonic constants, where various other ranges, such as spring and neap 
range, etc., will be found. 



90 



TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 



The harmonic constants given below were obtained from the hourly heights 
of the sea at Nassau, for the year beginning July 1, 1903, by a process essen- 
tially similar to that outlined by Professor George H. Darwin, in the report of 
the British Association for the Advancement of Science, for the year 1883. 
The amplitudes (H) or semiranges of the components, and their epochs (k) 
or component-tidal intervals expressed in degrees, as given in the table, have 
been corrected by a process for eliminating the small residual efEect of one com- 
ponent upon another. 



HARMONIC CONSTANTS. 
From one year of hourly heights beginning July 1, 1903. 



Symbol. 



Ji 

K2 

L2 

Ml 

Ml 

Ms 

Mi 

M, 

2Vo 

2W 

Oi 

00 

Pi 

Oi 

20 

Si 
Ks. 
Si. 

Se 
T: 
A» 



Pi 

Ssa 



Name of Component. 



Speed per 
solar hour. 



Smaller lunar elliptic diurnal 13.5854433 

Luni-solar diurnal 15.0^10086 

Luni-solar semidiurnal 30.0821372 

Smaller lunar elliptic semidiurnal .... 29.5284788 

Smaller lunar elliptic diurnal 14.4920521 

Principal lunar series 28.9841042 

43.4761563 

57.9682084 

86.9523126 

Larger lunar elliptic semidiurnal 28.4397296 

Lunar elliptic semidiurnal, second order 27.8953548 

Lunar diurnal 13.9430356 

Lunar diurnal, second order 16.1391016 

Solar diurnal 14.9589314 

Larger lunar elliptic diurnal 13.3986609 

Lunar elliptic diurnal, second order. . . 12.8542862 

Smaller solar elliptic 30.0410686 

rrincipal solar series 15.0000000 

90.0000000 

60.0000000 

30.0000000 

Larger solar elliptic 29.9589314 

Smaller lunar evectional 29.4556254 

Variational 27.9682084 

Larger lunar evectional 28.5125830 

Larger lunar evectional diurnal 13.4715144 

Solar annual 0.0410686 

Solar semidiurnal 0.0821372 



mplitude. 


Epoch, 


H 


K 


Feet. 





0.0169 


118.73 


0.2848 


120.50 


0.0654 


246.10 


0.0459 


246.59 


0.0144 


101.97 


1.2422 


213.3f 


0.0067 


153.73 


0.0171 


65.31 


0.0059 


279.15 


0.3026 


190.54 


0.0402 


167.70 


0.2138 


124.06 


0.0092 


116.94 


0.0872 


121.59 


0.0377 


118.28 


0.0056 


127.59 


0.0017 


237.36 


0.0104 


171.96 


0.0034 


104.04 


0.0044 


318.81 


0.2101 


237.36 


0.0124 


237.36 


0.0087 


224.51 


0.0282 


202.73 


0.0675 


189.28 


0.0081 


125.59 


0.3115 


143.90 


0.1013 


32.83 



The mean lunitidal intervals may be obtained from the harmonic constants 
by the equations 

/Jl-F/ = 0.0345 (Ml—v) (1) 

LWI= 0.0345 (iff — w) + 6.31h. (2) 

where HWI = mean high water lunitidal interval 

" LWI = " low " 
and V and w are such that 



TliK BAHAMA ISLANDS 91 

2M, sin (23Po — 31",) + ^M, sin (33/.? — iM^) + 

tan r - p^j^ _|_ 323/^ ^^^ (2xM'S— 311) + S'3I, cos (3J/S — i/g) + 

_ 231, sin {231?,— 311) — S3I, sin (Sik/g — il/g) + 

tan w - _ j,j^^ _|_ 22 j^^ ^^g (2 Jf.^ — if S) — 3^Jf 6 cos (3i/2 — iB"!!) + 

From (1) and (2) we obtain 

HWI = 7h. 21. .nil. LWI = Ih. 09.4m. 

The corresponding values from the First Eeduction were 

HWI = 7h. 22.8m. LWI = Ih. 11.8m. 

which, considering the great difEerence in methods, is regarded as a very fair 
agreement. 

The sun's eifect upon the time of tide is sometimes to accelerate and some- 
times to retard its occurrence, according to the moon's phase or the relative 
positions of the moon and sun. The priming of the tides is the period when the 
tides occur sooner than the average, which roughly speaking usually occurs 
from new or full moon to the quadratures ; and the lagging of the tides is the 
period during which they occur later than the average, which is approximately 
from the quadratures to new or full moon. The theoretical limits of this 
variation in lunitidal interval due to priming and lagging of the tide are 
given by the following formulas : 

Mean minimum HWI = HWI^^^ (3) 

" maximum HWI = HWI+ ^^^^ (4) 

Extreme minimum HWI = HWI- ^^MA^ (5) 

" maximum HWI = HWI+ j/^'^JT^ ■ (6) 

For Nassau we obtain from (3), (4), (5), and (6), the following values: 
Least lunitidal intervals due to phase or priming of the tides. 

Mean Minimum Extreme minimum 

HWI = 7h. 01.3m. ' HWI = 6h. 53.6m. 

Greatest lunitidal intervals due to phase or lagging of the tides. 

Mean maximum Extreme maximum 

HWI = 7h. 44.3m. IIWI = 7h. 52.0m. 

The extreme values for priming and lagging occur when the moon is in 
apogee at the time of the equinoxes, and the moon is between three and four 
days from the new or full. 



92 TIDES AND BENCH MARKS 

The declination of the moon also makes a change in the lunitidal intervals 
and heights of the tide, which is usually greatest when the declination becomes 
a maximum, at which time the moon is not far from the tropics. Hence the 
tides diie to the moon's declination, when at their most pronounced type, are 
called tropic tides. At the time of the tropic tides the two high or two low 
waters of the same day are generally unequal, and the range from the higher 
high water to the lower low water is called the great tropic range. 

The lunitidal intervals for the tropic higher high and lower high waters 
and for the higher low and lower low waters may be obtained from the mean 
intervals as follows : 

Tropic HHWI = HWI ^ 2.07 X Table 44 (7) 

LHWI = HHl — 2.07 X " 44 (8) 

HLWI= LWr^ 2.07 X " 44 (9) 

LLWI = LWI— 2.07 X " 44. (10) 

The table referred to here is in Appendix 9, Coast and Geodetic Survey 
Report for 1897, the argument being different for each phase of tide. The 
tropic lunitidal intervals from (7), (8), (9), and (10), are: 

Tropic ffffWI = 7" 27.7"'a Tropic HLWT = 1" 34.2"' 

" Z77IF/= 7M4.0'" " ZZ ff/ = 0" 4fi.0»a. 

A tropic lunitidal interval marked a indicates that if such an interval is 
added to the time of an upper transit of the moon when in north declination, 
or to a lower transit with south declination, it will give the time of the higher 
high or lower low water, according to which interval is used. 

The tropic tides may be said to result from the combination of a semidiur- 
nal with a diurnal wave. The tropic lunitidal interval of the diurnal wave, 
putting Dj for diurnal, may be found by the equation 

D,HWI = 0.0342 {K\ + r';)a (11) 

which gives 

D,HWI=?>'' 21.9°'a. 

The mean range of tide may be ol^tained from the harmonic constants by 
the formula 



2JX,»7iil 
il/j (cos 
4- 21^6 cos {ZMl —Mt}— 2JI, 



-f il/j (cos V -j- cos w) + --'-^ 2Mi {v — iv) sin (21/'S — If?) 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 93 

which, by means-of Table 22, Appendix 7, Coast and Geodetic Survey Report 

for 1894, becomes 

Mn = 3.04 J/, X Table 22 + .035 J/, {v — w) sin {'iMl — Ml) 

+ M., (cos V + cos «') + 2il!/, cos (SyJ/.J — Jf g) — 23/^ (1 2) 

in which the v and w are the same as obtained for (1) and (2). By (12) the 
mean range of tide at Nassau from the harmonic constants is 

Mn = 2.609 ft. 
and from the high and low waters this range was found to be 

Mn = 2.634 ft. 
The spring and neap ranges of tide may be obtained from the harmonic 
constants by the formulas 

^, = 3/«-.536^+[l.96-.08(^^J] 

X IS, + /., cos (2i/.2 -SI- /.»)] (13) 

iV5. = ^n-.536-|--[l.96-.08(^>J] 

X [6\ + p., cos (2Ar» -SI- /4) J (14) 
in which the first and last letters of the words spring and neap are used as 
abbreviations. 

From (13) and (14) we obtain 

Sg = 3.051 ft., and Np = 2.129 ft. 
The' heights of the tropic tides may be f oimd by the following formulas : 

Tropic ffHW = 1.02 A. X Table 45, above MSL (15) 

" LHW= " " " " " (16) 

" HLW= " " " " (17) 

LLW= " " " " " (J 8) 

where A, = 1.010 M, + 0.27 -^ — K, cos [(.STJ — 0",) ^ (Zil — J)/2)], 

and the table is in Appendix 9 of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 
1897, different arguments 'being used for entering the table for the various 
tides. From (15), (16), (17), and (18), we find 

Tropic HHW = 1.737 ft. above mean sea level. 
" LHW = 0.735 " " " " " 
HLW =1.124: " below " " " 
LLW= 1.404 " " " " " 

The difference between the two high waters of the tropic tides is called the 
tropic high water diurnal inequality, ' abbreviated to Tropic HWQ, and the 



94 TIDES AND BENCH MAEKS 

corresponding difference for low water is called tropic low water diurnal ine- 
quality, abbreviated to Tropic LWQ. The great tropic range is the difference 
between higher high and lower low waters, the contraction being Gc. 
Tropic HWQ = 1.73T — 0.735 = 1.002 ft. 
" Xff^= 1.404— 1.124 = 0.380" 
Gc = 1.73T + 1.404 = 3.141 " 
The mean great diurnal range of tide is abbreviated Gt^ and when either 
tropic inequality is more than a cjuarter of il/w, we have 

The range of the diurnal wave may be found from the harmonic constants 
by the formula 

2D, = 3 042 (A; + Oj). (19) 

in which the diurnal wave is represented by 2D^. From (19) we obtain 

2I»i = 1.018 ft. for Nassau. 

The perigean and apogean ranges are due to the moon's varying distance, 

and may be obtained from the harmonic constants by the following formidas : 

481 i^l , r ^ SI si m{K,+ 0,f 



Pn = 3In~' ^rr ~ + 2.1 



+b- 



.481 m , 

An = 3171 — -j^ + 



X[2N+N, — L,'] (20) 

08 {K, + o,n 



2.1 



'2 31 1 ml 311 

X[:2N-{N,-L,)-\ (21) 

in which the words apogean and perigean are abbreviated to their first and 
last letters. Prom (20) and (21) we find for Nassau 
Pn = 3.190 ft., and An = 2.124 ft. 

Recapitulation. 

Non-harmonic results I'or Nassau, New Providence, Bahamas, from a year of tidal observations 
beginning July 1, 1903. 

Time Relations. 

h. m. 
Establishment of the port, or the mean high water lunitidal interval at full and change 

of the moon 7 28.7 

Corrected establishment of the port, or the mean of all high water luriitid.al intervals.. . . 7 22.8 

Mean of all low water lunitidal intervals 1 11.8 

" tropic higher high water lunitidal interval 7 27.7a 

" " lower " " " " 7 14.0 

•• higher low " '■ " 1 34.2 

" •' lower' " " " " 46.0a 

" high water lunitidal interval of the diurnal wave 8 21.9a 

" minimum high water lunitidal interval due to phase, or the priming of the tides — 7 01.3 

" ma.\imum " " " " ", " " lajrging " " — 7 44.3 

E.\treme minimum high water lunitidal interval due to phase and paralla.\ 6 53.6 

'• ma.\imum " " " " " " " " 7 52.0 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XVII 



3 • 




Fig. 1. FLYING KITES AT NASSAU 




Fig. 2. — VIEW of thunder storm north of abaco 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING WORK ON CLIMATE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



95 



Height Relations. 



Ft. 



Mean of all high waters on fl.\e(3 tide stall 4.332 

" low " " " 1.698 

" higher high waters on flxed tide staff 4.640 

" lower low " " " 1.632 

of the tropic, higher high waters on fixed tide staff 4.728 

lower " " " " 3.726 

higher low " " " 1.867 

lower " " " " 1.587 

Spring high water on fixed tide staff 4.540 

low " " " 1.489 

Neap high " " " 4.079 

low " " ■• 1.950 

Perigean high " " " ... . 4.610 

low '■ " " 1.420 

Apogean high " " " 4.077 

low" •• " 1.963 

sea level from hourly heights of the sea, on flxed tide staff 2.991 

half-tide level from high and low waters, " " 3.015 



Ranges, Inequalities, etc. 



Ft. 



Mean range of all tides 2.634 

" Springtides 3.051 

" Neap " 2.129 

" " the great tropic tides ., 3.141 

" small " ■' 1.859 

" " tides from mean higher high to mean lower low waters 3.008 

" Perigfan tides 3.190 

" " Apogean " 2.124 

" " the tropic diurnal wave 1.018 

" tropic high water diurnal inequality 1.002 

'• low " " " 0.280 

" age of the phase tides Id Oh 

parallax tides Id 18h 

diurnal " -Od 3h 



ANNUAL VARIATION IN MEAN SEA LEVEL AT NASSAU. 



Date. 



Jan. 



Feb. 



1.. 

16. 

1. 

" 16. 

Mar. 1 . 

■• 16. 



Sea level 
feet. 



-.3 
-.4 
-.4 
-.3 
-.3 
-.2 



Date. 

Apr. 1. 

" 16. 
May 1. 

" 16. 
June 1. 

" 16. 



Sea level 
feet. 

. .. -.1 
... -.1 

O 



... +.1 
... +.1 



Date. 

July 1 
■■ 16. 

Aug. 1. 
" 16. 

Sept. 1. 
" 16. 



Sea level 
feet. 

... +.1 

... +.2 

... +.2 

... +.3 

... +.3 

... +.4 



Date 

Oct. 1. 

" 16. 
Nov. 1. 

■• 16. 
Dec. 1. 

" 16. 



Sea level 
. feet. 



+.3 
+.2 
+.1 

-.1 
-.2 



The above table was computed from the formula 

X = Sa cos (Ji — Sa") + Ssa cos {2h — Ssa") 
where x = heiglit of mean sea level, -f- when above, — when below the mean 
of entire year. 

h = the mean longitude of the sun. 

The other symbols are the harmonic constants for the annual and semian- 
nual inequalities. The values in the table do not exactly average zero, on ac- 
count of fractions neglected in reducing to a single decimal place. 



96 TIDES AND BENCH MAEKS 

From this table it appears that tlie mean level of the sea is most depressed 
in the latter part of January, and most elevated in September. This change 
in mean level is presumed to be due to meteorological conditions, such as varia- 
tions in barometric pressure and resultant wind directions and velocities. 

In conclusion, it may be remarked that the type of tide at Nassau is that 
of the Atlantic coast of the United States, and not at all like the tides in the 
Gulf of Mexico. 



MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE 
BAHAMA ISLANDS 



MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE 
BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 
OLIVER L. FASSIG, Ph. D., 

Section Director of the U. S. Weather Bureau, at Baltimore, Md. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The instrumental equipment for the magnetic survey of the Islands con- 
sisted of the following : ( 1 ) A Fauth theodolite, with a compass needle and a 
tripod, the latter provided with an extra head for mounting the dip circle. 
With this instrument observations for obtaining the true azimuth of the mark, 
the correction of the observer's watch on local mean time, and for latitude, 
were made. By mounting the compass needle on the telescope, the necessary 
observations were made for obtaining the magiietic declination. (2) A Kew- 
Casella dip circle (Plate XIV, Fig. 1), pi-ovided with two Dover needles, with 
which the regular dip observations were made, and two intensity needles for 
dip and relative intensity observations. This instrument was also provided 
with a compass for making declination observations. (3) A magnetic observ- 
ing tent. 

The entire instrumental outfit, the necessary training of observer, as well 
as detailed instructions for making observations of magnetic declination, dip 
and relative intensity and for the necessary astronomical observations, were 
provided by the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The 
directions furnished were carefully and conscientiously followed at all stations 
occupied, and the observations were reduced in the Division of Terrestrial 
Magnetism of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 

STATIONS OCCUPIED. 

The magnetic declination and dip have been determined for a number 
of localities in the Islands since 1831. The location of the stations, the 
values obtained and the names of the observers are given in Table I. Some 
of the former stations were reoccupied, as nearly as practicable, in order to 
obtain the value for the secular variation in the Islands. 

A complete set of observations was made at the following stations for 



Lof 



C. 



100 MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS 

determining the magnetic declination, dip and relative intensity: At Nassau, 
on the grounds of the old Government House; at Watlings Island, the sup- 
, posed landing place of Columbus in 1492; and at Clarence Town, Long 
Island. Observations for the determination of declination only were made on 
Hog Island, just across the harbor from Nassau, and very close to the former 
station occupied in 1879 by Lieut. Ackley; in the Public Square at Nassau, 
where a meridian line was utilized, which was established by Mr. Miller, the 
Surveyor-General of the Islands. At Hopetown, Abaco Island, declination 
and dip observations were made. 

The results of the observations described above, and reduced under the 
direction of the Superintendent of the C^oast and Geodetic Survey, are shown in 
Tables II and III. A detailed description of the stations occupied, and of the 
preliminary results obtained, follows in the chronological order of occupancy.' 

Nassau: Old Government House. 

The station is on the grounds of the old Government House, built by the 
first governor of the Islands. The property was for many years, until re- 
cently, used as a government hospital. About six or eight years ago it was 
purchased by the Catholic Church and the building is now the residence of 
the local priest. 

The exact locality of the station is marked by means of five copper nails, 
driven into the bed rock, about 75 feet west-northwest from the northwest 
corner of the building. These nails are covered by means of a slab about 
one foot square, with the inscription " Bahama Expedition, 1903." The 
location of the station was further fixed by sighting upon three points. Hog 
Island Lighthouse to the north, the Obelisk to the west, and the northwest 
edge of the Priory. 

The mark used was the tip of the Obelisk at Fort Charlotte. Its true 
azimuth was found to be 86° 47.4' west of true north. 

Complete observations were made at this point on June 30, 1903, and 
July 2, 3, 4, by the writer, and recorded by J. E. Routh. 

Hog Island, on the North Side of the Harbor of Nassau. 
Observations to determine the magnetic declination were made about 
30 to 35 feet west-northwest of the stone monument marking the southwest 

' The descriptions of stations occupied, and tlie final results of the computations 
as given in Table II, are published in the Annual Report of the Superintendent of 
the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for the year 1903-4. Appendix No. 3, p. 254. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 




PLATE XVMl 




THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 101 

corner of a former Crown Eeservation. This is presumably within a few 
feet of the station occupied bj' Lieut. Ackley in 1879 for declination observa- 
tions, although no evidence of his station was found. 

The station is approximately 2200 feet from the front of the Board of 
Trade yard in Nassau, and 5000 feet east of the Hog Island Lighthouse. It 
is just above high tide, on the south shore of Hog Island, and directly oppo- 
site the Eoyal Victoria Hotel in jSTassau. 

The mark used was the Obelisk at Fort Charlotte, which is west-south- 
west from the station. 

The observations were made July 5, 1903, by J. E. Eouth, and recorded 
by the writer. 

Nassau : Public Square. 

The station is at the southern extremity of the meridian line established 
by the Surveyor-General, Mr. Miller, from North Star observations. This 
point is marked by a bolt in a stone slab a few feet to the north of the aban- 
doned well, between the Library building and the Customs House. The north 
end of the meridian line is a bolt in the wall of the Customs House, about 
300 feet distant from the south end, where observations for magnetic declina- 
tion were made. 

This meridian line is in the grounds of the public buildings. Declina- 
tion observations only were made at this station, along the meridian line 
above described. The location, in the midst of the city buildings, was not 
regarded as a favorable location for magnetic observations. 

The observations were made July 4, 1903, by the writer, and recorded by 
J. E. South. 

Watlings Island, Cockbuen' Town. 

The station is on the Government Eesidency, and hence on Crown Land. 
It is about 40 feet east-southeast from the southeast corner of the residence 
and is marked by a pint bottle buried in the ground to the depth of three or 
four inches. The only available mark was John ]\Iacky's house in Sugai- Loaf 
village, distant about four miles to the south and across the bay. This house 
is the largest of a group of three or four dwellings, visible from the magnetic 
station and in the settlement called Sugar Loaf. 

The location of this station was selected on account of its convenient 
access from the point of anchorage at Eiding Eock Point, the time of obser- 
vation being limited to one day. July 13, 1903. The town is called Cockburn 
Town, a settlement with a iwpulation of 400 to .500. 



102 MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS 

Complete magnetic observations were made by the writer, and recorded 
by J. E. Eouth. 

Clakence Town, Clarence Harbor, Long Island. 

The station is in tlie Government Residency and is marked by a tliree- 
fourth-inch copper bolt set in bed rock, between the main portion of the resi- 
dence occupied by Magistrate W. L. Clear, and the flagstaff. It is about 40 feet 
from the flagstaff and about 60 feet from the portico of the residence. The mark 
used was the rod on top of the light staff on Gaspins Point. The true azi- 
muth of this mark was found to be 28° 44.4' east of true north. 

Complete magnetic observations were made here on July 14 and 15, 1903, 
by the writer, and recorded by J. E. Eouth. 

Hopetown, Elbow Cay, Abaco. 

The observations were made on a narrow ridge between Little Harbor 
and the southeast coast of Elbow Cay. The station is about 100 feet north- 
east of the public schoolhouse, and about 100 feet northwest of the Episcopal 
Church. It is marked by a limestone rock about a foot square, planted in 
the soil. 

The mark used was the rod on top of the Elljow Cay Lighthouse, which 
is about one-half a mile north-northwest of the station. 

Only declination and dip observations were made, cloudy weather and a 
high northeast wind rendering it impossible to make sim observations and a full 
series of dip and relative intensity observations. 

The observations were made by the writer, July 22, 1903, and recorded 
by J. E. Eouth. 

table I.— earlier values of magnetic elements at stations in the 

BAHAMAS. 

No. Station. Lat. Long. Date. Deol'n. Dip. Hor. Int. Observer. 

W. of Gr. 

o ' o / O ' o ' 

1 South Bimini.... 2.3 4'J 79 17.6 1879, Feb. 2 27.9 E. .56 20.3 0.2973 Lt. S. M. Ackley. 

24, 25, 26. 

2 Nassau, on Hog I. 2.5 05..5 77 20 1879, Feb. 1 25.6 E. 55 50.5 0.2998 

18-22. 

3 Nassau 25 05 77 21 18.39 3 07 E. .... Milne. 

4 " 25 05 77 21 1841 .... .56 13 .... B. Barnett. 

5 " 25 05 77 21 1843 .... .56 23 

6 Watlings Island*. 23 57 74 25 1831 2 31 E. .... Smith. 

7 Crooked Islandt.. 22 07 74 24 1831 4 27 E. .... Austin. 

8 •' •■ 22 07 74 24 1835 5 13 E. .... Foster. 

9 Crooked Island... 22 47 74 21 1837 2 34 E. .... Milne. 
* Supposed landing place of Columbus, 1-193. 

t Probably should be Acklins Island. 

Simrce. 
Nos. 1 and 3, V. S. C. & G. S. Report 1881, App. 9, pp. 33-63. Nos. 3 to 9. Sabine's Contrib. XIV. 
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 18T5. 



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u 






It 

3 


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o 


^ 




G) 












tfj 




Xi 


















Q 


O 


s. 


3 




Ti 




'> 


a 


?^ 


a) 










m 






















1" 


(D 




a 




o 








rt 




•f 


49 


£ 


:3 


n 


« 


■^ 


o 

P3 


a 






<v 


"^ 














13 




o 


ja 


- 


a 




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4J 

3 


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o 


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13 




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-M- ;- :ff3 - 



104 



MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS 



TABLE 1 


in.-TABCLATJON OF UESUI/rH FOK 


DETERMINATION 


OF SECULAR 






VAKIATfON. 






Place. 


Lat. 

O ' 


Long. Yeav and 
\V. ol'G. Decimal. 

' 


Decl'ii. 

/ 


Incl'n. Hor. Int. 
(C. G. S. 

Units.) 

/ 


Observer. 


Nassau 


25 06 


77 21 1839 


3 07 E. 


.... .... 


Milne. 




•J5 05 


77 21 1841 




56 13 


E. Barnett. 




■25 05 


77 21 1813 




.50 23 


" 




■25 05.5 


77 20.0 1879.18 


1 '25.6 E. 


55 60.5 0.'2998 


Lt. S. M. Ackley. 




25 05.2 


77 21.3 1903.51 


18.0 E.* 


.56 09.3 0.2872 


O. L. Fassig. 


Watlings I... 


. '23 57 


71 25 1831 


2 31 E. 




Smitli. 




Reduction to 190.'? Sta. 


- 2 







1831 



2 29 B. 



21 04 74 26 1903.53 18.0 W. 56 03.2 
'■ Mean of three stations, giving Hog Island one-half weight. 



0.'2882 O. L. FasBig. 



Prom the above results of magnetic declination, it is foiincl that the 
average secular change in the Bahama Islands, during the past six decades, 
has been 2.5' per annum, west declination having been increased annually by 
this amount and east declination decreased by same amount. 

The results of dip and intensity are too few as yet to deduce safely the 
secular change in these elements. 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE MAGNETIC WORK OP THE BAHAMA EXPEDITION. = 

A. ASTliONOMlCAL OjBSEKVATXONS. 

These will consist of two sets of sun observations made preferably both 
in the morning and afternoon, not necessarily on the same day, however, for 
obtaining the true azimuth of mark or marks used in the magnetic observations 
and the correction on local mean time of the watch used. By securing sun ob- 
servations botli morning and afternoon (tA\-o sets each time), at the same sta- 
tion, any error that may be due to latitude used in the computation is eliminated 
in the mean of the a. m. and p. m. results. If this cannot be done and it is 
not possible to obtain the latitude from good maps, it is necessary to obtain 
the latitude by circum-meridian altitudes of the sun at noon. In these ob- 
servations tlie tripod should be mounted on the tripod pegs, packed in the 
tent. 

The azimuth observations slioiihl 1)0 made preferably between 2 and 4 
hours from local noon, i. e., 8-10 a. m. mid "M p. iii. local time, and any one 
set should not cover a time intor\al of more than 8-10 minutes. (See App. A. 
Mag'n Decl'n Tables 1902, and App. 8, Kep. for 1881.) 

It is supposed that the observer will use his own watch for these obser- 

■ Furnished by the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 



Tin: JiAilASIA ISLANDS 105 

rations. It is desirable, therefore, that he bestow the same care upon it as 
upon a chronometer, viz.: it should be wound up at a regular time each day, 
so that there will be no danger of its running down, should be protected from 
sudden temperature changes and as carefully handled as possible. It siioiilil 
be set to eastern (lUth meridian) standard time, then the correction to the 
nearest fraction of a second on standard time should be obtained from the 
noon signals on two or three daj's before the departure for the Bahamas. It 
must not be reset again or regulated thereafter, unless of course necessary 
because of its accidentally running down, and it should be compared daily, 
preferably at some regular time, with another good watch and a record of 
these comparisons kept. If opportunity is afforded in the Baha.mas, the cor- 
rection of the watch on standard time should be obtained whenever possible. 
On the return of the Expedition to Baltimore the correction of tlie watch on 
standard time should again be obtained on two or three days. The record of 
all comparisons should accompany the observations. With the aid of the 
correction on standard time, the longitudes of the stations can be obtained. 

B. Magxjctxc Declxnatiox Oissbuvatioxs. 

(These observations, as well as the other magnetic observations, should be 
made inside the tent and the observer should divest himself of all articles likely 
to have a magnetic effect and to see that no such substances are within the tent.) 
1. With compass needle belonging to Dip Circle oG/JMO: (a) Sight on 
mark with aid of peep sights, passing the eye up and down the slits to 
make sure that the mark has been accurately set upon, noting whether the 
vertical circle of dip circle is on the left or right hand of the observer and read 
vernier of horizontal circle and record as .shown in the specimen. Mark 
above the reading the quadrant of the horizontal circle in whicli the reading 
occurs as indicated by the Eoman numerals I, II, III, IIII scratched on the 
edge of the circle, (b) Reverse circle 180°, again point on mark and record 
as before, (c) Turn instrument until it points approximately nortli and 
south, with vertical circle east. KelearC needle which has been kept clamjjed 
throughout (a) and (b) and move horizontal circle gently, making final 
setting with tangent screw, until the north end of needle exactly cuts the 
zero as beheld with the small magnifying lens belonging to the dip circle and 
held precisely vertical over the needle so a.s to avoid parallax. 

Before making the final setting, it is essential to slightly disturb the 
needle once more with a bit of steel, e. g., pocket knife brought near. In 



106 MAGNETIC OBSEEVATIONS 

fact a better setting will be obtained with tlie noeclle slightly in vibration 
and bisecting the arc. The bit of steel used must, of course, be removed to a 
safe distance before the final setting. Eecord the reading and quadrant in 
which it falls and note the time by the pocket watch used in the sun observa- 
tions. Do similarly with the south end. ISText slightly disturb needle, in 
same manner as before, and repeat pointings in reverse order, i. e., first south 
end and then north end. (d) Shift horizontal circle until the north end of 
needle instead of cutting the zero, cuts the mark 5° E. of K. and carry out the 
same operation as for c. (e) Shift horizontal circle nntil the north end of 
needle now cuts the 5° W. of N. mark and do as before, (f) Sliift horizontal 
circle so that north end of needle again cuts the zero and do as in c. Record 
the time of ending, clamp needle and again make two pointings on the mark as 
at the beginning. 

2. WitJi Compass Needle of Theodolite. — The method already described 
can readily lie adapted to this needle. The pointings on the mark in this case 
will be made with the telescope and, as the horizontal circle is graduated con- 
tinuously from 0° to 360°, it will be unnecessary to note the quadrant in which 
the reading falls; however, both verniers should be read. 

If the work could be so arranged that the declination would be obtained 
with one needle in the morning, say about 8 to 9 o'clock, and with the other 
needle from 1 to 2 o'clock p. m., the mean of the two results would be almost 
entirely free of correction due to diurnal variation of the earth's magiietism. 
The declination reaches its mean value between about 10 to 11 a. m. and 
5 to 6 p. m., local mean time, and its extreme elongation at about the times 
above mentioned. 

C. Dip Observations. 

(The compass needle must be removed from instrument and tent before 
observations are made.) 

The regular dip observations following the method already shown and 
as prescribed by specimen, should be made as already stated, with the Dover 
needles N'os. 3 and 4. These needles should invariably be reversed before 
making the observations and again at the conclusion of the half sets. The 
time to the nearest minute of beginning and ending for each needle should be 
recorded. Tlie order, after the magnetic prime vertical with one needle has 
been determined, would be as circumstances condition: Either {a) Dip ob- 
servations with needle 3, with say, A down, then observations with needle 4, 



GEOGRAPHICAL S^f^lFTY OF BALTIMORE 




WiliT*|ton 



BERMUDA 
Hamilton 



'lassau 



N. PROVIDENClE 



&> 



"^> 



J 



^'-Principe 




San Juan 
PORTO RICO 



Charlotte Amalie 



=;i. 



ST. THOMAS 



ST KITTS 

Basseterre 
GUADELOUPE 



Basse Terre 



Roseau^ 



St. Pierre ^maf^tinique 

» BARBADOS 
Bfid^etown 




THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 107 

likewise with A down; next reverse polarity of both needles, reversing i 
first ; then dip observations with 4, B down, and finally 3, B down ; or (h) 
complete dip observations with needle 3, A down, and then B down; next 
relative intensity observations prescribed in D, and finally complete observa- 
tions with needle 4, A and B down. 

It need not, of course, be pointed out that neither the bar magnets, nor 
any other magnets or needles, can be kept inside the tent during these obser- 
vations nor during any of the magnetic observations. They should be kept 
at least 15 paces away and protected from the sun or rain with the tent cover 
and duck cloth provided. 

D. Eelativb Intensity and Dip Observations. 
(All observations should be made with footscrew A towards south.) 

These are to be made with old needles 1 and 4 of 56 and the method is 
the same as already shown and prescribed by the specimens. The needles are 
never to have their polarities reversed. Furtherinore, every care must be 
taken so as to avoid change of the reduction constant needed to convert tlie 
relative values obtained into absolute ones. This necessitates not bringing 
the needles in the vicinity of any magnets or iron masses or exposing them 
to sudden temperature changes, as this would alter the distribution of their 
magnetism and thus affect the constant. They should be placed in their box 
with opposite poles next each other and should not be inside the dip circle 
box, if the reversal of the regular dip needles is made by mounting the revers- 
ing block on top of this case. Above all, these needles, as well as the dip 
needles, must be wiped dry after each usage and be kept in a dry place, so 
as to prevent rusting of blade and especially of pivot. 

The order will be as follows: Magnetic prime vertical determinations 
with No. 1 ; next (a) dip observations with loaded needle 4, noting time, 
temperature and quadrants in which the two ends of the needle swing; (&) 
No. 4, put in brass shield with face (side with A and B) of needle turned 
towards the vertical circle and No. 1 suspended, then dip observations, again 
noting time, temperature and quadrants, made with microscopes direct and 
reversed for position of circle E, face of No. 1 east, and for circle W. face W. 
(c) Do not touch No. 4 but turn No. 1 around on the agates, so that with 
circle W. face of No. 1 will now be east, observe with microscopes direct 
and reversed and do the same with circle E. face W. Eecord time and tern- 



108 MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS 

peratiire at end of observations, (d) Kemove No. 1, suspend 4 and repeat 
observations (a), again recording time and temperature at end. 

E. Miscellaneous Information. 

Table I gives the data for stations at wliich some magnetic results 
have alreadj' been obtained. A reoccupation of as mam' of these as possible 
will furnish valuable data for determination of the secidar change. Only 
descriptions for ISTos. 1 and 2 at whicli observations were made by Lieut. 
Acldey, wliile attached to tlie Coast and Geodetic Survey, can be furnished; 
as he was provided with a good magnetic outfit it is especially desirable to 
reoccupy his stations and if possible on two or three days, as he had done. 

F. General Information. 

It is desirable to make duplicates of all of the observations, and after 
these duplicates have been carefully revised, either they or the originals 
should be forwarded to the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey 
as soon as possible, for reduction and possibly to furnish opportunity for 
additional instructions before the close of the worlv. 

Immediately upon return of the Expedition the instruments should he 
returned to the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for final 
determination of constants, and it would be desirable if the observer himself 
would take part in this final work, so as to eliminate possibility of any error 
such as may be ascribed to personal equation. 



CLIMATE OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



CLIMATE OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 

OLIVER L. FASSIG, Ph. D., 
Section Director of U. S. Weatlicr Bureau, at Baltimore, Mel. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Any critical discussion of the climate of tlie Bahama Islands must of 
necessity be based uiDon the record of observations contained in one of the 
very important publications of the London Meteorological Council. This 
report, published in 1890, is designated as Official Number 83, and contains 
verjr complete monthly summaries of climatic data for all of the foreign and 
colonial stations of the Eoyal Engineers and the Army Medical De]3artment 
from 1852 to 188G. Here may be found a long series of extremely valuable 
observations made at Nassau comprising observations of air pressure, of 
temperature, tension of vapor, relative humidity, cloudiness, rainfall, state 
of weather and wind directions made at two stated periods of the day, namely, 
at 9 a. m. and 3 p. m. The observations were continued after 1886, probably 
without interruption up to the present time, but not collectively published. 
The facts contained in this paper regarding the general climate of the Islands 
are based upon this long series of observations, and especially upon the series 
covering the period from 1898 to 1902, made at the Bahamas Cable Office. 
Observations and impressions gained from personal experience refer only to 
the months of June and July, 1903. 

During the sojourn of the Expedition in the Bahamas the writer was 
constantly under gxeat obligations to Mr. P. H. Burns, Superintendent 
Bahamas Cable at Nassau, who took a persoiuil interest in the work, and 
afforded every opportunity in securing a series of continuous observations by 
means of our self-recording instruments which were installed in his office 

By the courtesy of Mr. Arthur S. Haigh, a record of observations made 
under his supervision during four years on Cat Cay was placed at our dis- 
posal. This record comprises summaries of pressure, temperature, rainfall, 
humidity and the wind directions, and afforded excellent supplementary infor- 
mation as to conditions on one of the neighboring islands. Cat Cav is on 



112 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 

the eastern edge of the Gnlf Strearii opposite the southern coast of Florida 
and distant about 60 miles. 

CLIMATE AS A WHOLE. 

The geographical position of the Bahama Islands is sueli as to give to 
them many of the essential features of an ideal winter resort. The latitude 
of the group, from 23° to 38° north, insures a moderatel}' high temperature 
throughout the year, with an average for the winter months very close to 
that which physicians regard as a most healthful temperature. The Islands 
are in the midst of the slow northward surface drift of the Atlantic waters, 
with the warm waters of the Gulf Stream just to the west of them, insuring 
at all seasons of the year an equable temperature free from marked and 
sudden changes from day to day, whatever the direction of the wind may be. 
The occasional cold northwest winds which sweep over the United States dur- 
ing the winter months, and constitute our cold waves, are greatly modified 
in temperature before reaching the coasts of our south Atlantic and Gulf 
States, and are still further tempered in passing over the narrow but warm 
waters of the Gulf Stream before striking the central or eastern islands of 
the group. Only rarely do these cold waves retain a vestige of their conti- 
nental severity upon reaching ISTassau. The temperature of the surrounding- 
ocean waters changes but a few degrees from season to season, and as a result 
the Islands are practically free from the marked and rajjid changes in tem- 
perature which constitute so trying a feature of the continental climates. 

One of the first and most marked impressions made upon a visitor from 
the north to these Islands in the summer months is the intense power of the 
direct rays of the sun. While the increased heat of the sun was very notice- 
able to all of our party, the effect was not apparently harmful, nor did it 
cause any serious discomfort with ordinary precautions. The greatest heat 
of the day occurs somewhat earlier than with us. The sun's power seemed 
to attain a maximum as early as ten or eleven in the morning, although this 
is only an impression and was not veriiied by instrumental observations. 

With an average humidity quite as high as that of the Atlantic Coast 
States, there was even in mid-summer less of the intensely oppressive weather 
so common during the warm months in the States bordering the Atlantic 
Ocean. Oppressive lieat there was, and at times it was excessively so, but the 
almost constant presence of a breeze, though frequently light, was sufficient 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 




THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 113 

to prevent that almost intolerable combination of high temperature, high 
humidity and a stagnant air from which there is no escape. Tlie Islands are 
on the edge of the region of trade winds, which here keep up a steady flow, 
mostly from northeast, east or southeast, according to the season. 

The rainfall varies greatly from year to year. In the five years from 
1898 to 1902 the annual amount ranged from 38 inches to 62 inches. The 
average annual fall is approximately 50 inches. The rains are mostly of 
short duration, but frequent, and occasionally heavy. The average number of 
j days with rain during the course of the year is about 150, with the greatest 
I frequency in the summer and fall months. Thunderstorms occur in all the 
months of the year but are most frequent in the summer months. 

The Islands are apparently healthful and remarkably free from the dis- 
eases generally associated with warm climates. In addition to the favorable 
climatic condition of the Islands, they afford a pleasing, though somewhat 
limited, variety of tropical vegetation, marvelous beauty of the surrounding 
waters^ and abundant opportunity for sailing and fishing, all of which com- 
bine to offer a constant temptation to the visitor to lead an outdoor life. 

While the Islands admirably meet the requirements of those wJio desire 
to spend a few restful months in quiet and congenial surroundings, or of the 
invalid in search of health, the atmosphere lacks the tonic effect so character- 
istic of our more northern climates, which make great exertion possible in all 
affairs of life. 

TEMPERATURE. 

In most regions where a marine climate prevails, there is comparatively 
little variation in temperature conditions from month to month, or from one 
year to another. A few years of carefully made observations will generally 
yield safe normal and extreme values for such localities. Out of the long 
series of observations available for Nassau, selection has been made for 
special consideration of the observations covering the five-year period from 
1898 to 1902. The small island of New Providence, upon which Nassau is 
built, is in the midst of the group constituting the Bahama Islands and its 
climatic conditions will fairly represent conditions in the entire group. All 
observations cited in the following pages, unless otherwise stated, were made 
at Nassau from 1898 to 1902. 



114 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 

MEANS AND EXTREMES OP TEMPERATURE AT NASSAU. 

^ Mean Mean Absolute 

Mean. Minimum. Maximum. Jlinimum. Maximum. 

January 71.2 64.4 77.9 55 84 

February 70.6 64.0 77.3 53 8S 

March 73.2 66.8 79.5 58 88 

April 75.2 69.6 80.9 60 91 

May 78.2 72.9 83.4 63 93 

June 81.5 76.0 87.0 71 98 

July 82.6 76.6 88.6 69 96 

August 83.4 76.9 89.8 69 95 

September 82.1 75.7 88.5 69 96 

October 79.4 74.6 84.2 68 93 

November 75.4 70.3 80.4 57 90 

December 72.7 67.4 78.0 55 87 

Annual 77.1 71.3 83.0 53 98 

li'eb. 14, June 23, 

1899. 1898. 

The seasons are not sharply marked by temperature changes as in regions 
farther north. The mean of the three winter months is 71°. Prom June 
to September the average monthly temperature is extremely constant, varying 
only between the limits of 81.5° for June and 83.4° for August, with an 
average for the four warmest months of 82.4°. Hence the difEerence between 
the winter temperatures and those of summer is only 11.4°. The mean of 
the early morning temperatures in winter is 65.0°, while the mean for the 
warmest part of the day is 77.7°. In the summer months the morning mini- 
mum and afternoon maximum heat averages 76.3° and 88.5° respectively. 

The figures cited in the preceding paragraph are average seasonal values 
and do not show the limits of variability. The absolute extremes of tem- 
perature noted, while showing a much greater range, are still small enough 
to demonstrate the marine character of the climate. The lowest temperature 
recorded during the five-year period under consideration was 53°, which 
occurred on the 14th day of February, 1899. The highest during the same 
period was 98°, recorded on the 25th day of June, 1898. 

Absolute Extremes of Temperature at Nassau. 
A careful examination of the published records from 1853 to 1886, and 
of the manuscript records from 1898 to 1902, covering in all a period of 39 
years, shows the following figures of extreme heat and cold experienced at 
Nassau during each month of the year. The year and day of occurrence are 
added in each case. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 115 

\ 

ABSOLTJTE EXTREMES OF TEMPEHATUEE AT NASSAU. 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. Year. 

Min 49 53 49 54 61 (J3 66 66 64 63 58 48 48 

Year 1866 1865 1869 1869 1869 1869 188.5 1869 1869 1857 1865 1868 1868 

Date 10 2 2 16 23 12 23 2 7 28 .... 25 Dec. 

Max 96 97 91 96 100 102 106 99 109 96 99 97 109 

Year 1871 1871 1856 1872 1856 1870 1870 1871 1870 1872 1877 1870 1870 

Date 28 16 14 10 10 21 14 2 27 2 8 22 Sept. 

Tlie lowest temperature recorded in 39 3'ears (namely, 48°, or 16° above 
the freezing point of water) occurred in 1868 on December 25. The absolute 
minimum for six months of the year was recorded in the year 1869. 

The maximum attained a surprisingly high mark in the year 1870, 
exceeding 100° in three months, with an absolute maximum of 109° in Sep- 
tember. That the absolute extremes of temperature in 39 years should have 
occurred in consecutive years, while surprising, is not without a parallel. A 
similar coincidence occurred in the years 1898 and 1899, when records for 
greatest heat and cold respectively were broken in many parts of the United 
States. 

Extremes of Temperature at Cat Cay. 

The following summary of extremes of temperature at Cat Cay is based 
upon the record of Mr. Arthur S. Haigh during the years 1896 to 1900. 
Cat Cay is a small island on the extreme western edge of the Bahama group 
and not more than 60 miles east of the Florida coast and on the eastern edge 
of the Gulf Stream. 

EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE AT CAT CAY. 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Y'ear. 

Maximum 77 79 81 83 84 90 90 91 89 85 80 78 91 

Minimum 66 68 69 72 75 80 80 71 79 77 74 69 66 

Range 11 11 12 11 8 10 10 20 10 8 6 9 25 

The extremely small variability shown by the above iigures is undoubt- 
edly due to the proximity of the observing station to the warm waters of the 
Gulf Stream. 

Comparative Temperature Data. 
Comparative readings of winter and summer temperatures are given 
below in order to show the relative climatic position of the Bahamas. 



116 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 



COMrAKATIVE TEMPERATURE DATA. 



Mean of Mean of 

Place. Annual Warmest Coldest Difference. 

Mean. Month. Mouth. 

Nassau 77° 83° 71° 12° 

Havana 77 82 71 11 

Santiago 79 S3 ,74 9 

San Juan 79 82 76 6 

Kingston (Jam.) 78 81 76 5 

• St. Thomas SO ■ ■ 83 77 6 

Barbados 80 81 78 3 

Trinidad 77 78 75 3 

Bermuda 69 79 62 17 

Jupiter, Pla 72 82 67 15 

Mean of Mean of 

Place. Annual Annual Difference. 

Maxima. Minima. 

Nassau 95° 55° 40° 

Havana 100 55 45 

Porto Rico 97 64 33 

Trinidad 89 64 25 

Jupiter, Pla 93 31 62 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY. 

The amount of moisture in the atmosphere is a factor of the highest 

/ importance, especially in its influence upon personal comfort. The Nassau 

' observations show the presence throughout the year of a high humidity. The 

ofEcial records give the average monthly values for the hours of 9 a. m. and 

3 p. m. The daily means determined from observations at these hours give 

a value about 6 per cent too low, as the hours between sunset and sunrise, 

when the percentages are highest, are not represented. 

A continuous record of variation in humidity throughout the day was 
obtained during our stay in the Lslands from June 25 to July 20, by means of 
a Eichard hygrograph. This record made it possible to apply a correction to 
the- mean for the 9 a. m. and 3 p. m. observations in order to arrive at the 
true daily mean humidity based on 24 hourly observations. The corrected 
monthly values are shown in the column marked " mean " in the table below. 
The humidity during the night hours ranges between 85 per cent and 90 per 
cent, and during midday is about 73 per cent. The amount of moisture in the 
atmosphere is remarkably uniform throughout the year, while the daily range 
is small, not varying much from 15 per cent. Such humidities as these com- 
bined with the high temperature of the Islands would be very oppressive were 
it not for the almost constant presence of a breeze. The presence of so much 
moisture in the atmosphere is undoubtedly instrumental in diminishing tlie 
power of the direct rays of the sun. 



TlIJi BAHAMA ISLANDS 



117 



MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY. 



January . 
February 
March . . . 
April . . . . 

May 

June . . . . 

July 

August . . 
September 
October . . 
November 
December 



9 A. M. 


3 P. M. 


*Dai 


Y Mean. 


^er Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Pel 


• Cent. 


79 


74 




82 


77 


74 




82 


7.3 


69 




77 


73 


70 




78 


74 


68 




77 


72 


73 




78 


73 


75 




80 


69 


69 




75 


74 


73 




80 


74 


72 




70 


72 


69 




70 


76 


70 




79 



Year 



* Corrected to daily means based on 24 hourly observations. 
CLOUDS AND SUNSHINE. 
There is an abundance of bright sunshine throughout the year. The 
Islands being within the westward extension of the area of high barometric 
pressure over the Atlantic Ocean a large portion of the year share with this 
area much of its fine weather. Overcast skies are not persistent. The aver- 
age amount of cloudiness does not vary greatly from month to month. It is 
slightly greater in the summer and fall months than during the winter. 
Cloudiness is least in January and February and greatest, on the average, in 
October. The distribution throughout the year is indicated in the following 
table showing the monthly average values at 9 a. m. and 3 p. m. for a period 
of five years. 

AVERAGE CLOUDINESS. 
(10, completely overcast; 0, practically clear.) 
Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 



Jan 

9 a. m 5.0 

3p. m 4.9 



5.6 
5.1 



5.6 
5.4 



5.6 



7.3 
6.5 



6.9 

7.4 



7.2 
7.5 



7.8 
7.8 



6.0 
5.9 



6.3 
6.3 



RAINFALL. 

f The rainfall varies greatly in amount from year to year. The average 

annual fall approximates 50 inches. Fully four-fifths of the total annual 
precipitation occurs from May to October, leaving but one-fifth for the 
winter and early spring months. During the five years from 1898 to 1902, 
the heaviest rainfall occurred in the month of August. During the summer 
months the rainfall is frequently excessive in amount, but, as a rule, the 
duration is short. Included in the equipment for a study of the climate of 
the Islands was an instrument designed to register automatically the begin- 
nings and endings of rainfall, by means of which a record was obtained of all 
local rains, both heavy and light, from June 23 to July 19. The record 



118 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 

shows the showers of June and July to have been of very brief duration, with- 
out exception. Thirty-six separate showers were recorded during 17 of the 
total of 27 days. Of these, the heaviest and of longest duration lasted but 
one hour. The average duration was not over ten minutes for each shower. 

The average monthly amount of rainfall, the maximum amounts re- 
corded in any 24 consecutive hours, and the average frequency of days with 
rain, are indicated in the following table : 

RAINFALL AT NASSAU. 

(In inches and hundreclths.) 

Average Average 

Monthly Maximum Number of Days 

Amounts. in 24 Hours. With Eain. 

.January 1.20 0.40 10.4 

February 1.15 0.62 7.6 

March 1-09 0.70 6.8 

April 1.92 0.94 7.8 

May 4-6G 1.28 9.6 

June ; 5.65 1.91 13.4 

July 5.19 1.92 18.8 

August 9.09 2.72 19.6 

September 8.05 2.26 17.6 

October 7.80 2.56 19.0 

November 1.95 0.95 9.2 

December 1.68 0.66 12.0 

Year 49.43 2.72 151.8 

Annual maximum _. 91.50 inches in 1865. 

Annual minimum 25.34 inches in 1882. 

RAINFALL AT CAT CAV. 

(For 1S96, 1897, 1808, 1900. Record incomplete.) 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 
1.41 2.21 2.15 2.75 3.94 4.09 5.37 5.40 7.52 5.8G 1.82 1.36 43.80 

WIND DIRECTION. 
The geographical position of tbe Islands on the southwestern edge of 
the persistent area of high barometric pressure which covers the North 
Atlantic Ocean causes a prevailing easterly wind throughout the year. The 
group is on the northern edge of the regailar trade wind belt, in which there 
is a steady ilow of the atmosphere from the east, or the points between north- 
east and southeast, with a preponderance of east winds. The relative fre- 
quency of winds from the different points of the compass during the course 
of the year is indicated in the following table of statistics covering a period 
of five years. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALT'MORE 




TRACKS OF 

WEST INDIAN HURRICANES 

AUGUST, 1878-1908 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 119 

PREVAILING WIND DIRECTION. 

(The average number of days per month upon which the indicated wind prevailed.) 

N. NE. E. SE. S. S\V. W. NW. lUilm. 

January 4.4 6.1 8.2 5.2 1.8 1.1 0.8 1.8 1.6 

February 4.3 5.1 4.3 2.6 4.2 2.0 0.8 3.1 1.6 

March 2.4 4.3 7.8 6.4 4.8 1.4 0.7 2.6 0.6 

April 2.5 6.4 6.5 5.5 3.2 1.2 0.3 3.8 0.9 

May 2.0 6.0 11.5 2.6 3.5 1.2 0.9 2.9 0.4 

June 0,8 3.1 13.5 7.1 2.7 0.7 0.4 0.1 1.6 

July 0.4 3.0 13.0 9.3 2.4 0.1 ... 0.1 0.7 

August 1.1 5.3 9.9 7.6 3.0 1.2 0.1 0.3 2.5 

September 2.1 3.7 8.6 8.2 2.3 1.3 0.6 1.3 1.9 

October 3.2 8.3 7.0 3.9 1.6 1.4 0.8 1.5 3.3 

November 3.4 9.0 9.5 3.0 1.3 0.8 0.3 1.5 1.2 

December 3.9 6.9 9.3 2.6 2.8 0.8 1.0 2.4 1.3 

Tear 30.5 67.2 109.1 64.0 33.6 13.2 6.7 21.4 17.6 

Converting the total frequencies for the year into percentages of the 
total number of daj's in the year, we have the following as the relative fre- 
quency from each direction : 

PERCENTAGE OF FREQUENCY OP WINDS. 
N. NE. B. SE. S. SW. W. NW. Calm. 

8 IS 30 18 9 4 2 6 5 

WIND VELOCITY. 
A year's continuous record of wind velocity at the Bahama Cable Office at 
Nassau shows the average liourly velocity from July 1, 1902, to June 30, 190.3, 
to have been as indicated in the following table. The winds are strongest and 
steadiest in the winter and spring months, and lightest in the late summer and 
early fall. In the diurnal period of the winds, the velocity increases steadily 
from the early morning hours to a maximum near noon. 

DAILY WIND MOVEMENT AT NASSAU. 
(In miles per hour.) 

a 

From -^ 

9 a. m. to noon 10 

Noon to 6 p. m 10 

6 p. m. to midnight 8 

Midnight to 6 a. m 9 

6 a. m. to 9 a. m 9 

Hourly average 9 

The average hourly velocity during the period from June 17, 1903, the 
day of our arrival at Nassau, to July 7, 1903, as recorded at the Cable Office, 
is as follows: 



© 


S 


<J 


S 


3 


3 


< 




O 


Z 


Q 




14 


11 


12 


10 


9 


S 


8 


8 


7 


12 


12 


10 


12 


10 


11 


14 


8 


9 


7 


7 


7 


10 


6 


9 


10 


8 


8 


8 


6 


6 


5 


5 


6 


9 


12 


8 


9 


8 


9 


8 


5 


6 


5 


4 


6 


9 


10 


7 


8 


9 


10 


9 


9 


10 


5 


5 


6 


8 


11 


8 


11 


9 


10 


10 


7 


8 


6 


6 


6 


10 


10 


8 



120 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 

AVERAGE HOURLY VELOCITY OF WIND. 

(In miles per hour.) 

Hours ending-. 123 456789 10 11 

Morning 5.4 5.0 5.0 5.6 5.6 5.7 5.6 7.0 8.2 8.8 9.1 10.0 NooH. 

Afternoon 9.9 9.9 9.6 8.5 8.5 7.6 6.8 6.2 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.7 Mdnt. 

THUNDERSTORMS. 

Tlie Islands are free from violent atmospheric disturbances during the 
greater portion of the year. A comparatively mild type of thunderstorm 
occurs in all months of the year, but they are of rare occurrence in the winter 
months. These storms are of short duration and are frequently accompanied 
by very heavy showers. Even in the season of greatest frequency they aver- 
age but 4 or 5 per month. In the five years from 1898 to 1903, the average 
annual number was 29 and the seasonal distribution as indicated by the fol- 
lowing figures : 

AVERAGE FREQUENCY OF THUNDERSTORMS. 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. 

0.8 0.6 1.2 1.2 3.0 3.2 5.8 7.2 3.2 2.6 0.2 29 

One of the members of the Expedition was fortunate enough to secure 
an admirable photograph of a typical thunderstorm as it appeared at sea, 
where nothing was present to interfere with a comprehensive view of the 
disturbance throughout its entire extent. This photograph was taken just 
north of Abaco, and a reproduction is shown in Plate XVII, Fig. 2. 

HURRICANES. 

The Bahama Islands lie in the midst of the tracks of the West India 
hurricanes. The line marking the mean path of these fierce tropical storms 
passes across the eastern edge of the group during August, and along the 
western edge during the month of September. In October the center of 
activity again recedes eastward to its July position. The hurricane is the 
severest type of cyclonic storm and has been dreaded by the inhabitants of 
the Islands, and especially those sailing the seas, from time immemorial. They 
are not of very frequent occurrence, fortunately, and they are confined prac- 
tically to the months of August, September and October. Occasionally one 
will appear as early as June and July, and even as early as May, but most 
of these storms occur in August, September and October, after which there is 
an abrupt cessation, only one storm of the kind having been recorded in 25 
years in the month of November. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS It^l 

Frequency op Hukrioanes. 

A former Director of the observatory at Havana, M. Poey, many years 
ago gathered statistics in regard to hurricanes in the West Indies and suc- 
ceeded in collecting evidence of 355 which visited the West Indies from 1493 
to 1855. An incomplete list of later compilation added twelve more for the 
3rears from 1856 to 1877. The storms of this class occurring since 1878 have 
been fully described and carefully studied by Mr. Garriott in an interesting 
report' recently issued by the U. S. Weather Bureau. The reader is referred 
to this bulletin for a detailed account of the hurricanes occurring -ndthin this 
period and for general information concerning the origin and path of the 
storms. The charts published in Bulletin H are reproduced in Plates XVIII 
to XXIV, with the addition of the storms occurring from 1901 to 1903 in- 
clusive. 

Classifying the 355 hurricanes in M. Poey's list which occurred from 
1493 to 1855, and those in Mr. Garriott's list of 98, which occurred between 
1878 and 1900, we have the following distribution by months: 

FREQUENCY OF HURRICANES. 

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Yr. 

Poey (1493-1855) o 7 11 6 .5 10 42 96 80 69 17 7 355 

Garriott (1878-1900). 3 1 3 3 25 25 32 3 3 98 

The above tabulation shows that the storms are almost entirely restricted 
to the months of August, September and October. The accompanying charts 
reproduced from Weather Bureau Bulletin H, bring out vividly the sudden 
increase in the number of these storms during the month of August and their 
equally rapid cessation in November. The path and daily progress of every 
storm of consequence occurring since 1878 is shown upon these charts. 

These storms mostly originate, or first appear within our field of view, 
in the neighborhood of the Windward Islands, move in a direction between 
west and northwest at the rate of about 10 or 13 miles per hour, and recurve 
ito northward and then to northeastward approximately in the neighborhood 
of Florida, or within the area of the Bahama group of islands. They are 
similar in form and structure to the temperate region storms which are so 
familiar to us, especially in the fall and winter season, but differ from these 
in being more restricted in their area and more intense in the destructive 

'West Indian Hurricanes, E. B. Garriott, Bull. H., U. S. Weather Bureau, 
Wash., D. C, 1902. 



122 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 

force of the winds accompanying them. The fall of the barometer in the 
center of these storms is more rapid and is greater than in the case of tem- 
perate region cyclones. Their rate of movement is considerably less; this is 
a fortunate circumstance, as it enables us after once detecting the presence 
of such storms by means of telegraphic reports to give ample warning of the 
probable path of the storm. As they recurve northward and enter our lati- 
tudes, they gradually enlarge their area, at the same time losing in power, 
and iinally merge into the type of temperate region cyclones which originate 
\ in the Gulf of Mexico. 

In the destructive violence of the accompanying winds, the hurricane is 
second only to the tornado of the Mississippi Valley. The area of disturb- 
ance in the hurricane is, however, very much larger than that of the tornado. 
Some idea of the tremendous power exhibited in these tropical storms is sug- 
gested by Figs. 1 and 2, Plate VII. These illustrations show a portion of the 
shore of one of the small islands of the Bahama group. The huge roclvs seen 
in the foregroimd, some of them weighing several tons, were torn up and 
piled upon the beach by the force of the hurricane winds and waves. 

The premonitory signs and physical features of hurricanes are well 
described by Mr. Bigelow in the following paragraph quoted from a paper on 
" Cyclones, Hurricanes and Tornados " in the Yearbook of the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for 1898, at page 531. 

" The physical features of hurricanes are well understood. The approach of 
a hurricane is usually indicated by a long swell on the ocean, propagated to great 
distances and forewarning the observer by two or three days. A faint rise in the 
barometer occurs before the gradual fall, which becomes very pronounced at the 
center; fine wisps of cirrus clouds are first seen, which surround the center to a 
distance of 200 miles; the air is calm and sultry, but this is gradually supplanted 
by a gentle breeze, and later the wind increases to a gale, the clouds become 
matted, the sea rough, rain falls, and the winds are gusty and dangerous as the 
voi-tex core comes on. Here is the indescribable tempest, dealing destruction, 
impressing the imagination with its wild exhibition of the forces of nature, the 
flashes of lightning, the torrents of rain, the cooler all-, all the elements in an 
uproar, which indicate the close approach of the center. In the midst of this 
turmoil there is a sudden pause, the winds almost cease, the sky clears, the waves, 
however, rage in great turbulence. This is the eye of the storm, the core of the 
vortex, and it is, perhaps, twenty miles in diameter, or one-thirtieth of the whole 
hurricane. The respite is brief, and is followed by the abrupt renewal of the 
violent wind and rain, but now coming from the opposite direction, and the storm 
passes oft with the several features following each other in the reverse order." 

The duration and continuity of these storms vary greatly. In his paper 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 123 

on West India Hurricanes," J\Ir. Page describes two storms, one of extreme 
brevity and another of great duration and length of track. 

" On the morning of September 2G, 1898, a hurricane of small area but of 
great intensity was discovered, central to the west of Eleuthera. By the 27th it 
had reached the coast of Great Abaco, recurving toward the northeast. On the 
28th all traces of the storm had disappeared, nor was it again reported. At the 
opposite extreme stands the Porto Rican hurricane of August, 1899, the path of 
whose center was traced day after day from its position southwest of the Cape 
Verde Islands, August 3, westward to the coast of Florida, northward to the Capes 
of the Chesapeake, and eastward to the center of the Mediterranean sea, the whole 
trajectory occupying 37 days." 

Law or Hurricanes. 

The Eev. Benito Vines, S. J., for many years Director of the observatory 
at Havana, and a lifelong student of meteorology, devoted much time to the 
study of West Indian hurricanes. Probably no one was better qualified than 
he to write with authority concerning the origin and nature of these storms. 
Father Vines died in the year 1893. An unpublished manuscript of his, 
entitled " Investigation of the Cyclonic Circulation and Translatory Move- 
ment of West Indian Hurricanes," was translated by his friend, Dr. C. Pinley, 
of Havana, and was recently printed by tlie U. S. Weather Bureau and issued 
as a special publication." 

This pamphlet probably contains the most satisfactory exposition of the 
laws and phenomena of hurricanes that we have at present. A few of the 
paragraphs which are appropriate to so brief a sketch are here quoted. One 
of the most marked of the phenomena attending the progress of these storms, 
and one of the most difficult to explain, is the parabolic path pursued, and the 
form and geographical position of the recurving portion of the path. As 
Father Vines's explanation of these features embodies also much general in- 
formation on other interesting points connected with the nature and move- 
ment of hurricanes, somewhat extended quotations are made from his 
pamphlet. 

Theoretical Importance of the Lata of Recurving. — " Theoretically speaking 
this law is so intimately connected with the changes in the sun's declination and 
with the several positions occupied, according to seasons, by the equatorial zone of 
calms and rains, by the zones lying on the limits of the trade winds and by the 
anticyclone of the Atlantic, that, in my opinion, if this law had not been discovered 
o posteriori we would have to suspect a priori that it existed. 



= West India Hurricanes. By James Page. Hydrogr. Office, Bull. No. 86. 
Wash., 1901. 

= U. S. Weather Bureau, Publ. No. 168, Wash., 1898. 



124 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 

This law is also connected with the changes of direction experienced by the 
general upper current in the tropical regions. In fact, during the whole year, in 
Habana, if we except the hurricane season, the upper currents come from the west. 
In the first half of June and particularly in the second half of October, the cur- 
rents of the cirrus clouds incline to the south and southwest which is precisely 
where the cyclones come from at that time of the year, for they reach us as they 
are about to recurve, or just after recurving. From the end of June to the begin- 
ning of October, the upper current sets from the east, and this is (without any 
exception whatever in all the observations that I have made so far) the only time 
of the year when the cirrus clouds come from that quarter. This fact, when taken 
in connection with the tracks of the cyclones, is very significant: for, precisely at 
that time, if a cyclone advances toward Habana, it has necessarily to come from 
the east, since it must recurve to the north of the tropic and consequently we must 
receive it in the first branch of its track. On the contrary, excepting in the season 
just mentioned, in all the rest of the year, the cyclones that pass by Habana, or 
in its vicinity, are all more or less from the west and never from the east. In 
fact the cyclones of the end of October all come from the third quadrant, having 
previously recurved. Those of November, December and January all pass to the 
north of Habana in a northeast direction, as cyclones moving along the second 
branch of their track. In all the rest of the year they pass to the north of and at a 
greater or less distance from Habana more or less in the direction mentioned above. 
The facts that I have brought forward seem to indicate that the cyclones are 
directed along their tracks by the upper currents, which to my mind seems highly 
probable. 

The law of recurving has also intimate connection with the greater or less 
cyclonic activity in the West Indian seas during the different months. The maxi- 
mum and minimum latitudes reached by the recurving point correspond respectively 
to the maximum and minimum of cyclonic activity. 

In the second fortnight of August the hurricanes are, in general, more num- 
erous and more violent; they move along their tracks with greater velocity, reach 
greater altitudes, and the parabola which they describe is very wide, so that what- 
ever be the force that, projectile-like, impels the cyclone, its reach and amplitude 
are greater, and so consequently must be its impulsive energj'. Besides, if the 
general currents direct cyclones in their courses, this fact would denote that at 
this time of the year these currents attain their maximum activity and reach 
higher latitudes. The second fortnight of August and the beginning of September 
are moreover the epochs for simultaneous or twin cyclones; so much so that in 
1886, during the last decade of August, there were at one time four cyclones around 
Habana: One in the island to the east-southeast, one to the northeast, and two 
more in the Gulf of Mexico. Excepting at this season I only know of three cases 
of simultaneous cyclones near Habana, one occurring in September and two in 
October. 

In July and September the cyclones are less numerous, generally less violent, 
they move along their tracks with less velocity, are more inclined to the west and 
describe narrower parabolas. 

Finally, in June so few cyclones are observed that they are scarcely sufficient 
to establish a law. In October they are somewhat more numerous, but still few; 
some are quite intense; they move with but little velocity along the first branch 
of their track and while recurving. 

The relative position of the seas and continents appears to have some influ- 
ence on the recurving of hurricanes, for any one may observe that a great number 
of the cyclones of August recurve in the Gulf of Charleston without extending to 



PLATE XXII 




TIIK BAHAMA ISLANDS I'^S 

the continent, and many of those of July and September recurve on the coast of 
Texas. 

The laio of general routes or geographical zones pursued bij hurricanes. — It 
must, of course, be admitted that the tropical cyclones do not form indefinitely at 
any point within the tropical zones, but that they single out, in preference, for 
their formation and development, particular and definite regions in those zones. 
The following geographical conditions, generally, and in a more or less perfect 
degree, distinguish the cyclonic regions within the Tropics: Large continents lie 
to the west, indented by numerous gulfs and bays whose coasts run more or less 
northward and southward, with vast and extensive seas to the east, overspread 
commonly with numerous islands. Such at any rate are the features that in a 
more or less perfect degree concur in the cyclonic regions of the Philippine Isles 
and in the China Sea, in the seas of India, and also in the Southern Hemisphere, 
in the region situated east of Africa, in the vicinity of the islands of Madagascar, 
Mauritius, Reunion, Rodriguez, etc. But of all the cyclonic regions within the 
intertropical zone the one which more perfectly and grandly combined all these 
conditions is the great " Bay of North America," with its wide Atlantic Ocean 
extending to the east as far as the coast of Africa and to the northeast as far as 
the coast of Europe and the northern seas. In my opinion this contributes much 
to the grandeur and regularity of the immense paths of the West Indian cyclones. 
A cyclone of August or September may form in the vicinity of the Cape Verde 
Islands, near the coast of Africa, or to the east of the Lesser Antilles, cross the 
Atlantic along the first branch of its track, and recurve either in the Gulf of 
Charleston or on the coast of Texas. In the latter case it may cross the United 
States In the direction of Cape Hatteras, sweep, with renewed strength and velocity, 
a second time across the Atlantic, in a northeastward direction, and enter Europe 
or be lost in the northern seas. We have, then, a series of cyclones which describe 
immense tracks over many thousands of miles with admirable regularity and 
normality, and subject to general laws. This is truly surprising and astounding. 
I do not believe that on the face of the globe there is another region where cyclones 
are met with that can compare with those of the West Indies, or, rather, I should 
say, with those of the great Bay of North America. Neither is there within the 
whole intertropical zone a grander bay than this one, nor one which offers more 
favorable conditions for the development and onward progress of gyratory storms. 

The Bay of North America comprises, as I understand, that part of the Atlantic 
to the west of the fifty-fifth meridian (longitude west of Greenwich) from New- 
foundland to Dutch Guiana. It is bounded on the east by the said meridian and 
on the north, west and south by the coasts of Newfoundland, Labrador, and Gulf 
of St. Lawrence, by the coasts of the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea 
from Yucatan to Dutch Guiana. It embraces the West Indies, the Caribbean Sea, 
the Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas, the Bermudas, and the Gulfs of Charleston and 
of the St. Lawrence. 

LaiD of the relative velocity of translation. — We can divide the cyclonic track 
into three parts: First branch; recurve; second branch. Having made this divi- 
sion, I shall now formulate the law. In the first branch of the track, from the 
origin of the cyclone to the vicinity of the recurve, the velocity of translation is 
generally slightly on the increase. In the vicinity of the recurve the hurricane 
moderates the velocity of its advance, which reaches its minimum in the recurve. 
Finally, the velocity of translation is rapidly on the increase in the second branch, 
and attains a maximum of more than 30 and even 40 miles per hour." 



EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 

AT NASSAU, NEW PROVIDENCE, BY 

MEANS OF KITES 



EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 

AT NASSAU, NEW PROVIDENCE, BY 

MEANS OF KITES^ 

BY 
OLIVER L. FASSIG, Ph. D., 

Section Director of the U. S. Weather Bureau, at Baltimore^ Md. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Included in the equipment of tiie Bahama Expedition of the Geographical 
Society of Baltimore was a complete outfit for investigating on a small scale 
the conditions of the upper atmosphere. This apparatus was loaned to the 
Director of the Expedition by the Chief of the Weather Bureau. It consisted 
of one medium-sized and one large box kite (Plate XVI, Fig. 2, and Plate 
XVII, Fig. 1), two meteorographs (Plate XVI, Figs. 1 and 2), a hand reel 
with 15,000 feet of steel piano wire, and a nephoscope for altitude measure- 
ments. In addition, the instrumental equipment included a Eichard barograph, 
a thermograph, and a hygrograph, a sling psychrometer, a rain gage, and a rain 
recorder, the property of the Maryland State Weather Service. 

Head winds and rough weather caused considerable delay and incon- 
venience on the outward voyage, and the Expedition did not reach Nassau until 
the 17th of June. Through the courtesy of Mr. H. M. Flagler, the use of the 
grounds and clubhouse connected with the Colonial Hotel was kindly granted 
for the kite experiments. These grounds were by far the most suitable place to be 
found in the vicinity of Nassau for the purpose, being one of the few open 
stretches of field upon the entire Island. Situated west of the town of Nas- 
sau, along the northern coast of the Island and just below the ruins of old Fort 
Charlotte, the field afforded a free sweep of the air in the direction of the 
prevailing easterly winds of these latitudes. The Island of New Providence, 
upon which Nassau is situated, is a small island, measuring less than 20 miles 
from east to west and about 7 or 8 miles from north to south at its widest point. 
It lies about 150 miles to the east of the southern point of Florida, in latitude 
25° north, longitude 77° 30' west, along the northern edge of the trades. 

' These results were first published in the Monthly Weather Review, U. S. 
Weather Bureau for Dec, 1903. 
9 



130 EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 

Several days were spent in unpacking and mounting the meteorological 
instruments and the kites, and in waiting for favorable winds. It was not 
until the 37th of June that the wind seemed of suiBcient strength to warrant 
an attempt to raise a kite. At this season of the year winds above 10 miles 
per hour cannot be counted on daily, excepting for short periods. Beginning 
at sunrise with a breeze of -5 or 6 miles from the east-southeast, the strength 
increased by noon to 8 or 9 miles, with occasional higher velocities, but seldom 
exceeded 15 miles per hour. 

To one accustomed to the rapid and extreme fluctuations of temperate 
zone weather, the tropical conditions appear monotonously imiform; clear 
skies with intense sunshine; a few patches of loosely formed cumulus clouds; 
•an occasional shower of short duration; a small range of the thermometer, 
generally, at this season, keeping within the limits of 80° and 90°; these are 
conditions which may repeat themselves day after day for long periods. 
Though the direct sunshine is intense, the atmosphere is not excessively op- 
pressive, being moderately dry and seldom stagnant. So far as personal 
comfort is concerned, these conditions are less trying than the warm, muggy 
days of the coastal plain of the Middle Atlantic States. In these Islands there 
is generally a sufficient breeze for comfort when not exposed to the direct rays 
of the sun; from the warm, moist and stagnant atmosphere of the Middle 
States there is often no escape, even under the shelter of roof or tree. 

DESCRIPTION OF FLIGHTS. 

A preliminary flight was made on June 27, between 11 a. m. and 1 p. m., 
using the smaller 7-foot kite. The wind was east-southeast, and blowing with 
a velocity of about 10 miles per hour. No effort was made to reach any con- 
siderable height, the main purpose being to test the late and apparatus. The 
maximum elevation was slightly over 1000 feet. 

In all of the experiments conducted at Nassau, the kite meteorograph was 
checked by means of an aneroid barometer and a sling psychrometer at the 
surface just before the kite was raised, and at short intervals until the close 
of the flight. In addition, the barograph, thermograph and hygrograph were 
installed in the Nassau Cable Office, about three-fourths of a mile distant, by 
the courtesy of Mr. P. H. Burns, Superintendent of the Bahamas Cable; these 
instruments in turn were checked frequently by means of eye observations of 
the thermometers and mercurial barometer at the Cable Office. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 




PLATE XXMI 




132 EXPLOBATIO>f OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 

On July 1 the kite was raised at 10 a. m. and not lowered until nearly 5 
p. m. The wind was east-southeast, with a velocity of 15 miles, until 1 p. m., 
when the velocity fell to 11 miles, which was maintained until the end of the 
flight. The day was marked by an unusual amount of cloudiness, varying be- 
tween five and seven-tenths, mostly cumulus, witli a few alto-cumulus. A light 
scud occasionally passed under the kite. On several occasions the kite was en- 
tirely obscured, being sometimes in tlie passing cloud and sometimes above it. 
The greatest elevation attained was about 2600 feet at 12.33 p. m., with a tem- 
perature at the kite of 69°, and a surface temperature of 83°. The atmos- 
pheric pressure, as registered on the kite meteorograph, was 27.60 inches, and 
at the surface 30.03 inches. It was with considerable difficulty that the kite 
was maintained at the higher elevations. The tracings of the kite meteor- 
ograph (see Figs. 2, 3, 4) show constant fluctuations, doubtless largely due to 
frequent reeling and unreeling in attempts to increase the altitude of the kite, 
but in a measure also to be attributed to variation in the strength of the wind. 

On the following day, July 2, the larger 9-foot kite was launched. The 
wind was from the east-southeast, and unsteady, with a velocity varying be- 
tween 8 and 10 miles per hour; the sky was from three to four-tenths clouded. 
Not much was to be expected under these conditions. The greatest elevation 
slightly exceeded 2500 feet. The kite was raised shortly after 3 p. m., and 
lowered a little before 6 p. m. The lowest temperature recorded at the kite 
was 70°, with 85° at the surface; the pressure fell from 30.03 inches at the 
surface to 27.60 inches at the highest level. The same irregularities in the 
meteorograph tracings are to l:ie found in tire records of this ascent as were 
noted in the previous ascent. In fact this is a characteristic of all of the 
tracings, which would seem to point to a rapid falling ofi^ in wind velocity 
above a moderate elevation. 

The next ascent was attempted late in the afternoon of July 3, between 
5 and 8 p. m. (Plate XVII, Fig. 1). A good strong wind was blowing from the 
east-southeast, the weather conditions were unsettled, the cloudiness varying 
from five to seven-tenths cumulus and cumulo-nimbus. A squall arose about 
6.30 p. m., with a short shower of rain, during which my colleague and myself 
sought shelter in the clubhouse. The rain and squall lasted from ten to fifteen 
minutes. The kite wire was carefully grounded, but small discharges of atmos- 
pheric electricity were several times felt. We had no facilities for measuring 
the potential, but the shocks experienced now and then on accidental contact 
with the wire were not severe, even on the approach of the squall. The kite 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



133 



reached an elevation of nearly 4000 feet, and was maintained at a high elevation 
for fully two hours without much manipulation of the reel. TJie kite behaved 
well from ascent to landing, and an interesting and valuable record was looked 



3FM. 4 S 6FM. 




VA/ // ll\±L\M±^ 1 1 /^^ 


^ ^ S==_ 


_ ^m^ 


--BB- ^=^^ — ^ ■^^— 


/?/> ^>. -. '"1-/ 


Olf ..-.- ~-'' "i- - 






'IJ^^J^r _,i__ ■Z-4'^j' 


o^x J.'.'.. 'k- o J j.y^ . 



Fjg. 3.— Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made in flight of July 2, 1903, 3 to 6 p. ra. 

for; but to our dismay on examining the meteorograph it was found that the 
clock had stopped within fifteen minutes after the beginning of the ascent. 
Save for the maximum and minimum points of pressure, temperature, and 
humidity, and the altitude observations, there was no record of one of the 



134 EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 

most interesting of the six ascents made during our stay at JTassau. The 
lowest temperatiire recorded was 65°, with a surface temperature of 78° ; 
the lowest pressure was 36.30 inches, with 30.03 inches at the surface. 

On the day preceding our departure from Nassau, namely, on July 6, we 
determined to try the experiment of flying one of our kites from tlie deck of .a 
moving vessel. The practicability of this method had already been fully 
demonstrated by Mr. Eotch, Director of the Blue Hill Observatory, near Boston, 
and by others who followed his initiative, in the North Atlantic waters. We 
hoped by this method of artificially "■' raising a breeze " to attain a higher 
altitude than we had reached in the light land winds, and at the same time 
counted upon adding to our knowledge of the temperature and humidity con- 
ditions over the ocean in these latitudes. There was very little material to 
select from in the way of steam locomotion, wind being the motive power for 
practically all the water craft in this vicinity. The choice lay between a large 
and powerful steam tug belonging to the company running the regular line 
of steamers between New York, Nassau, and Havana, but for which a pro- 
hibitive charge was demanded, and a small steam launch used for conveying 
passengers across the channel to a pleasure resort on Hog Island. The smaller 
vessel was chosen. At 11 a. m. we left the harbor of Nassau on the Alicia 
with the larger of the two kites and the complete outfit. The party accompany- 
ing me comprised, in addition to the crew of three men, my colleague, Mr. J. E. 
Eouth, who took charge of the nephoscope for the altitude observations, Eev. 
Mr. Lament, who acted as recorder, and two natives at the reel. Leaving 
the channel we steamed out to the north of Hog Island, a long and narrow strip 
of land lying to the north of the Island of New Providence. Going a mile or 
two beyond land, we steamed into the wind with a velocity of about 5 to 6 
knots an hour. The boat was small and somewhat top-heavy, and there was a 
considerable ground-swell; between the rolling and pitching of the boat and 
the resulting physiological effects it was with difficulty that we Icept ourselves 
and the reel right side up. Barring a slight delay caused by the snapping, at 
the moment of ascent, of the small steel safety line attached to the kite, Avhich 
had to be replaced by a piece of twine, there were no hitches or accidents. 
The kite rose swiftly and steadily to an elevation of about 41000 feet. With a 
vessel of greater speed we could doubtless have reached a higher elevation. 
The surface wind was about 12 miles per hour; to this we added about 5 miles, 
the speed of our launch. It seems doubtful from our experience during five 
ascents, whether it would be possible greatly to exceed this limit at this season 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



135 



of the 3'ear without the aid of an artificial wind, even b}- means' of additional 
kites. There is apparently a diminution of wind velocity above the elevation 
of about 4000 feet, in this respect differing from the conditions in the teni- 




Fio. 4. — Nassau, Bahama Islands. Record made on board the steam launch Alicia, 
July 6, 1903, 11 a. m. to 1 p. m. 

perate latitudes, where the velocity steadily increases up to the limits thus far 
attained. This supposition is also borne out by observations of the few 
upper clouds seen during our stay of five or six weeks in these latitudes. A 
few clouds of the upper layer were observed, but their slight northward motion 



136 EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 

was to be detected only after the most careful observations by means of the 
nephoscope. 

The lowest temperature recorded during the ascent of the 6th was 63°, 
with a surface temperature of 83° ; the lowest barometric pressure was 26.40 
inches, with a surface reading of 30.05 inches. The humidity ranged from 
73 per cent at the surface to 98 per cent. A portion of the record was lost 
owing to the stopping of the clock a few minutes before the highest elevation 
was reached, but practically all the record during the ascending branch of the 
curve was intact. The kite left the boat at 11.10 a. m., reached its greatest 
elevation at 13.20 p. m., and was lowered at 1.12 p. m. The surface wind 
was east-southeast throughout, as during all preceding flights. The kite 
varied but little in azimuth from that of the surface wind ; however, there was 
always a slight change to a more southerly direction of the wind in the region 
of the kite. 

The east-southeast wind carried the kite beyond the limits of the Island 
in all but the first ascent. In the subsequent and higher elevations the kite 
was always a considerable distance beyond the coast line over the sea. In 
view of this fact and the small size of the Island, all of the observations may 
be regarded practically as ocean conditions, excepting those recorded within 
the iirst two or three hundred feet from the surface. 

TEMPERATURE RESULTS. 
The rates of decrease in temperature from the surface to an elevation of 
approximately 4000 feet are presented in tabular form, and charted in Figs. 
5 and 6. Observations on the nephoscope for angular elevation of the kite, 
and readings of the dial on the reel for length of wire out, were made by 
Mr. Eouth every five to ten minutes and sometimes more frequently. From 
these records and from the tracings of the kite meteorograph, averages were 
computed and plotted for each 100 feet and each 500 feet of elevation. The 
actual decrease in each 500 feet, the rate of decrease per 1000 feet, and the 
number of feet of elevation causing a decrease of 1° F. are shown in the 
following table: 

TEMPERATURE DECREASE. AVERAGE OF FOUR ASCENTS AND SEVENTY 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Elevation in feet 600 1000 1500 3000 2600 3000 3600 4000 Mean. 

Departure from surface tem- 
perature, degrees 5 7 9 11 13 16 18 20 

Rate of decrease per 1000 feet, 

degrees 10.0 7.0 6.0 5.5 5.2 5.2 3.1 5.1 6.1 

Numter of feet per 1° decrease 

In temperature 100 143 107 182 192 192 196 196 164 



GEOGRAPHICAL OOCIFTY OF BALTIMORE 




THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



137 



Elex- 


Temperature J)ecrease "iviik Altitude a&ot-e Sea leveL. ri^j\ 


Feet 


Temperatu re 


g2-'6d''66^€S^64°e6''66'70'73'74°76'73'' 


SO'8Z''d4-'' Feet. 


400O 










T 


: :: 




4000 
















M ■ 










\ 


iiii 




J-ulu 3^ 






























S J 














\ 


















' 




- -S 






































% - - 










^^r 
























_ _ 








77^', 


^^?^J7'<p 


-»• 


















L 


__ _ 








yjr _ _ 








A - - 






GOO 


' 














600 




t 


_: s_ 








C- - 


-":1s 




400 


t 










I 




400 




s^ 


i - -S 










5 




SOO 




^s^ 5 












200 








. 






V 


u S 




200O 




\ 


s_ 










2000 
















" .l:y ~ : 
















_t:: 


: :: ^v_ : 
















.].. 










I" si: " 


3 s 








I. 




400 -02 




- -S, - 








" f 


[:_ ___ A- 




W<^?' ■- 


3 - 


\ 






- \- 




400 


200~'^l 


°7S^7dl.Sl01S 


?' 84^ ^ 




s 






V 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 — .„ 1 




" s 











cvu 




Si- 


-Ji 








_. 1 
















\ 














5 _ 


. 




i, " 






800 


: s"^: " 


' 












r "^° 




\^ 






■, 




S_ 




\ ^^ 








:^. 






























400 






1— i-V 






1. ^~" 








■^ 




^5 






"^. \^ 






200 


: 5 














W ^^ 






^ 










s - 


"^ 


Temper-attzre 7 


6 78''80\8S'34'86^ d 
T 7Z'74''7ff'78°80'82°S4\ \70° 7B' 74" 7G'7S' 80^85' S4'7kmpe7yxUr^ 


ytzU lirtfs- ascent. Z>otte<£ line^, e/&scsn.t . \ 



Fig. 5. — Nassau, Bahama Islands. Based on records of June 27 to July 6, 1903 



Pressu, 
Feei 26 .27 Z8 


'■e.(b) 

29 SOinches. P'^^^ 


(■dj 'b, , 


i^) ... 




400O 


t 


, , 


i JJ 




^ 




SOO - t -L > 








T ^ 


» 


fc "s : 


1 


ul 


^^ 










\ \ 








V : 












"S s 








s ^^ 


1 










\ T A 


4. 


c ^ 


^ A- 


- ^- 


\ 


-^^- 1 










i - -, - 


± "t 


. - - 




^ \ J 




L_^ _'__ lOOO 






Sj "^ 


- ^ -X 




S J - 


- "S 


t - 




S - - ■SOO 




\ i 


^ 's 


% J 


s 


^. ' 


s; 


^ ? 




i ^1 " o 


^ 60' €5° 70' 7S' SO' 
TeTTzpsT'ocizzT-e . (a.) 


ao% 90% 

Htz m tdi tu . (cj 



Fig. 6. — Nassau, Bahama Islands, June 27, July 1, 2, 6, 1903. Average 
values during four ascents. 



138 EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 

Comparing these results with those obtained at other points under the 
auspices of the Weather Bureau in the summer of 1898 we find a close agree- 
ment. Practically all of the ISTassau experiments were conducted in the after- 
noon. Taking from Bulletin F, of the Weather Bureau, the results of the 
Washington, D. C, afternoon observations and the mean of the afternoon 
observations at 17 localities in the United States, and placing them alongside 
the Nassau observations, the rate of decrease is seen to be almost identical. 

COMPARATIVE RATE OF DECREASE IN TEMPERATURE PER 1000 FEET. 

Mean of 37 localities 

Elevation ill feet. Washington, p. m. iu the United States, Nassau, p. m. 

p. ra. 

o o o 

500 ... ... 10.0 

1000 8.1 7.5 7.0 

1500 6.5 6.4 6.0 

2000 5.8 6.0 5.5 

2500 ... ... 5.2 

3000 5.5 5.5 5.2 

3500 ... ... 5.1 

4000 4.9 4.9 5.1 

Mean 6.2 6.1 6.1 

The rate of decrease iu temperature computed from averages for eacli 
100 feet is also shown in Fig. 6 (a). 

DECREASE IN PRESSURE. 

As the altitude of the meteorograph is determined trigonometrically we 

may compute the average rate of decrease in pressure during four flights as 

shown in the following table, which also shows the number of observations 

employed and the average temperature of the air in each column of 1000 feet: 

RATE OF DECREASE IN I'RESSURE. 

Altitude. 

Feet. 

0-1000 
1000-2000 
2000-3000 
3000-4000 
Means. 

In Fig. 6 (6) the rate of decrease in pressure is shown graphically. The 
plotted observations for which the curve is drawn are averages for each suc- 
cessive 100 feet. The total number of observations employed in the construc- 
tion of the curve is about 75. 

RELATIVE HUMIDITY. 

Observations of relative humidity at the surface were obtained by means 
of a Richard hygrograph, checked by direct determinations of humidity by 
means of a sling psychrometer. The readings derived from the kite hygro- 



Number of 


Average 


Fall of 


obser\'ations. 


temperature. 


0. 1 inch. 




o 


Perfect 


16 


80.4 


95 


25 


78.3 


103 


26 


69.8 


109 


7 


64.6 


105 




73.3 


103 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



139 



graph tracings were averaged for each 100 feet of elevation, and those aver- 
ao'es in turn grouped in order to obtain average values for each successive 
column of 500 feet. In the following table these values are reproduced; 
the average humidities are also shown graphically in curve (c) of Fig. G. 

As will be seen by inspection of the percentages of relative humidity, 
there is a steady increase from tlie surface to the highest elevations reached, 
namely 4000 feet, excepting the layer between 2500 feet and 3000 feet, where 
there is an interruption to the steady increase. The drop from 93 per cent 
to 89 per cent near the 3000-foot level is probably due to an excessive value 
just below the 2500-foot level, brought about by the kite passing through a 
cloud at this level on three or four occasions. 

INCREASE OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY: AVERAGE OF FOUR ASCENTS. 

■pio,7nfir,n Numbcrof Relat-.o 

Jilevation. observations, humidity. 



Elevation. 

Feet. 
Surface. 
0-500 

500-1000 
1000-1500 
1500-2000 
2000-2500 



Number of 


Relative 


observations 


humidity 




Per cent. 


10 


73 


5 


79 


12 


82 


15 


84 


16 


87 


18 


93 



Feet. 
2500-3000 
3000-3500 
3300-4000 



88 



Per cent. 
80 



96 



TABULATION OF OBSERVATIONS. 

The observations obtained during the various flights described above are 
tabulated below. 

OBSERVATIONS AT NASSAU, .TUNE 27, 1903. 





Eleva- 
tion of 
kite. 


Atmospheric conditions. 


Ascent for 0.1 inch 
of pressure de- 
crease. 






Surface. 


At kite. 


,o 1= 


Time. 


Pres- 
sure. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Humid- 
ity. 


Wind 
direc- 
tion and 
velocity. 


Pres- 
sure. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Hu- 
mid- 
ity. 


Ascent f 
temper 
crease. 


a. m. 


feet. 


inches. 


o 


% 




inches. 


o 


% 


feet. 


feet. 


•10.55 





30.05 


83 


74 


ese., 10 


30.05 


83 


73 










11.34 


585 


30.05 


83 


74 


do 


29.40 


77 


78 




90 


98 


11.36 


642 


.30.05 


83 


74 


do 


29.40 


78 


76 




99 


128 


11.41 


758 


30.05 


83 


74 


do 


29.00 


75 


82 




72 


95 


11.43 


827 


30.05 


83 


74 


do 


29.00 


75 


82 




79 


103 


11.52 


.S96 


30.05 


83 


74 


do 


29.00 


75 


84 




85 


112 


11.55 


1089 


30.05 


83 


74 


do 


28.80 


74 


85 




87 


131 


Noon. 


750 


30.05 


83 


74 


do 


29.40 


78 


81 




113 


150 


/*. ni. 
12.12 


602 


30.05 


83 


74 


do 


29.43 


78 


80 




97 


150 


12.15 


377 


30.05 


83 


75 


do 


29.70 


78 


80 




108 


94 


12.19 


430 


30.05 


83 


75 


do 


29.60 


79 


80 




90 


108 


12.23 


.372 


30.05 


83 


75 


do 


29.70 


79 


79 




106 


93 


12.26 


425 


30.05 


83 


76 


do 


29.60 


79 


79 




94 


100 


12.29 


266 


30.05 


83 


76 


do 


29. .80 


80 


78 




106 


90 


1 2.30 





39.05 


83 


76 


do 


30.05 


83 


76 










• 6 


cumulus. 


10 a. m. t 


J noon. 


Average 


pressure 


lecrease 


D.IO inch 


per 95 


feet. 


Average 



140 



EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 



OBSERVATIONS AT NASSAU, JULY 1, 1903. 





Eleva- 
tion of 
kite. 






Atmosph 


eric conditions. 






1' 
a o 

2£ 

O m 

Sag 

UV- U 
« O o 

< 


'4-t 

o 

1 

s 

< 


1 




Surface. 


At kite. 


u 
3 

g 


Time. 


Pres- 
sure. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Humid- 
ity. 


Wind 
direc- 
tion and 
velocity. 


Pres- 
sure. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Hu- 
mid- 
ity. 


at 


a. m. 


feci. 


inches. 


o 


% 




inches. 


o 


% 


feci. 


feet. 


10.00 





30.05 


83 


75 


ese., 15 


30.05 


83 


75 










10.12 


1053 


30.05 


S3 


7.5 


do 


29.37 


77 


85 


155 




150 


*10.20 


1235 


30.05 


S3 


77 


do 


29.00 


75 


90 


118 




1,37 


10.30 


1711 


30.05 


83 


77 


do 


28.60 


73 


94 


118 




156 


tl0.40 


2066 


30.05 


S3 


07 


do 


28.40 


73 


07 


125 




188 


10.50 


2057 


30.05 


S3 


67 


do 


28.20 


72 


100 


111 




171 


J10..53 


2112 


30.05 


83 


07 


do 


28.10 


71 


100 


108 




162 


§11.00 


2280 


30.05 


83 


72 


do 


27.80 


69 


100 


101 




152 


11.10 


2623 


30.05 


83 


72 


do 


27.80 


70 


92 


112 




187 


11.20 


2382 


30.05 


S3 


72 


do 


27.80 


70 


90 


106 




170 


11.32 


2263 


30.05 


83 


70 


do 


27.80 


70 


90 


101 




162 


11.40 


247G 


30.05 


S3 


70 


do 


27.98 


72 


82 


120 




206 


p. m. 
12.04 


1900' 


30.03 


83 


75 


do 


28.20 


73 


90 


104 




173 


12.23 


2593 


30.03 


83 


75 


do 


27.60 


09 


96 


107 




173 


1112.52 


2334 


30.03 


83 


75 


do 


27.83 


70 


99 


100 




167 


111.05 


2495 


30.03 


S3 


74 


ese., 11 


27.78 


09 


98 


111 




106 


1.15 


2440 


30.03 


83 


74 


do 


2S.00 


71 


00 


120 




188 


1.25 


1968 


30.03 


83 


74 


do 


28.00 


72 


90 


97 




164 


1.40 


2281 


30.03 


S3 


74 


do 


27.90 


71 


93 


107 




175 


2.00 . 


1837 


30.02 


82 


84 


do 


28.10 


72 


93 


05 




153 


2.20 


2176 


30.02 


82 


S4 


do 


28.10 


72 


87 


113 




181 


»*2.28 


2024 


30.02 


82 


78 


do 


28.10 


72 


90 


105 




184 


2.40 


2010 


30.02 


S2 


78 


do 


28.20 


73 


90 


110 




201 


tt2.49 


2067 


30.02 


SI 


72 


do 


28.30 


72 


93 


120 




118 


3.00 


1812 


30.02 


SI 


72 


do 


28.30 


73 


85 


105 




201 


3.10 


2218 


30.02 


81 


73 


do 


28.20 


71 


87 


122 




202 


3.20 


1840 


30.02 


81 


73 


do 


28.58 


73 


87 


112 




204 


3.40 


1614 


30.02 


81 


73 


do 


28.40 


73 


85 


100 




179 


3.50 


1165' 


30.02 


SI 


73 


do 


28.70 


76 


81 


08 




104 


TJ4.00 


1230 


30.02 


82 


77 


do 


28.70 


75 


75 


03 




154 


§§4.05 


1121 


30.02 


82 


77 


do 


28.75 


76 


82 


88 




160 


4.10 


1298 


30.02 


82 


79 


do 


28.62 


75 


82 


93 




162 


4.15 


1023' 


30.02 


82 


79 


do 


28.80 


76 


75 


85 




148 


4.20 


1083 


30.02 


82 


79 


do 


29.00 


77 


80 


106 




ISO 


4.25 


785 


30.02 


82 


79 


do 


29.20 


78 


78 


00 




147 


4.30 




30.02 


82 




do 


29.60 


80 


70 








4.40 





30.02 


82 


79 


do 


30.02 


82 


70 









* 5 cumulus, 2 alto-cumulus, t Light scud under kite, t Kite in cumulus at 10.57 a. m. 
§ Light rain ; kite in cumulo-nimbus. ]] Kite in cumulus. 1, Kite obscured by cumulus. 
** Whole sky clouded in region of kite, tt Kite in cumulo-nimbus. $$ Thunder at 4.05 p. m. 
§§ A few cirrus clouds apparently moving northward. Average pressure decrease 0.10 inch 
per 107 feet. Average temperature decrease 1° F. per 173 feet. 



TJIE BAHAMA I.SLANDS 



141 



OBSERVATIONS AT NASSAU, JULY 2, 1903. 







Atmospheric conditions. 


inch 
de- 


o o 


















(i:-, 




Eleva- 
tion of 
kite. 




Surface. 






At kite. 




Ascent torO.] 
of pressure 
oronse. 


Ascent for 1° 
temperatui 
crease. 


Time. 


Pres- 
sure. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Humid- 
ity. 


Wind 
direc- 
tion and 
velocity. 


Pres- 
sure. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Hu- 
mid- 
ity. 


;;. m. 
3.18 


feet. 



Inches. 
30.03 


o 
8G 


72 


ese., 9% 


■inches. 
30.03 


o 
86 


% 
72 


feet. 



feet. 



3.42 


1656 


30.03 


86 


72 


do 


28.50 


75 


73 


108 


151 


*3..52 


1605 


30,03 


86 


72. 


do 


28,60 


75 


75 


112 


146 


4.04 


1.S72 


30.03 


85 


73 


do 


28,40 


73 


76 


115 


1.56 


4.14 


2526 


30.03 


85 


73 


do 


27.60 


70 


90 


104 


168 


4.24 


1643 


30.03 


85 


73 


do 


28.40 


74 


90 


95 


149 


4.32 


1890 


30.03 


85 


73 


do 


28.20 


72 


93 


103 


145 


4.40 


2455 


30.02 


85 


74 


do 


27.80 


70 


95 


111 


164 


4.30 


1829 


30.02 


85 


74 


do 


28.36 


S3 


92 


110 


152 


5.00 


1473 


30.02 


85 


75 


do 


28.60 


74 


90 


104 


1.34 


5.10 


1412 


.30.02 


85 


75 


ese., 8 


28..S0 


7.5 


88 


116 


141 


5.20 


1318 


30.02 


85 


75 


do 


28.65 


75 


90 


96 


132 


t5.25 


1831 


30.02 


85 


75 


do 


28.20 


72 


87 


101 


141 


5.30 


1430 


30.02 


84 


75 


do 


28.80 


7.3 


90 


101 


130 


5.32 


817 


30.02 


84 


75 


do 


29.10 


77 


88 


89 


117 


5.36 


619 


30.02 


84 


75 


do 


29.20 


76 


80 


86 


77 


5.38 


662 


30,02 


84 


76 


do 


29.40 


77 


80 


107 


95 


5.48 





30.02 


84 


77 


do 


.30.02 


83 


70 







Clear day. * 4 cumulus from the southeast, t 3 cumulus from the .southeast. Average 
pressure decrease 0.10 inch per 104 feet. Average temperature decrease 1° F. per 136 feet. 



OBSERVATIONS AT NASSAU, JULY 



1903 



p. m. 


feet. 


inchef. 





^ 




iiicftei*. ° 


% 




5.30 ? 





30.03 


83 


63 


ese., 12 


30.00 83 


5.36 




30.03 


83 


63 


do 


29.65 81 62 


.5.41 


1643 


30.03 


84 


80 


do 


29.20 7 


8 68 


5.48 


1910 


30.03 


83 


80 


do 


28.60 7 


4 80 


•5.55 


2068 


30.03 


83 


80 


do 








76.00 


2305 


30.03 


83 


77 


do 








6.11 


3070 


30.03 


75 


77 


do 








6.18 


2825 


30.03 


75 


77 


do 








i6.21 


3246 


30.03 


7.5 


77 


do 








§6.27 


3425 


30.03 


76 


85 


do 








6.35 


3184 


30.03 


76 


85 


do 








116.47 


3307 


30,03 


76 


85 


do 








6.54 


3674 


30,03 


76 


85 


do 








7.00 


3858 


30.04 


78 


85 


ese., 8 


26.319 6 


■5 




•17.14 


3856 


30.04 


78 


85 


do 








7.30 


2900 


30.04 


80 


85 


do 








7.42 


2237 


• 30.04 


80 


85 


do 








7.50 


2030 


30.04 


80 


85 


do 








8.05 


1040 


30.04 


79 


85 


do 








8.15 


957 


.30.04 


79 


85 


do 








8.20? 





30.04 






do 









feet. 



* Azimuth of kite changed from 100° to 110°. t Azimuth of kite returned ta 100°. J Kite 
entered cloud at 6.15 p. m. ; Squall with rain, 6.20 p. m. || 6 cumulus with occasional 
cumulus nimbus. § 6.44 kite In or over cumulus. % Began to lower kite at 7.16 p. m. Figures 
in italic are interpolations. 



142 



EXPLORATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE 



OBSERVATIONS AT NASSAU, JULY 6, 1903.* 











Atmospheric cond 


itions. 






j3 
o 1 

C 0) 

3g 


t-l 1 

%'5 






Surface. 






At kite. 






Eleva- 
tion of 
















°icD 


'S^ 


Time. 




















kite. 


Pres- 


Temper- 


Humid- 


Wind 
direc- 


Pres- 


Temper- 


Hu- 
mid- 
ity. 




4.; a." 
fl rt « 






sure. 


ature. 


ity. 


tion and 


sure. 


ature. 


cfi O O 


O ii >-< 












velocity. 






<? 


< 


a. III. 


feet. 


inclief^. 


o 


% 




inches. 


o 


% 


feet. 


feet. 


11.10 





30.05 


83 


73 


ese., 12 


30.05 


83 


73 








11.20 


904 


30.05 


S3 


73 


do 


28.60 


74 


85 


02? 


100? 


11.2.5 


2532 


30.05 


83 


73 


do 


27.78 


69 


93 


112 


181 


11.30 


2823 


30.05 


83 


73 


do 


27.52 


69 


90 


112 


200 


11.3.5 


2500? 


30.05 


83 


73 


do 


27.40 


68 


00 


94 


167 


tll.40 


2792 


30.05 


83 


73 


do 


27.20 


68 


SO 


98 


186 


til. 45 


2855 


30.05 


83 


73 


do 


27,20 


67 


83 


100 


178 


11.50 


2025 


30.05 


83 


73 


do 


26.90 


66 


90 


93 


172 


11.55 


3115 


30.05 


83 


73 


do 


26.80 


67 


95 


96 


195 


§Nooii. 


2873 


30.05 


83 


73 


do 


27.20 


67 




101 


W, 


IJ. Ill . 
1112.05 


3564 


30.05 


S3 


73 


do 


26.52 


6', 




101 


m 


12.10 


3435 


30.05 


83 


73 


do 


26.65 


6.', 




101 


m 


112.15 


3600? 


30.05 


83 


1 O 


do 


26.1,9 


63 




101 


18/f 


12.20 


3850 


30.03 


83 


73 


do 


26.40 


63 


98 


105 


192 


**12.25 


3700 


30.05 


S3 


73 


do 


26.7/5 


63 




101 


18J, 


12.30 


3375 


30.05 


S3 


70 


do 


26.71 


65 




101 


m 


12.35 


3560 


30.05 


83 


75 


do 


26.53 


6Jf 




101 


ISI, 


12.40 


3328 


30.05 


83 


75 


do 


26.76 


65 




101 


m 


12.45 


3256 


30.05 


83 


75 


do 


26.83 


65 




101 


ISI, 


12.50 


2933 


30.05 


83 


75 


do 


27.U 


67 




101 


m 


12.55 


2500 


30.05 


S3 


75 


do 


,27.58 


69 




101 


m 


1.00 


1948 


30.05 


S3 


75 


do 


2S..J2 


72 




101 


18Jf 


1.03 


905 


30.05 


83 


75 


do 


29.15 


7S 




101 


ISJi- 


1.12 





30.05 


83 


75 


do 


30.05 











• On board steam launch Alicia; length 25 feet, width S feet, speed 5 knots. 



cumulus ; 



wind from east ; kite in cumulus cloud, t Cumulus cloud passed over kite. § Kite in cloud. 
II Kite in cloud. H Kite entered cloud. ** Kite left cloud. Average pressure decrease 0.10 
inch per 101 feet. Average temperature decrease 1° F. per 184 feet. Figures in italic are 
interpolations. 

It may be of interest to record the relation existing between the length 
of wire out and the angular and vertical elevation of the kite. This relation- 
ship is shown in the following table, in which the average values for all obser- 
vations of each flight are given: 

RELATION BETWEEN LENGTH OP WIRE AND ELEVATION OF KITE. 
Date. 



.Tune 27 

July 1 

July 2 

July 3 

July 

June 27-JuIy 6 102 

Means 



Number of 
observations. 


Averaj^e 
length of wire. 


Av 

la 


erage angu- 
• elevation. 


Average eleva- 
tion of kite. 






feet. 




o 


' 


feet. 


12 




1081 




38 





637 


34 




3547 




33 


30 


1869 


16 




2722 




38 


36 


1565 


18 




3979 




44 


42 


2635 


22 




4728 




42 


30 


2865 



3211 



39 28 



1914 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 143 

The average ratio of elevation to length of wire, for all heights is a 
trifle less than 0.60. This value is based on 102 observations. The ratio 
varied but little throughout the experiments. The average ratio for 18 eleva- 
tions exceeding 3000 feet was 0.59. The average angular elevation of the kite 
was 39° 28' for all observations, and 38° 30' for the 18 elevations exceeding 
3000 feet. 



SOILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



10 



SOILS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 
CHARLES N. MOONEY, S. B., 

Assistant in Soil Survey, U. S. Bureau of Soils, Wasliingion, D. C. 



INTRODUCTION. 



A reconnoissance and survey of the soils of the Bahama Islands was under- 
taken during the summer of 1903, while the author was a member of the 
Expedition sent out to the Bahama Islands by the Geographical Society of 
Baltimore. In making this reconnoissance the field methods which have been 
elaborated by the U. S. Bureau of Soils were employed. The U. S. Department 
of Agriculture kindly provided a field outfit, including a portable laboratory. 
This was installed in a private residence at N"assau, and many important soil 
analyses were made in the field. 

The area surveyed and mapped amounted in all to about 700 square miles, 
and included five islands and a few small cays, viz. : New Providence, Eleu- 
thera. Cat, Long and Watlings Islands, and Eum Cay and the cays adjacent 
to New Providence and Eleuthera. The other islands visited were Andros 
and Great Abaco, but owing to lack of time no mapping was attempted. 
In carrying forward this work the author was assisted by Messrs. J. C. Brit- 
ton and E. T. Hughes. 

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Practically nothing is known of tlie agriculture of the Lucayans. the 
aboriginal inhabitants of the Bahamas. Neither Columbus, upon his dis- 
covery, nor the Spaniards who visited the Islands later, recorded any of their 
observations upon agriculture as it then existed. Columbus, however, speaks of 
the inhabitants as a peaceful people, and their primitive weapons would also 
indicate that they were not of a warlike disposition. From this it might be 
inferred that they devoted themselves to agricultural pursuits. McKinnen, 
in his " Tour of the West Indies," says that he passed by " successive heaps 
of loose stones thrown together by the aborigines, who, it is supposed, had 
begun to cultivate the ground pretty extensively." They cultivated some 
species of grain, in all likelihood maize, and probably cotton also, for Colum- 



148 SOILS AND AGRICULTUI'iAL CONDITIONS 

bus mentioned some of their articles as made of cotton thread. He speaks, 
too, of orchards, but does not mention the kind of fruit. 

In any event, their agriculture must have been of the wcry simplest kind. 

The}' were doubtless able to supply their wants easily, having the indigenous 

fruits of a subtropical region, in addition to what they produced. They were 

. also able to supply themselves with fish, which ^\'ere no doubt plentiful. Their 

only domesticated animal is said to have been a. kind of dog, remarkable for 

\ the fact that it did not bark. 

For over two hundred years after their discovery, agriculture cannot be 
said to have existed in the Islands. 'Ho stable government could be estab- 
lished during this period, as the Islands were the rendezvous of pirates. About 
1670 the Bahamas were occupied by the English, and settlements were 
made soon thereafter, which remained permanent, though subjected to fre- 
quent Spanish attacks. It was not until about 1718, however, that the pirates 
f were completely subdued. Following the restoration of order in the Islands 
j settlers began to come in, among them some German refugees. These all 
1 turned their efforts to agriculture, and to the Germans is due the introduction 
j of pineapples. From that time agriculture may he said to have begun its 
growth, and the foundations of commerce were laid. Development, however, 
was slow, for as late as 1770 only New Providence, Eleuthera and Harbor 
Islands were inhabited. These had a total population of a little over 3000, 
about one-third of which were negro slaves. By 1800 the town of Ifassau 
alone had a population equal to this. 
j Agriculture received further impetus at the close of the Eevolutionary 

War in America, when many of the fugitive Eoyalists from South Carolina 
and Georgia took refuge, first in east Florida, and finally in the Bahamas. 
These, like the earlier settlers, turned their attention to agriculture. They 
took up land, and finding it easily cleared, and apparently well suited to 
cotton, they began the cultivation of this crop on an extensive scale. It is said 
that fifteen years after their arrival 40 plantations, with between 2000 and 
3000 acres in cotton fields, had been established on Crooked Island alone, and 
that on Long Island, which was settled at an earlier date, and which had been 
more extensively improved, there were in 1783 nearly 4000 acres in cultiva- 
tion. The combined yield from Long Island and Exuma for one year was 
estimated at over 600 tons.^ The seed came chiefly from Georgia and was of 
the Persian variety. Later Anguilla cotton was introduced. The labor was 
performed by slaves. About five or six acres were allotted to each working 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXV 



A ■* 




Fig. 1. — \iEW OF vegetatiox looking north fkoji suhmxt of blue ridge, new 

PROVIDENCE 




Fig. 2. — view of mature pineapple field, new providence 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 149 

slave, and it was claimed that on some estates from one-lialf to three-fourths 
of a ton of clean lint was produced for each working slave, but McKinnen 
says that most planters were satisfied to get one-sixth of the latter quantity. 
The best cotton was grown on the higher lands. The cultivation of this crop, 
jiowever, was not a permanent success, for McKinnen, who visited the Islands 
in 1802-03, says: "The plantations on Crooked Island for the most part were 
deserted, and the proprietors visited were generally in a state of despondency, 
from an agricultural point of view, as to the future." This probably was also 
true of all the other islands. The failure of cotton was due chiefly to the 
attacks of insects, but other causes were also operative. A committee of 
planters who investigated the problem at the time reported that besides the 
insects attacking cotton, the other causes that could be assigned for the failure 
of cotton growing were : the use of land unsuited to its culture, the injudi- 
cious and wasteful methods of clearing the land, and the exhaustion of the 
soil by unremitted tillage. Since that time the production of cotton has de- 
creased, and upon the abolition of slavery in 1834 it ceased to be an important 
crop. At times, however, there has been a revival of the industry, and the 
production has temporarily increased. As late as 1898 the export of cotton 
was 10,782 pounds, valued at £143. Besides cotton, citrus and other fruits 
were produced. 

According to McKinnen, "Guinea corn was universally cultivated, and 
was an agreeable and nutritious grain." Pie also states that the exports from 
the Islands included salt, J;urtles, mahogany, dye and other woods, and barks. 
It appears also from his report that the people were generally engaged in 
wrecking, as wrecks were numerous among the islands, and that the earnings 
from this source were considerable. 

Slavery played an important part in the early agriculture of the Islands. 

This system was abolished in 1834, and the suddenness of the change left the 

agricultural industry of the Islands in a demoralized condition. The tine 

estates that had been built up were abandoned, the owners either moving to 

^ Kassau or leaving the Islands altogether. 

Passing now to more recent developments in the agriculture of the 
Islands, pineapples have gradually increased in importance, becoming a staple 
\ product of export. Their production has increased until, in 1900, the exports 
amounted to 7,000,000 dozens. At one time the Bahamas enjoyed a monopoly 
of the pineapple trade with the United States, but in late years that position 
has been lost, owing partly to the strong competition of Jamaica. Cuba and 
Florida. 



r 



150 - SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 

It is not known when the native stock was improved, or when citrus 
fruits were introduced, but they were grown by the earliest colonists, and 
by 1800 had become a rather important product. Their production was, how- 
I ever, seriously affected by the scale and other insect pests. Oranges were the 
j first of these fruits to be exported, and at times have been shipped in large 
quantities, but in late years, owing to the American tariff and competition, 
ithe exports have fallen off. The groves have been neglected, and the pro- 
duction has become small indeed compared to what it formerly was. 

Shaddocks or grape fruit have been prodiiced for export, the latter 
becoming of increasing importance, as competition is less and prices such that 
the production is profitable even with the payment of tariff duties. Limes 
and lemons have never become of any importance for export. 

Bananas have been exported to some extent, but these products cannot 
compete with those of Cuba and other countries having better shipping facili- 
ties. There are many other tropical fruits, but they have never become of 
commercial importance. 

Sugar cane was introduced, but did not prove successful, and only small 
patches are now being grown. The canes are only used for home consump- 
tion, no sugar being made. 

Tobacco was introduced, and was quite extensively cultivated during the 
seventies, with fair success. Cigars were first exported in 1878, but tobacco 
grooving has now been discontinued. 

Tomatoes were introduced in 1875, and in 1879, 8130 boxes were ex- 
ported to the United States. Tomatoes are still grown universally, but not 
for export. 

Sisal was introduced about 1850, but its value as a fiber plant did not 
receive recognition imtil some thirty years later. Samples of the fiber were 
sent to London, and were pronounced of superior quality. To further the 
industry a commission was sent by the Bahama government to Yucatan, where 
sisal growing had proved very profitable, to report upon the advisability of 
introducing the industry into the Bahamas. The commission reported favor- 
ably, considering the soil and climatic conditions of the Bahamas similar to 
those of Yucatan. Companies were organized by English capitalists in 1887 
to grow sisal on an extensive scale, and plants of machinery for cleaning 
the fiber were installed. To foster the industry the Bahama Assembly passed 
two acts in 1889. One provided for a duty of 20 per cent ad valorem on all 
fiber imported, which had heretofore been in the free list. The second granted 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 151 

a bounty of 1 cent a pound on all fiber produced for export during the follow- 
ing six rears. The production therefore increased rapidly, until in the four 
years 1897 to 1900 the annual output reached over 1,000,000 pounds. During 
1902 the output reached 2,345,311 pounds, with a value of £37,574. 

Some effort was made a few years ago to introduce the growing of 
Manila fiber {Musa textiles), but without success. 

During the Civil War in the United States the Islands became the 
depot for all cotton from the Southern States, and as a result were extremely 
prosperous. After the close of the war, however, business came to a standstill, 
and it may be said that only in recent years have the Islands begun to recover 
from the evil effects of the inflation of that period. 

Thus, from the very first agriculture in the Bahamas has met with great 
obstacles. The colonists, disheartened by their reverses in the attempt to 
grow cotton, as already stated, deserted their plantations, leaving them to the 
slaves. Many left the Islands or devoted themselves to other pursuits. They 
finally had recourse to the sea. It was only natural, considering their sur- 
roundings, that this should be the case. Agriculture, with its attendant 
difficulties, offered nothing more than a mere living, while wrecking, fishing 
and sponging afforded remunerative employment and held out alluring pros- 
pects of occasional good fortune. Agriculture, however, was not given up 
entirely, but between voyages efforts were made to produce from the soil what 
little necessaries it afforded, and a great part of this work devolved upon the 
women and children. Agriculture thus became subordinated to the maritime 
pursuits, and still holds only a secondary place in the industries of the Islands. 

CLIMATE. 

As the Bahamas extend from 21° to 28° north latitude, they have practi- 
cally a tropical climate. The range of temperature between the averages of 
the summer and the winter seasons is only about 10°, the average for summer 
being 82° F., and for winter 72° P. The extremes of temperature are about 
16° above the average for summer and about 19° below the average for winter. 
Hence frosts are unknown. 

The average annual rainfall is about 50 inches, ranging between a max- 
imum of 91 inches and a minimum of 25 inches. It is, however, unequally dis- 
tributed throughout the year, occurring chiefly during the summer, while in 
the winter long droughts are common. At times the precipitation is exceedingly 
heavy, and much damage is done to the crops. Often the dashing rains wash 



158 SOILS AND AGRICULTUEAL CONDITIONS 

away much of the light soils on the higher elevations. Heavy dews are 
common during the winter, and do much towards keeping up plant growth 
during the droughts. Cool winds from the northeast are common during the 
winter, and in August, September and October, destructive hurricanes may be 
expected. The prevailing winds are those of the " trades," which are generally 
easterly, varying to northeasterly and southeasterly. The Islands are so nar- 
row that these winds greatly modify the climatic conditions. On account of 
their equable climate the Islands are growing in popularity as a winter resort. 

GEOLOGY. 

In their physiographic and geological features the Bahamas do not difEe]^ 
materially from one another. The topography consists in general of a range 
or series of ranges of low hills running lengthwise of the islands, with low in- 
termediate valleys. The hills rise to elevations rarely exceeding 250 feet, 
and on the windward or northeastern side, which is commonly known as the 
" north shore," they consist of rounded dunes of loose, incoherent sand. In- 
land they become somewhat higher, are more stony and rugged, and often end 
on the leeward coast as low bluffs or promontories. 

The valleys are but slightly elevated above sea-level, and the lower portions 
are often occupied by brackish ponds or lakes, the waters in many of which 
rise and fall with the tides, as they have subterranean connections with the 
sea. These valleys contain no running streams of fresh water, and surface 
drainage systems have not been established on any of the islands, with the 
exception of Andres. Even on this island the streams are few and small. 
The valleys, then, are not solution valleys, such as are found in limestone 
countries, but are original depressions between the ranges of hills or sand dunes. 
The drainage is therefore through the porous underlying rock, and through 
numerous fissures and crevices into the subterranean caverns, and thence 
through openijigs into the sea. 

Along much of the windward shore, and in the bights on the leeward 
shore, occur beaches or narrow beach plains of sand, elevated a few feet above 
high water level, and varying in width from only a few yards to as much as 
half a mile. 

The rock formation consists of shell and coral sand more or less solidified, 
to a limestone. By wave action the coral and shells have been pulverized and 
cast up on the beaches, where they have been picked up by the winds and 
blown inland, forming sand dunes. Later by infiltration of carbonate of lime. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 153 

the sands have been more or less cemented into a soft, porous rock. The form- 
ation, then, is found varying from the loose, incoherent sands of the beaches and 
sand dunes, to the older portions inland, composed of solid rock, fit for building 
purposes. The weathering of this coralline rock is mostlj' a chemical process. 
The rain water, with carbon dioxide in solution, dissolves out all the soluble 
portions, carrying them oft" in solution, while the more insoluble matter is left 
to form soil. This solubility, as with most limestones, is very great. It is 
estimated that at least 100 feet of the rock must be weathered to leave 1 foot 
of soil, and this without taking into account the forces of denudation. 

Denudation of the little soil formed has been rapid, so that the underlying 
rock is exposed everywhere. The rock, upon exposure to the weather, becomes 
more or less indurated upon the surface, becoming so hard that when struck 
it gives a metallic ring. The effect of weathering on the rock varies, depend- 
ing upon its position. In the low-lying or nearly level places, Avhere water 
could stand, solution holes were started at the more soliible points, and the 
result has been the formation of innumerable pockets, giving the surface a truly 
honeycombed appearance. Most of these pockets are small, only a few inches 
in diameter, and as a rule not exceeding 18 inches in depth, but larger holes 
have been developed, either by solution or the falling in of the roofs of small 
caverns. These are spoken of as " banana-holes," as it is in these larger 
openings that bananas are planted. 

The surface of the rock in these low grounds is ragged and very much 
pitted, making traveling difficult, and interfering with the cultivation of crops. 
Upon the hills and slopes, where the water drains off the surface readily, or 
filters through the underlying rock, the result of weathering has been some- 
what different from that in the lowlands. The surface has not been eroded into 
pockets, but large, basin-shaped depressions have been formed, in which a black 
loamy soil has collected. Much of the rock is exposed, and having a flat sur- 
face, is spoken of as "plate rock," in distinction from that surface where 
pockets occur, which is known as " honeycomb rock." It is partly upon these 
surface characteristics that the different soils are popularly classified, and 
partly, also, upon the coppice growth. 

SOIL TYPES. 

As the geological formation and physiographic features of all the Islands 
are the same, a great diversity of soil types is not found. In all, seven types of 
soil are recognized as follows: Coral Sands, Bahama Black Loam, Bahama 



154 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 

Sandy Loam, Bahama Red Loam, Bahama Marl, Brackish SwamiD, and Ba- 
hama White Marl. The extent and locations of six of these are shown on the 
accompanying colored maps. (Plates XXVIII to XXXII.) 

The classification of the soil types is based mainly on differences in 
physical properties, as texture and color, but the physiographic position'^ 
cliaracteristie natural vegetation, and agricultural value were also considered 
as factors in making the classification. Each type is essentially the same on 
all the islands where it is found, varying no more as between different islands 
than in different areas on the same island. The system of classification and 
nomenclature of soil types followed is that established and in use by the 
Bureau of Soils of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Accompanying the description of each soil type are mechanical and 
chemical analyses of typical samples. The mechanical analyses were made 
according to the procedure of the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. In the chemical analyses the method of the Association of 
Official Agricultural Chemists ' was followed, only the more important plant- 
food constituents being determined. This method consists essentially of a 
digestion in hydrochloric acid of specific gravity 1.115 for ten hours at 100° C. 
The analyses of the water soluble salts was made by the methods in use by the 
Bureau of Soils.' In some cases considerable amounts of chlorides and sul- 
phates were found to be present, and in sucli cases these constituents are 
stated as well as those which are generally held to be more important from the 
point of view of fertilizer practices. Two of the samples were so rich in 

' Bull. No. 46, Div. of Chem., U. S. Dept. of Agric. 

^Briefly, the method is as follows: 100 grams of the soil sample is stirred or 
shaken vigorously for three minutes with 500 cc. of distilled water and allowed to 
stand twenty minutes for the coarser soil particles to subside. The supernatant 
liquid, containing suspended clay and other solid matter, is decanted from the 
residue of heavier soil particles and filtered by means of a Chamberland-Pasteur, 
unglazed, porcelain filter fitted to the forced air device described by Briggs (Bull. 
No. 19, p. 31, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agric, 1902). The principal plant-food 
constituents in this aqueous extract are then determined colorimetrically, the 
nitrates by developing the yellow color resulting from the addition of phenol-disul- 
phonic acid, making the solution slightly alkaline with ammonia, and then com- 
paring with a standard solution of potassium nitrate similarly treated; the phos- 
phoric acid by comparing the yellowish color produced by ammonium molybdate in 
nitric acid solution with a standard solution similarly prepared; the potassium by 
making the potassium platinic chloride, and then measuring the red color produced 
by an excess of potassium iodide against a standard solution of potassium platinic 
chloride similarly treated; the calcium by an adaptation of the well-known Clark 
soap method, modified by Winkler, Warthe, and others. For further details, see 
Appendix in Bulletin No. 22, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agric, 1903. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXVI 




Fig. 1. — VIEW or banana tai.m in bloom, Nassau 




Fig. 2. — view of c<koam:t (hjove, Nassau 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING AGRICULTCIKAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 155 

soluble salts that an analysis was made bj' the method used for determining 
" alkali " in the soils of the United States. This method consists essentially in 
a gravimetric analysis of the constituents contained in an aqueous extract 
prepared by digesting the soil in ten times its weight of water. 

Coral Sand. 

The Coral Sand, or " white land," as it is popularly called, consists of sand 
of a whitish or grayish color. It is formed from the debris of the coral reefs 
and shells, ground to a sand of varying fineness by wave action, and after- 
wards carried inland from the beach by the winds. In general, the type is a 
loose, incoherent sand, but inland it becomes more loam}^, approaching the 
texture of the black, loamy soils, into which it grades almost imperceptibly. 
The sandier phase contains very little organic matter, and allows water to pass 
through it very readily. It supports only a scant vegetation, consisting mostly 
of the sea-grape and other sand-loving plants. The more loamy phase ap- 
proaches that of the older lands, and upon it grow grasses, forming good sod, 
particularly the Bermuda grass and a species of sand grass that thrives on 
the Islands. 

The physiographic features consist of narrow coastal plains, or " double 
beaches," along much of the windward coast of the Islands, while back of these 
narrow strips is a range or series of ranges of sand dunes. These dunes vary 
in height from a few feet to 100 feet or more. The formation sometimes 
consists of a low ridge or bar between the sea and the brackish swamps along 
the coast. The largest development of this soil is on the north shore of Cat 
Island. It occurs also on all the other islands of the group. Where not too 
wet and salty it produces good crops of Indian corn, Guinea corn (the latter 
doing exceptionally well), Irish and sweet potatoes, cabbage, tomatoes and 
other products. Particularly are those situations good where the sand is 
somewhat more compact, or more clayey in lower depths, forming a more re- 
tentive subsoil. The cocoanut palm flourishes on this soil, provided it be 
fertilized and the trees properly cared for. It is particularly important on a 
soil of this texture to mulch the trees with leaves, grass or other refuse as far 
as possible to conserve the moisture about the roots. At Nassau good results 
have been obtained by using street sweepings as a fertilizer. On Cat Island ^ 
are areas of this type covered by grasses which have formed a firm sod, afford- 
ing good pasturage to live stock, which seemed to be doing well. The more 
extended use of the soil-binding grasses would greatly improve the agricul- 
tural conditions on this type. 



156 



SOILS AND AGBICULTDRAL CONDITIONS 



In the past this soil has not been considered of importance, but it is now 
being used quite generally for vegetables, and in time will probably be con- 
sidered one of the most valuable soil types. Its position on the coast, where 
the products can be easily taken on boats, is an advantage, although on the 
other hand the crops are more likely to be damaged during hurricanes. It 
has a further advantage in that it is not stony, and can be easily worked. If 
desired, improved implements can be used. 

The mechanical anal3'ses of two typical samples of this soil follow in the 
subjoined table : 

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF CORAL SAND. 









t^ 


a 
s 


o 

H 


10 

d 


s 


ii 


1 












s 


•a 


■^ a 
Sa 


d 




O 


^a 


No. 


Locality. 


Description. 


a 


a 


5tl 


"^ffl 


■=tj 




§^ 








1 

O 
P. ct. 




o 


so 


co 


r 


o . 

da 

33 


=1 

so 
3 








P. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


P. ct. 


P. ct. 


9390 


Mangrove Cay, 
Andros. 


White coral sand to 
12 inches. 


11.73 


4.82 


36.88 


18.74 


27.12 


3.66 


3.08 


5.60 


9403 


North Shore, 
Cat Island. 


White coral sand to 
12 inches. 


10.48 


7.98 


44.34 


23.30 


lo.90 


1.28 


3.54 


3.48 



It will be seen from the above table that about four-fifths of the soil is 
composed of coarse sands, with less amounts of medium and fine sands, and 
about -t per cent of clay. It will be noticed, too. that the organic matter is 
high as compared with that of other soils. It may be said that this organic 
matter is not apparent in the field, and no doubt comes from the animal 
remains in the minute shells which are so numerous in the soil. The chemical 
analysis of a composite sample of this soil type shows the following results: 

PRINCIPAL PLANT FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN CORAL SAND. 
By acid digestion (HCl sp. gr. 1.115). 

Constituent. Per cent. 

Phosphoric acid (P^Os) 076 

Lime ( CaO) 50.810 

Potash (K2O) 306 

Nitrogen (N) .127 

Besides the large amount of lime, the most striking feature presented by 
the above figures is the small amount of nitrogen (.127 per cent) in compari- 
son with the large content of organic matter (10.5 to 12 per cent). The per- 
centages of potash and phosphoric acid compare favorably with those usually 
found in productive continental soils. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



157 



PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATER SOLUBLE SALTS FROM CORAL SAND. 
(1 part soil to 5 parts water.) 



a> 






Par 


ts per million of air-dried soil. 


a 

a 


Location, 


Crop conditions, etc. 


B 


a 
5 




S 




» 


t 






f 

o 
17.4 


5 ;. 

So 


-3 4. 

IS 

ja 


■a 

s: 
o 


3 


9390 


Mangrove Cay, 
Andros. 


0-15 in. Vegetable garden. 
Considered good. Fresh 
water which rises and falls 
with tide, said to be reach- 
ed 24 in. beneath surface. 


9.2 


13.7 


13.1 


7.0 


Tr. 


9403 


North Shore, 
Cat Island. 


Sand. 0-12 in. From nar- 
row coastal plain. Garden 
truck growing on it. 


28.7 


12.8 


3.2 


17.2 


21.0 


Tr. 


8 


Nassau, 
New Providence. 


Sisal will not grow. 


90.3 


140.4 


31.1 


17.5 






13 


Mangrove Cay, 
Andros. 


In corn, potatoes, tomatoes, 
etc. Considered good field. 


147.6 


199.8 


41.2 


13.6 







Note. — Analyses of samples Nos. 8 and 15 were made on fresh soil in the field, while 
those of Nos. 9390 and 9403 were made In the laboratory, sevei-al months later, on air-dry 
samples. 

The above results show that these soils are amply supplied with soluble 
phosphates as compared with the soils of the Eastern United States. The 
amounts of chlorides indicated hy the two cases in which this substance was 
sought are somewhat larger than is usually found in the soils of humid conti- 
nental areas, but not large enough to be considered as seriously detrimental. 
•The amounts of potassium are large in samples Nos. 8 and 15, which were 
examined almost immediately after being taken from the field, but in samples 
Nos. 9390 and 9103, which were not examined until after they had become 
air-dry, are about normal as compared with continental soils. A large amount 
of water soluble potassium seems to be characteristic of tropical island soils 
and has generally been observed in soils from other localities than the Balia- 
mas. The discrepancy between the amounts of nitrates in the fresh and the 
dried samples is apparently also characteristic, and in situ this soil is 
probably very abundantly supplied with this important plant-food constituent. 



Bahama Black Loam. 

The Bahama Black Loam, or " provision " land, as it is locally known, 
varies from a loose brown to a jet-black loam. The typical soil consists of 
rounded grains of coral sand with a large percentage of organic matter. A 
phase of this type is consideraljly more sandy, consisting of disintegrated rock 



158 SOILS AND AGRICULTUKAL CONDITIONS 

and wind-blown sand, and containing less organic matter. This soil is quite 
shallow, generally only a few inches deep, except where there has been special 
opportunity for accumulation. 

The Bahama Black Loam is the principal type on all the islands, occupy- 
ing approximately three-fourths of their area, while some of the smaller islands 
are almost entirely covered by it. It covers the hills of the interior and the 
slopes leading to the coast, where it passes into the Coral Sand. Where the 
coast is abrupt it extends to the edge of the cliffs. It occupies, therefore, the 
rougher portions of the surface. The rock outcrop is prominent; in fact, the 
exposed rock forms the greater part of the surface, the soil filling the depres- 
sions in the weathered rock and between the exposed boulders. Its elevated 
position gives it perfect drainage, the water either flowing from the 
surface, or, as is most common, filtering easily through the shallow soil into 
tlie underlying porous rock. The loss of moisture by evaporation is also 
great, so that the soil is subject to drought, rarely keeping in a moist condition 
long at a time, where crops requiring clean cultivation are grown. The use 
of cover crops, or mulches, particularly at dry periods, would do much to con- 
serve the soil moisture. However, considering its shallowness, the soil retains 
moisture fairly well, owing to its large content of organic matter. 

This soil occurs where the rock has weathered, leaving the surface in the 
condition known as " plate rock," that is, where the surface of the underlying 
rock is flat, or nearly so. Where this plate rock occupies a low position, the 
land is known as " plate-rock scrub,'' Init the soil differs little from that on- 
higher elevations. Brackish ponds arc numerous in the lower areas, and 
probably the soil is not quite so good for crops because of the nearness of the 
underlying salt water. 

This soil is mostly of residual origin, being derived from the weathering 
of the imderlying coralline rock. The process has been largely one of solution, 
the residue being small in amount and consequently the residting soil forma- 
tion slow. The wind has also assisted in forming this soil, by carrying the 
sand from the beaches inland, where it has fallen into the depressions and 
pockets in the rock. Vegetation has sprung up, and by its decay a loamy soil 
has gradually formed, until finally a heavier plant growth could be supported. 
The depth of the soil is dependent upon the depth of the pocket or depression 
where it occurs. Usually these depressions are shallow and basin-shaped, 
.rarely exceeding one foot in depth. In the larger solution holes, known as 
["banana holes," the Bahama Black Loam has been washed in until it has a 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 159 

f considerable depth. Occasionally, in the lower situations, where the soil has 

evidently been washed from higher ground, it is found to be a foot or more in 

depth, and free from stones. The stony character of the soil makes cultivation 

\ difficult. No improved implements can be used, and the spado and hoe are the 

I only ones that can be employed to advantage. 

This type is used mostly for the production of the subsistence crops; 
hence the popular name of " provision land." Upon it are grown the vege- 
tables and fruits which form the food of the people, and also constitute some 
of the exports. These consist of potatoes, sweet cassava, onions and other 
vegetables, citrus and other fruits, including shaddocks (grape fruit) and 
oranges. Indian corn is also grown in small quantities. To all of these crops 
the soil is well adapted, except in the dryer situations. 
A This soil is considered the best type on the Islands for the production of 
j citrus fruits, and it is upon this that the industry has been developed. Since 
the growing of oranges has been partly abandoned, the grape fruit has taken 
the lead among the citrus fruits. All the fruits are of excellent quality, con- 
sidering the varieties groAvn. 

The sisal fiber industry was also developed on this soil type. The sisal 
plant does well where any care at all is given to its cultivation, except in low- 
lying or wet areas. Large areas of this land were cleared for the production 
of this crop, and sisal plantations of several thousand acres in extent are to 
be seen. 

Cotton grows luxuriantly in this soil, and upon this Black Loam it was 
cultivated in the early days. The plant grows treelike, and pruning is^heees- 
Isary to keep it within reach and to make it bear. The life oOEe pfant extends 
over several seasons. 

All other plants grow luxuriantly upon the Bahama Black Loam, and espe- 
cially in the virgin soil. The coppice is large and thick, and the land is often 
called " big coppice land,"' to distinguish it from types supporting less vigorous 
growths. Although at first productive, the yields soon decrease, possibly from 
a lack of sufficient soil to support crops continuously. Just as soon as cultiva- 
tion is discontinued, the land reverts to natural coppice growth, which attains 
a height of 15 to 20 feet. The larger growth consists of lignum vitas, mahog- 
any, mastic, logwood and some other trees and bushes. 

This soil has an excellent textTire, and the only hindrance to its cultiva- 
tion is the existence of the rock outcrops. Because of its stony nature and 
difficult cultivation, it is best adapted to orchard fruits. These do best where 



160 



SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 



holes for the trees are blasted and filled in with soil. The use of thick cover 
crops, grown in the latter part of the wet season, and cut and left on the ground 
for a mulch, is recommended, as tending to conserve the moisture through the 
dry season. The use of seaweed or any other refuse would be beneficial to this 
soil, particularly as a mulch. Very little fertilizer of any kind is used in the 
growing of cultivated crops on this soil. The greater part of this type is 
allowed to remain in the native coppice growth. 

The mechanical analyses of three samples of this soil are given in the 
table below: 

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF BAHAMA BLACK LOAM. 













o 




o 


H 


in 










1 


a 




d 
■6 ■ 

ca 


d 


O 

•6 

§a 


8 

d 
o 


2 

infi 


No. 


Locality. 


Description. 




i 


^a 


^a 

.3d 


Sa 




S 


dg 








s 




So 


oS 


56 


sy 


sa 


So 








o 

p. ct. 


e 


O 


^ 


fu 


> 


CO 


o 








p. ct. 


P. Ct. 


P. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


P. ct. 


9393 


Current Settlement 
Eleuthera. 


Black loam to 4 
inches. 


10.11 


1.90 


15 46 


17.60 


28.38 


7.80 


15.36 


13.24 


9399 


Tarpum Bay, 
Eleuthera. 


Loose black loam to 
3 inches. 


32.02 


2.16 


10.76 


15.74 


37.84 


11.04 


16.10 


5.92 


9405 


Bight Settlement, 
Cat Island. 


Loose black loam to 
6 inches. 


22.97 


1.24 


4.66 


4.94 


23.62 


11.40 


32.52 


21.56 



The above analyses show the soil to be composed of about two-thirds sand, 
with the remainder consisting of a little more silt than clay particles. The 
organic matter content is extremely high, as would be expected. 

The chemical analysis of a composite sample of this soil type is given in 
the following table : 

PRINCIPAL PLANT FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN BAHAMA BLACK LOAM. 

By acid digestion (HCl sp. gr. 1.11.5.). 

Constituent. Per cent. 

Phosphoric acid (P-Os) 085 

Lime (CaO) 790 

Potash ( K.0 1 725 

Nitrogen (N) 341 

This soil would seem to be amply supplied with phosphoric acid, and to 
contain unusually abundant amounts of the other desirable constituents as 
compared with continental soils. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXVII 




Fig. 1. — VIEW of fixes barrens, new providence 




Fig. 2. — view of jungle growth, new providence 



VIEWS ILLUSTEATIXG .VGRICTLTrR-VL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



161 



PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATEK-SOLUBLB SALTS PROM BAHAMA BLACK 

LOAM. 

(1 part soil to 5 parts watei-.) 



i 


Location. 


Crop conditions, etc. 


Parts per million of air-dried soil. 


B 
a 
n 
o 
a 

1 


S 

3 

139. •-> 

14.4 

44.3 

•203.1 

164.5 

93.8 


a 

.Soj 

6 


Si 

22 


■So' 
ja 


01 

■a 

.a 
y 


^^ 

am 

3 
72 


9405 

9393 

9399 

3 

4 

11 


Bight Settlement, 
Cat Island. 

Current Settle- 
ment, Eleu- 
thera. 

Tarpum Bay, 
Bleuthora. 

Orange Hill, New 
Providence. 

Near Lake Cun- 
ningham, New 
Providence. 

Nassau, New 
Providence. 


Loose black loam, 0-6 in., 
taken on a ridge. Sisal 
growing and doing well. 

Fine black loam 0-4 in. 
Orange orchard. . Land is 
droughty. 

Loose black loam 0-3 in. 
Taken in a shallow basin. 
Heavy bush growth. 

Grape fruit orchard. Good 
condition. 

Small valley; deep soil, 
washed from higher eleva- 
tion: used as vegetable 
garden. 

Black loamy soil from ba- 
nana hole. 


144.1 

29.2 

30.0 

259.0 

116.0 

•2'27.0 


2.1 

19.0 

5.2 

•234.6 

153.7 

61.8 


18.3 

15.8 
'20.8 
16.5 

17.7 

22.7 


503.0 
21.0 
49.0 


61.7 

Tr. 

Tr. 



Note. — Analyses of samples Nos. 3, 4 and 11 were made on fresh soil in the field, while 
those of Nos. 9405, 9393 and 9899 were made in the laboratory, several mouths later, on air- 
dry samples. 

From the above figures it would seem that the type is very rich in water- 
soluble (and therefore readily available), mineral plant-foods. The phos- 
phates in both fresh and air-dried samples are quite high, as is the potassium 
with one exception. The soil is also very rich in nitrates, the two low figures 
from air-dried samples having probably no significance as to the conditions 
in situ. There are indications, howevei-, that in places the soil might contain 
injurious amounts of soluble chlorides, although not in quantities which could 
not be readily removed by draining. 



Bahama Stony Loam. 

The Bahama Stony Loam, or "pine-barren land," was mapped only on 
New Providence, and was found to cover nearly three-fourths of that island. 
The type is really a variation of the Bahama Blaciv Loam, but because of its 
extensive area, its difEereut vegetation and physiographic features, and the 
general condition of the soil, it has been regarded as a separate type. The 
soil consists of a very large proportion of rock fragments, with fine earth in 
11 



163 



SOILS AND AGRICULTCEAL CONDITIONS 



the interstices, being similar in appearance to that of the black or " provision " 
land, and consisting of a brown to blackish loam. Laboratory analysis also 
shows its texture and organic matter content to be about the same. 

The pine-barren land occupies low, level positions, becoming swampy in 
the lower places in wet seasons. The underlying rock has weathered in the 
manner characteristic of low areas generally. The pockets are not so deep 
as in the areas of scrub land, and the intervening partitions are thinner, and 
more or less broken down, causing the irregiilar-shaped fragments to fill the 
pockets and give a large percentage of stony material. The surface of the 
intervening ledges is very ragged. Disintegration, as well as solution, has 
been an important factor in the formation of this soil. 

Besides the large area on New Providence, the pine-barren land occupies 
large areas on Andros and Abaco Islands. But as these islands were not 
mapped the exact extent of the type is not known. The characteristic vege- 
tation is pine. The trees, which as a rule do not exceed 8 inches in diameter, 
seldom rise to a height of more than 35 feet. 

On the wetter areas the scrub palmetto grows, and on some of the higher 
and better drained portions, where the proportion of rock fragments is less 
and the soil is more like Bahama Black Ijoam, there is a fair coppice growth. 
Where fires are not allowed to burn over the barrens there is an undergrowth 
of low, scrubby biishes, ferns and sedges. 

Agriculturally the pine-barren land is of little value. Some use is made 
of the small pine timber, and quantities of charcoal are burned. Formerly 
some turpentine was obtained from these trees. At one time it was thought 
the pine-barren land would be suitable for the growing of sisal, but the soil 
proved but poorly adapted to this crop. 

The mechanical analysis of the fine earth of this soil type is given in the 
subjoined table : 

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF BAHAMA STONY LOAM. 









C 


s 

B 


s 


6 


s 


5b 




















■hs 









= H 


No. 


Locality. 


Description. 


s 


o 

CI 


is 





■g'B 


s 

. 








o 




a 


S'-'! 


00 


°2 








a 


0) 


coiO 


30 


-H 


> 


oti 


X 








o 


2 


So 

8 




s 




6 








p. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


P. ct. 


p. ct. 


9415 


Abaco Islana. 


Dark brown loam to 
4 inches. 


•21.54 


4.26 


12.74 


7.30 


17.20 


24.82 


24.30 


9.22 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



163 



PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATER-SOLUBLE SALTS FROM BAHAMA STONY 

LOAM. 







(1 part soil to 5 parts water.) 










u 
o 

a 
S 

3 






Parts per million of air-dried soil. 


Location. 


Crop Conditions, etc. 


B 






o 


<D 


(b 








a 


a 


S i 


T3 




P. 

B 






r 


1=^ 


sis 






■93 

o.a3 


tn 






fi^ 


o 


z 


Ah 


O 


03 


9415 


Abaco. 


Black loam, 0-4 in., with 
large percentage of rock 
fragments. In sisal, not 


















doing well. 


180.8 


31.4 


31.6 


14.2 


650.8 


83.5 


16 


New Providence. 


Thin pine forest. 


107.4 


209.8 


278.3 


32.8 







Note. — Analysis of sample No. 16 was made on fresh soil in the field, while that of sample 
No. 9415 was made in the laboratory, several months later, on an air-dry sample. 

These figures show that this t_ype of soil contains very large amounts of 
the most important mineral plant-food constituents, readily soluble in water. 
In fact, the amount of readily soluble material is probably sufficient to prove 
positively injurious to ordinary crops, and it seems not improbable that the 
unproductiveness of the type is chiefly due to this cause. 

Bahama Eed Loam. 

The Bahama Eed Loam, locally called " red land," or " pineapple land," 
although it does not cover so large an area as the Bahama Black Loam, is the 
most important soil of the Islands, being very productive and durable. It 
consists of a red loam or red clay loam, sometimes even approaching a clay in 
texture. It is generally deeper than the other residual soils of the Islands. 

It occurs usually as small areas — often too small to be shown on the 
map — in the Bahama Black Loam. These, as a rule, occupy the level hilltops 
or the lower slopes of hills, and often, as is the case on Watlings Island, the 
soil has been deposited in the small lakes or ponds, showing that the forma- 
tion is often the drift or wash from higher surrounding lands. On Eleu- 
thera and Cat Islands, however, the areas are large, the topography being the- 
same as that of the Bahama Black Loam. Eleuthera has a relatively greater 
proportion of this soil than the other islands. On these two islands this soil 
is of the greatest importance, for upon it has been developed the large pine- 
apple interests. On the other islands, where it occurs at all, the extent is so 
small that it is of no importance. This land is never allowed to remain idle, 
as long as it continues productive. 



164 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 

Its origin is not certain, but it is probably tlie oldest soil of the Islands, 
being the product of a further decomposition of the black soil. Gradations 
can be found which support this view. The position of areas of this type, as 
a rule, is such that it is not subjected to surface washing; 'hence, the soil ma- 
terials have a chance to accumulate and to weather more thoroughly, and the 
soil formed is similar to the limestone soils of the Valley of Virginia in the 
United States. 

The soil occurs mostly where the roclv surface is honeycombed. In such 
places the weathering has been similar to that in the low-lying areas, but it 
has gone further, and the pockets are deeper and filled with soil. Often small 
areas, free from rock fragments and outcrops, occur, but in general this type 
is very stony and diificult to cultivate. 

Another hypothesis, however, has been advanced, according to which this 
soil type is a sediment of red clay deposited on the ocean floor, which has been 
brought above the surface upon the elevation of the Islands. 

In consequence of its peculiar fitness for the production of pineapples, 
the value of this soil is high. It is at present used entirely for the cultivation 
of this crop, but would produce equally well all other prodiacts that need a 
heavy soil. The acreage under pineapples is quite large. The industry is 
centered on those islands having the largest extent of this soil, viz. : Eleu- 
thera and Cat Islands. The former is the more important. 

Some idea of the importance of the pineapple industry on this soil .can 
be gained by an examination of the statistics of exports. The figures have 
ranged from 400,000 to 000,000 dozens in recent years, while in 1900 the 
exports to the United States were 7,333,012 dozens, valued at £59,191. 

The pineapple lands have not their former productiveness, and the yields 
are gradually decreasing. Large quantities of high-grade fertilizers are used, 
forcing the productive power of the soil, Init after a few seasons it fails to 
respond to this stimulus, and is then tlirown out of cultivation, and soon 
reverts to the native coppice growth. After 15 or 20 years, however, it can 
be cleared again, and the same process repeated, the soil recuperating while in 
bush. 

In view of these facts, it would seem desirable to investigate the possi- 
bility of finding a crop rotation for this soil. The analysis which will pres- 
ently be given indicates no lack of mineral plant food in this soil in readily 
available form, and it is an interesting and important economic question 
whether the artificial stimulation of the pineapple by commercial fertilizers 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXVIII 





H 


E MAP 

SOILS 


O 




2 ^ 


w 


% o 


i— 1 


ISSA 

JOWING 

TION 


f o 


<\ m \D 


m 




^ 


8 i 


^ 


M 


w 




1^ 



o rt rt C3 d 
O m CQ fO CO 







O 

M 

< 
P5 

li( 
O 

^ g 

5s 

o 

<; 

o 

M 

a 

CM 

C5 
O 

H 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



1G5 



could not better be replaced by a move diversified system of cropping, in wliicli 
the pineapple would be cultivated in a rotation of several years. With such a 
system, and in view of the large quantities of soluble mineral matter found 
in the soil, a much reduced application of fertilizers would probably be re- 
quired. This subject is certainly worthy of an experimental investigation on 
this type of soil, and perhaps also on other types. 

AVhile the soil is naturally retentive of moisture, it suffers from drouglit 
during prolonged dry periods. This is principally due to the comparatively 
shallow soil and the presence of porous rock beneath. Every precaution should 
be taken to conserve the soil moisture. The coppice growth is heavy, and 
similar to that on the Bahama Black Loam. 

Mechanical analyses of typical samples from the different islands are 
given in the table below : 

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF BAHAMA RED LOAM. 



No. 


Locality. 


Description. 


o 

s 

1 
O 

P. ct. 


a 

B 

H 

s 


$ 

i . 

ao 

8 


10 

d 

ga 
IS 

SB 

a) 
S 


o 
+j 

in 
ct 

6 

go 


d 

fa 

©10 

!> 


'§ 

o 

6 

S 

lO 

o . 
OB 
if a 

3 










p. ct. 


p. ct. 


P. ct. 


P.ct. 


p.ct. 


P.ct. 


p.ct. 


9392 


Bluff Settlement, 
Eleuthera. 


Dark red loam to 8 
inches. 


8.18 


3.00 


15.40 


10.82 22.80 


10.80 


19.00 


18.04 


9396 


Gregory Town, 
Eleuthera. 


Dark reddish brown 
loam or clay loam 
to 10 inches. 


8.06 


1.66 


9.36 


11.44 20.84 


7.98 


18.02 


30.64 


9397 


Gregory Town, 
Eleuthera. 


Heavy loam or clay 
loam to 8 inches. 


4.95 


2.20 


6.28 


6.76 


22.10 


11.24 


19.90 


31.52 


9398 


Governor's Har- 
bor, Eleuthera. 


Heavy loam to clay 
loam to li inches. 


5.16 


0.86 


5.38 


6.42 


20.52 10.68 


22.52 


33.52 


9404 


Bight Settlement, 
Cat Island. 


-Red clay loam to 12 
inches. 


2.60 


0.60 


5.00 


7.48 


23.84 15.90 


22.14 


24.78 


9407 


Bailey Town, 
Cat Island. 


Heavy loam to clay 
loam to 8 inches. 


6.05 


1.92 


10.16 


9.98 


20.50 11.50 


17.28 


28.66 


9410 


Dailey Town, 
Cat Island. 


Loam to clay loam to 
8 inches. 


4.30 


3.06 


12.66 


10.20 


17.70 10.04 


20.96 


25.30 


9412 


Watlings Island. 


Loam to clay loam to 
8 inches. 


5.62 


1.60 


6.82 


7.78 


14.98 10.22 


34.92 


23.64 



The texture, as shown in the above table, is very similar to that of the 
lighter limestone soils of the United States. The Bahama soil is, however, 
as a rule, more loam)^ but after it has been worked for some time it becomes 
compact, and the surface cracks upon drying. The introduction of more 
organic matter, as by green manuring, would probably be found beneficial and 
ultimately profitable. 



166 



SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 



The following chemical analysis was made from a composite sample from 
all the islands: 

PRINCIPAL PLANT FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN BAHAMA RED LOAM. 
By acid digestion ( IICl sp. gr. 1.115). 

Constituent Per Cent. 

Phosphoi-ic acid (PA) 165 

Lime (CaO) 6.380 

I'otash ( IvO) 418 

Nitrogen (N) 043 

These fig-ures indicate a satisfactory reserve supply of phosphoric acid 
and potash in this type of soil, and, of course, an ample amount of lime. The 
amount of nitrogen is a fairly satisfactory one. 

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATER-SOiJJBLE SALTS FROM BAHAMA RED LOAM. 

(1 part soil to 5 parts water.) 



a 

3 
O 
<D 
ft 

s 


Location. 


Crop conditions, etc. 


Parts per million of air-dried soil. 


a 

3 

iw 


a . 

.5 CO 

So 


3 a 

2? 


en a, 


0) 

•a 


ID 
























Pa 


o 


ir, 


fk 


o 


03 


9396 


Gregory Town, 
Bleutliera. 


Reddish brown heavy loam 
to 10 in. Slight depres- 
sion on upland. In pine- 
apples and doingwell. Fer- 
tilized. 


23.2 


17.8 


26.3 


13.7 


17.6 


Tr. 


9397 


Gregory Town, 
Eleutliera. 


Heavy loam to clay loam 
to 8 in. from upland. Pine- 
apples—excellent growth 
and produeti\e. Highly 
fertilized. 


17.4 


9.2 


4.2 


15.8 


14.0 


Tr. 


9398 


Governors Har- 
bor, Eieuthera. 


Loam to 6 in. Pineapple 
field— productive. Highly 
fertilized. 


130.2 


42.1 


2.6 


14.2 


154.8 


Tr. 


9404 


Biglit Settlement, 
Cat Island. 


Heavy loam or clay loam 
to 12 in. Soil deeper than 
common. Sisal doing well. 


21.2 


13.5 


1.6 


11.4 


42.0 


Tr. 


9406 


Columlius Blutr, 
Cat Island. 


Pineapple, doingwell. Fer- 
tilized. 


71.7 


129.3 










9410 


Bailey Town, 
Cat Island. 


Heavy loam or clay loam 
to 8 in. Pineapples. Fer- 
tilized. 


90.4 


64.4 


6.3 


14.8 


225.1 


36.0 


9412 


Watlings Island. 


Heavy red loam orclay loam 
to 8 in. Covered by bush. 


10.9 


15.7 


10.6 


13.1 


7.0 


11.5 


1 


Near Orange Hill, 
New Providence 


Pineapples. Good. 


176.2 


146.7 


91.7 


4.2 






2 


Near Lake Killar- 
ney. New Provi- 
dence 


Pineapples. Good. 


210.6 


76.8 


76.8 


6.2 






5 


Near Lalio Cun- 
ningham, New 
Providence. 


Pineapples, not doing well. 


176.4 


92.3 


27.5 


16.5 






6 


Near Lalce Cun- 
ningham, New 
Providence. 


Same field, but where pine- 
apples were doing well. 


207.3 


173.4 


33.8 


3.5 






7 


Near Lake Cun- 
ningham, New 
Providence. 


Do. 


238.2 


225.8 


55.8 


6.2 






10 


Near Nassau, New 
Providence 


Newly cleared field. 


109. 


159.7 


72.7 


15.1 






12 


Near Nassau, New 
Providence. 


Pineapple field. Good. 


97.5 


252.9 


29.9 


19.1 







Note. — Analyses of samples ranging from Nos, 
field, while those numbered above 9000 were made In 
air-dry samples. 



1 to 12 were made on fresh soil in the 
the laboratory, several months later, on 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 167 

The above figures show considerable variations in the case of every con- 
stituent. In no case, however, are they lower than figures whicli have been 
obtained for soils in the United States of known high productiveness. How 
far these variations in the figures may be due to artificial fertilizing, it is im- 
possible to say, although it is probable that they are mainly due to this cause. 
One might a priori have expected a nearer approach to uniformity in this soil, 
in virgin condition, than in any other type occurring in the Islands. There 
is a warning indicated in the chlorine figures, either that excessive fertiliza- 
tion is being practiced or that drainage may, in some localities, be desirable. 

Bahama Marl. 

The Bahama Marl, or " scrub land," sometimes known also as " light " 
or " small " " bush land," has recently come into prominence as a possible 
rival of the Bahama Red Loam in the production of pineapples. This type 
occurs as lowlands but little above high water level. The areas are closely 
associated with the brackish swamps. They are sufficiently elevated to avoid 
swampy conditions, and yet low enough so that good moisture conditions 
always prevail. In fact, the soil never becomes dry in the bottom of the 
pockets. 

The areas, occurring as they do in the low-lying positions, were probably 
at one time swampy. The weathering of the rock has occurred by the process 
of solution alone, and owing to the large amount of soluble matter, but little 
residual soil has been formed, although the areas are level or nearly so, and 
there has been but little opportunity for loss by washing. The result of this 
weathering has been a complete honeycombing or pocketing of the rock sur- 
face. These holes or pockets vary in diameter from only a few inches to two 
feet or more, and in depth from a few inches to 18 or 20 inches. It is in 
these pockets that the soil has been formed. This consists, in the bottom of 
the pockets, of a yellow or light brown clayey or putty-like material, spoken 
of as marl, which is two or three inches or even more in depth. Under this 
rests a very loose, soft, black, loamy material, mostly decayed vegetable matter, 
six inches or more in depth. This surface material burns off, unless great 
care be taken in clearing the land. 

Since the marl at the bottom of the pockets is always moist, it may be 
due to that condition that pineapples succeed so well. Tlie idea current is 
that the marl itself is practically a fertilizer, and the main source of food 
for the plants, but the productiveness of this soil is probably due to Ijoth the 



168 



SOILS AND AGEICDLTURAL CONDITIONS 



chemical and pliysical characteristics of the material and its moisture-holding 
capacitj'. Chemically, the marl was found to contain relatively high amounts 
of potash and lime. Both of these plant-food constituents are important factors 
in the production of pineapples. It is not known how this land will endure 
continuous cropping, as it has not been under cultivation long enough to 
determine this question, but at present it is in considerable demand for the 
cultivation of this fruit, and ranks as high as the other pineapple lands. Large 
quantities of fertilizers are used on this soil, as on the Bahama Eed Loam. 

Its extent, as determined by the survey, is not very great. The largest 
areas were found in Eleuthera, in the vicinity of Kock Sound, where it is 
used entirely for the production of pineapples. Other areas were found on 
Cat and New Providence Islands. More of this soil occurs around swamps, 
in strips too narrow to be shown on a map of the scale used. The coppice on 
this soil is similar to that on the Bahama Black Loam, but does not grow to the 
height attained on the latter. 

The mechanical analyses of two typical samples of this soil are given in 
the subjoined table: 

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF BAHAMA MARL. 













o 


iO 




iH 


iO 












B 




o 




O 


R 




No. 


Locality. 


Description. 


IS 

a 

"3 

a 

u 

O 


a 
s 

P 

2 
o 


rH 

C 

o 


•d . 

il 
li 


6 

ie 

SB 

OH 

.So 


■3 . 

SB 

> 


o 
o 

§ 

°a 
sa 

irj 


s . 

Oo 

s. 

o 








P. ct. 


p. ct. 


p. ct. 


P.ot. 


P. ct. 


p.ot. 


P. ct. 


p. ct. 


9401 


Red Bay, 

Eleuthera. 


Yellow clayey marl 
to 12 inches. 


15.80 


2.34 


3.86 


2.70 


8.66 


6.36 


19.44 


56.18 


9413 


Nassau, 
New ProA'idence. 


Yellow clayey marl 
to 12 inches. 


15.78 


6.10 


15.26 


9.02 


15.04 


6.84 


20.98 


26.72 



The chemical analysis of a typical sample of the Bahama marl is as 
follows : 

PRINCIPAL FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN BAHAMA MARL. 
By acid digestion (HCl sp. gr. 1.115). 
Constituents. Per cent. 

Phosphoric acid (P2O3) 010 

Lime (CaO) 2.250 

Potash (KnO) 08I 

Nitrogen (N) 015 

These figures indicate a rather low reserve of phosphoric acid and nitro- 
gen, but a large amount of potash. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 




THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXIX 




I 



I 



(/ 



li 



!\ 



H 
« 



Pm 






1 — 1 


1 — 1 


1 — 1 


1 — I 


1 — 


1 


<l M 
















1 


S ri 


<1 
















H ^ 


Ph 




L— ' 


I— J 


LJ 


— ' 


L- ' 




D h 


W 








'z o 




« a 




AISSA 

SHOWING 

UTION 




u 
z 

UJ 
LU 

_1 


nd 

Black Lo 
Red Loa 
Marl 
Swamp 


tlJ 

-1 

o 

0) 


^ s 


H 




.g S g S 1 


^ 


CON 

3I.STE 


J 
w 




i 

o 


c 
m 


eg 
CO 


CJ 

fl3 







o 

M 

m 
o 

w ; 

M 

CJ : 
O 

< 

s 

CL 

<; 
P3 

o 
o 

H 

d3 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



169 



PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS IN WATER-SOLUBLE SALTS FROM BAHAMA MARL.* 
(1 part soil to 5 parts water.) 



1 

3 
C 
<D 

a 


Location. 


Crop conditions, etc. 


Parts per million of air-dried soil. 




a 


s . 

So 


COCL 


3 

o 


0) 

IS 
3 


9401 
9413 


Bed Bay, Eleu- 
thera. 

Nassau, New 
Providence. 


Yellow, clayey marl, 0-l'2 in. 
from pocket. Lowland. 
In pineapples. Fertilizer 
and cave earth applied. 

Yellow, clayey marl from 
bottom of pocket. Newly 
cleared and in pineapples. 
Fertilized. 


244.0 
51.4 


115.0 

72.8 


13.6 
26.3 


20.8 
12.1 


510.1 
119.6 


64.0 
33.7 



* Analyses made on air-dry samples. 

These figures show large amounts of soluble phosphates, although tlie 
amount of phosphoric acid in this type, as shown by the acid digestion above 
given, is small. Both the samples here described were heavily fertilized, and 
show such large amounts of water-soluble mineral constituents as would 
probably prove detrimental to plant growth if augmented much further. Here 
again it would probably prove economical to reduce the fertilizer applica- 
tions and introduce a crop rotation if suitable crops could be obtained for 
this purpose. 

Brackish Swamp. 

The brackish swamps, or, as they are called, " salina,"' occupy a consid- 
erable proportion of the area of all the islands. Some occur along the coast, 
with only a bar of coral sand between them and the sea, while there are also 
numerous inland swamps bordering on the lakes and ponds. Those along the 
coast are covered at high tide with sea Avater. Those inland are more or less 
brackish, depending upon whether there is subterranean connection with the 
sea. Some of the inland swamps become quite fresh during the rainy season. 
The use of the latter for rice culture is being considered, but the practicability 
of this crop has not been demonstrated. Near Bluff Settlement on Eleuthera 
is a large swamp covering perhaps 500 or 600 acres which probably could 
be turned into productive rice fields. It is nearly free from mangrove or 
anything that would hinder cultivation. The water is only slightly brackish 
even in the drj'cst weather. Enough rice could probably be grown on this one 
area to supply all the inhabitants of the Bahamas. Some rice is reported to 



170 



SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 



have been -grown, and to have clone well. But the soil as shown by analysis 
has generally a salt content too high for successful rice cultivation, unless 
fresh water could be applied in quantities. 

These swamps have but little agricultural value. They are covered with 
swamp vegetation, mangrove thickets, buttonwood, scrub palmetto, swamp 
grasses and other water-loviug plants. 

The soil consists of yellow clayey marl, filling more or less the numerous 
pockets in the weathered surface of the underlying rock. Mixed with the 
marl is a large percentage of small rock fragments and small shells. A me- 
chanical analysis of a samjDle of this type follows: 

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF BRACKISH SWAMP OR SALINA. 















10 


o 
















a 


a 


o 




O 


o 












a 

H 
° 




=1 

«a 


10 

d 


sa 


o 
d 
c 


a 


No. 


Locality. 


Description. 


a 


CI 


rt a 


"'^a 


'9 a 


2J2 




^.1-i 








u 




a 


S<^. 


§a 






OO 








a 


% 




BO 




«d 


dfl 


g 








o 


53 
5 


'So 
o 




pO 


<D 


en 


3 








p. ct. 


P. Ct. 


p. ct. 


P.ct. 


p.ct. 


p.ct. 


P. ct. 


p.ct. 


9414 


Nassau, 
New Providence. 


Yellowish clayey-marl 
to 8 inches. 


10.33 


6.64 


10.62 


4.70 


11.88 


10.84 


34.48 


20.74 



The chemical analysis of a sample of swamp marl taken near Nassau gave 
the following results : 

PRINCIPAL PLANT FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN SWAMP MAKL. 

By acid digestion ( HCl sp. gr. 1.115). 

Constituents. Per cent. 

Phosphoric acid (P.Ob) 036 

Lime (CaO) 43.630 

Potash (K»0) 262 

Nitrogen (N) 025 

The figures show that this material is mainly calcium carbonate. The 
other important plant-food constituents are present in but very moderate 
amounts, and the view that has found some credence that this material 
would prove a valuable fertilizer is shown to lack justification. The amounts 
of water-soluble constituents in this type were so large that gravimetric de- 
terminations of them liave been made, with the following results : 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 171 

GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS OF WATER-SOLUBLE SALTS IN BRACKISH SWAMP OR 

SALINA. 
Constituents. Per cent. 

Calcium sulphate (CaSOi) 15 

Magnesium sulphate (MgS04) .07 

Magnesium chloride (MgCU) .15 

Potassium chloride (KCl) .19 

Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCOa) .49 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 39 

Total per cent of soluble salts 1.44 

The total amount of salts is seen to be so large that the cultivation of 
any ordinary crop on this type would be impracticable. There is sufficient 
sodium chloride present to prevent the growth of all ordinary vegetation. 

Bahama White Marl. 

The Bahama White Jlarl did not occur on any of the islands mapped, 
but was seen in a reconnoissance of Andros, of which it covers the western 
half. It is reported also to be present upon a number of the islands, and to 
occupy large areas. 

It is low-lying and swampy, and is often covered partially or wholly by 
salt or brackish waters, and the only vegetation is that which is more or less 
resistant to salt in. the soil. The lower lying portions are covered with a 
sparse growth of mangrove, while the higher portions, where there is some 
drainage, support a few scrubby pines and palmettos, with a few other bushes 
and sedges. 

The formation is a white coral material or coral ooze, so finely com- 
minuted that it is almost an impalpable powder, and is very much like 
chalk. Upon drying, this material contracts into blocks. The material has a 
depth of from 1 to 3 feet, and is underlain by the same material solidified. 

At present it has no agricultural value whatever, and is in fact noted for 
its unproductiveness. 

The analysis of a typical sample of the marl gave the following results : 

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF BAHAMA WHITE MARL. 
By acid digestion (HCl sp. gr. 1.115). 

Constituent. Per cent. 

Potash (K.O) 0.306 

Soda (Na.O) 2.12 

Lime (CaO) 47.50 

Magnesia (MgO) 2.85 

Iron and Alumnia (Fe & AI) trace. 

Nitrogen (N) 0.054 

Phosphorus pentoxide (PjOg) 0.123 

Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 0.37 

Chlorine ( CI ) 2.97 

Silica (SiOn) 3.22 

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 40.48 

99.993 
Oxygen equivalent of 01 .67 

99.323 



172 SOILS AXD AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 

GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS OF WATER- SOLUBLp; SALTS IN BAHAMA WHITE MARL. 
Constituent. Per cent. 

Calcium sulphate (CaSO,) 0.29 

Magnesium sulphate (MgSOj) .24 

Magnesium chloride (MgCl:) .63 

Potassium chloride (KCl) .23 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 3.94 

Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCOa) 07 

Sodium carbonate (Na^COa) .01 

Per cent soluble salts 5.41 

B}" the above anal3'sis we find that the marl contains over 4 per cent of 
chlorides, which amount would preclude most plant growths. It had been 
suggested that this marl would be of value for making soil on the higher lands, 
where soil is deficient. The practicability of this is not known, and could only 
be determined by an actual trial. The salts would probably leach out after a 
few rains. Large quantities of this marl can be easily obtained. Because of 
its solubility and action with reagents, the mechanical analysis of this type 
could not be made. 

METHODS OF CULTIVATING AND CROPPING. 

The primitive methods of cultivation in vogue are the result of circum- 
stances. The stony character of all soils, with the exception of one type (Coral 
Sand), is such that improved agricultural implements can not be used. The 
plow, the liarrow and other implements of that class, which are used in the agri- 
culture of most countries, are never seen here. Even a hand hoe is of no use on 
much of the land, for an implement is required that can reach down into the 
pockets in the rocks. For this purpose the machete or large knife does fairly 
well. The same practices are employed by the planter of to-day as were utilized 
by his ancestors. In fact, there has been little improvement in the culti- 
vation of any of the crops, with the possible exception of pineapples. That the 
methods could be improved in many ways there can be no doubt. There being 
no large forest trees, the land is easily cleared. The brush is chopped down 
with a machete, the coarser wood removed, and the remainder burned on the 
ground. When burning, great care must be taken, for if the soil be dry, and 
the fire gets too hot, much of the organic matter is burned away, and irrepar- 
able injury is done. A large amount of land on all the islands lias been 
injured by careless burning. A wet period is usually selected in which to 
do the burning, and even then care must be exercised. If the burning has 
been well done, the field is ready for any crop which it is desired to plant. 

The amount of land cleared is small, for as a rule two or three acres is 



A 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 




THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXX 




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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 173 

all that one man can care for. His work is not clone in an extensive way, 
for his object is to grow only enough provisions for his own family. Bnt in 
these small clearings he grows a little of everything that the soils and climate 
produce. No systematic arrangement of planting is followed, each product 
being planted in the spots considered best suited to it. Thus, in the same 
clearing may be found cocoanut, orange, lime, sapodilla, alligator pear, bread- 
fruit and other trees, with possibly sugar cane, yams, sweet cassava, onions, 
tomatoes and other vegetables. This manner of planting applies particularly 
to the small tracts of the natives, which may be regarded more as gardens than 
as fields. Such crops as pineapples and sisal are grown in larger fields, de- 
voted to a single crop. 

No crop rotation is followed, but in the growing of " provisions " 
some change in the crop may take place over the field upon replanting. With 
this system there is no way to estimate yields, and all that can be said is that 
the people try to grow enough produce to supply their needs. Cultivation 
is done entirely by hand. The machete is used to dig up the soil for planting, 
and the after cultivation consists of scratching about the plants with the same 
implement. Fertilizers or manures, as a rule, are not used on provision 
crops. 

The production of oranges and other fruits is carried on in a haphazard 
way, no particular care being given either to cultivation or the improvement 
of the stock. Budding and grafting are practiced, but old methods are em- 
ployed. So far it has been impossible to introduce the modern methods of 
budding and grafting. 

More care is used in the cultivation of pineapples. After the land has 
been cleared fertilizer is put into the holes, and a sucker, or, if suckers can- 
not be had, the top of a pineapple, is planted. The former does much better. 
Each hole or pocket in the rock usually contains only one plant, so that the 
number of plants to an acre is dependent upon the number of pockets. The 
usual number ranges from 2000 to 4000 dozens. There can be no arrangement 
in rows, and the fields appear very irregular. (Plate XXV, Fig. 2.) Twice a 
year, usually in April and August, more fertilizer is added, and at the same time 
the soil is loosened around the plants. In IS months from planting — the plant- 
ing being done in August — the first crop of pineapples can be gathered. Crops 
are gathered for two succeeding years, after which they decline. The picking 
season extends over four months. Generally three crops are all that can l)e 
taken from the original plants. New plants are then set out, and the cro]3ping 



174 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 

continues until the soil becomes unproductive. It is then thrown out of cultiva- 
tion and allowed to grow up in bush, and after an interval of from 15 to 20 
years, as has already been pointed out, it may be cleared again, having in the 
meantime regained much of its former productiveness. The pineapples, wlien 
gathered, are carried in baskets on the heads of laborers to the beach, and then 
by small boats to the schooner which is to carry the product either to Nassau or 
to a foreign port. 

The sisal plantations are the most extensive on the Islands. Where sisal 
is grown it occupies the entire field. The method of cultivation is to plant 
the young suckers in rows 5 feet apart each way. But even greater distances 
are to be preferred, both because they allow more space for the plants to de- 
velop, and also because if it be necessary to reset the field young plants can 
be started between the old ones, and by the time the latter are ready to be 
removed the younger ones have leaves large enough to cut. In this way no 
time is lost and the profits are increased. (Plate LXXXVI, Fig. 2.) 

The time required from planting to the first cutting is 4 years, and 
then 20 to 25 leaves can be cut from each plant. Thereafter from 8 to 10 
leaves can be removed every 6 months, the plants lasting from 8 to 10 years. 
It takes about 100 pounds of the green leaves to make 5 pounds of fiber. The 
yield varies somewhat, but probably averages about one ton per acre for first 
year of harvesting and one-half ton a year afterward. 

On the large plantations the fiber is cleaned by machinery by passing the 
leaves through cleaners where the pulp is extracted and the fiber left behind. 
This is then placed on frames in the sun and when thoroughly dry, packed in 
huge bales for shipment. (Plate LXXXVII.) Some fiber is produced by 
liand labor on Cat and some of the other islands. The native method is to' 
tie the leaves in bundles and to macerate them in the brackish water of the 
ponds, and then, when in proper condition, to beat the leaves upon the coral 
rocks and to wash them clean in the sea. Afterwards the fiber is hung up to 
dry and bleach in the sun, and is then put up in small bales for marketing. 

The cultivation of sisal requires no particular skill. All that is neces- 
sary is to keep down the weeds and other growths, and stir the soil occasion- 
ally. No fertilizers are used in the cultivation of this crop. 

IMPORTANT CROP AND SOIL PROBLEMS. 
The leading industries of the Bahama Islands are the fisheries and agri- 
culture. Those who are interested in the latter are either engaged in grow- 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 175 

ing pineapples; in raising citrus fruits ; or in the production of sisal. Of these 
three industries the first oiitranks the other two in importance. Some of the 
problems affecting these crops will now be discussed. 

Pineapples. 

The production of pineapples, because of its profitableness, has developed 
at the expense of the citrus fruit interests. Pineapples and the citrus fruits 
are grown on distinct soil types, but the former are a much more certain crop, 
being less subject to disease and the attacks of insect pests. Their cultiva- 
tion has also come to be better understood. Until recently, as already stated, 
the Bahamas had no competitors in the pineapple trade, but since the advent 
in the market of Jamaica, Cuban and Florida pineapples, the Bahama fruit has 
lost its prestige, the prices have fallen, and with the duty of $7 per thousand 
imposed by the United States, the industry is not so profitable as formerly, 
and the growers have become discouraged generally. 

There is a large area of soil adapted to the growing of pineapples, and 
these lands are given up entirely to their production. The practice is to' 
continue the growing of pineapples as long as the land remains productive. 

Although there are pineapple soils on all the islands, and particularly 
the larger ones, yet the industry is centered on Eleuthera and Cat Island. 
On these the value of the lands has increased greatly, and they have now 
come into the possession of a comparatively few wealthy men. The fields 
are owned either individually or in partnership. Outside of these two islands 
the pineapple fields are small and scattering, and of little consequence. 

The pineapples are grown either under the direct supervision of the 
owner or a foreman, hiring the labor necessary to work the crop. The share 
system is also practiced. 

j Only three varieties of pineapples are grown. Tliese are the Sugar Loaf, 

English, and Scarlet. The first two are very delicious fruits, but not adapted 
for shipping in the export trade. Only small quantities are grown, and these 
are used entirely for home consumption. The Scarlet pine is the one grown 
for the export trade. It is a good shipper, but rather small. 

The production varies from year to year, depending upon the season. 
If the winter, which is the dry season, is not too dry, so that the pineapples 
do not suffer for moisture, fair crops are obtained, but in late years droughts 
have been quite common, reducing the yields of this crop, as well as of others. 

The pineapple lands have decreased in productiveness. Formerly, on 



176 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 

newly-cleared land, three-fourths of the plants usually bore fruit, while now, in 
average seasons, only about 40 per cent of the plants are fruitful. That is, 
where the yield, until only a few years ago, was about 3000 dozens per acre, it is 
now from 1000 to 2000 dozens. In order to increase the production the 
planters have resorted to the use of larger amounts of fertilizers. The in- 
crease in exports in recent years has been due not alone to this fact, but to a 
greatly increased acreage. The known pineapple lands have now all been 
more or less under cultivation, and good land is rapidly becoming scarce. 
The problem now confronting the planter is to find some means of restoring 
and maintaining the productiveness of the " worn-out " fields, without the 
necessity of throwing them out of cultivation for a long period of time, 
as is the present custom. The Bahama Marl, or "scrub land," which has 
just come into prominence, has done much to keep up the production to this 
time. 

The markets of the United States are depended upon entirely to take 
the Bahama pineapples, and imtil the last few years the fruit was in good 
demand and the prices were fair. In late years, however, the prices have 
fallen greatly. Official reports of the Islands show that the exports of 1900, 
which were over 7,000,000 dozens, brought but little more than the crop of 
1892, which was not quite one-tenth as large. The low prices are not due 
entirely to the competition of other pineapple-producing countries, but in 
some measure to the poor condition in which the fruit reaches the market. 
The fruit as grown is of fairly good quality, but in a desire to put it on the 
market at the earliest possible time, in order to secure high prices, it is gath- 
ered too long before maturity. Then, too, the fruit is roughly handled in 
transporting it from the fields to the boats, and finally it is packed in bulk 
in the hold of the vessel, without any assortment whatever as to size or con- 
dition. The fruit is more or less bruised, and soon deteriorates. 

Sailing vessels are depended upon to carry the product. , If the weather 
be favorable and the vessel arrives within a reasonable time, the cargo will 
sell at fair prices, but if, as often happens, the voyage be prolonged by calms 
or adverse winds, the fruit arrives overripe and in a more or less unmarketable 
condition. It is then necessary to dispose of the cargo at once for what it 
will bring. Under such conditions only the lowest prices can be expected, 
and occasionally a cargo will not sell for enough to pay the duty. It is the 
poor cargoes that bring down the total receipts, so that the final outcome is 
that the grower has received but little, if anything at all, for his crop. The 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXI 




THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 177 

small returns, coupled with the increasing cost of production, because of de- 
creasing productivitj' of the soils and the greater use of fertilizers, have made 
pineapple growing less profitable. The outlook is decidedly discouraging to 
the growers, but the conditions, as said before, are largely the result of their 
own making. The Bahama growers, knowing the conditions, still do not 
attempt to improve them. It is evident to them that shipping in bulk is not a 
satisfactory way to put fruit on the market. The market demands that a 
product be put up in an attractive manner, and this can be done only by 
using suitable packages. Crates can be obtained at a small cost, and if the 
fruit were carefully packed it would arrive in good condition, better prices 
would be assured, and the losses would be reduced to a minimum. But the 
growers, as a whole, deem it too much trouble to use more than the ordinary 
or customary means of packing and shipping. That such improvement 
would increase their profits there is not the slightest doubt. A few growers 
whose shipments are small, have tried the plan and received increased re- 
turns, more than enough to justify the additional labor and cost. 

The better shipping facilities possessed by Cuba and Jamaica enable 
them to compete successfully with the Bahamas. Ocean steamers ply regu- 
larly and often between their ports and ports of the "United States, while the 
steamers from the Bahamas are irregular. The use of large vessels in the 
fruit trade is also hampered by the lack of harbor accommodations for vessels 
of over 10 feet draught. Therefore the Bahamas must rely entirely upon 
sailing vessels. There is one objection, however, to shipping pineapples by 
steamer. The holds of such vessels are hot, and fruit does not keep well, 
and where it is packed properly in crates, or even in barrels, it should arrive 
in better condition by sailing boats. Shipment in this way also has the ad- 
tage of being much cheaper. 

Florida promises to become the strongest competitor in the production 
of pineapples. The industry is being developed there rapidly, and because 
railroad facilities can outstrip all competing countries, especially with a 
heavy duty imposed upon the foreign products. Cuba, Jamaica and Florida 
all produce larger, improved varieties, which are more in demand, particularly 
in the fancy trade. The Bahama Scarlet pineapple, although smaller, is 
sweeter and less fibrous, and if put on the market properly should hold its 
own against these larger and more showy varieties. The American duty does 
not discriminate in the matter of quality, and it behooves the Bahama grower 
to put only the best of fruit upon the market, and by calling attention to its 
better quality, to create a demand which no competition can injure. 
12 



178 SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 

Besides the improvement in the manner of shipping and grading the 
fruit, there is another important question to be considered, and that is the 
matter of keeping in closer touch with the markets and endeavoring to put 
the fruit on the proper market at the proper time. In order to do this an 
agent should be employed to look after the cargoes as they arrive, and to 
dispose of them to the best advantage. To this end the growers should form 
an association, as they have in many sections of the United States. The 
output of the Islands would warrant such a combination, and the industry 
being in the hands of a comparatively few growers, it should not be a difficult 
matter for them to organize. 

Some loss has been obviated by the establishment of canning factories 
to preserve the poorer and overripe fruit. The canned fruit is exported, and 
is gaining in favor. It was first exported in 1876, and the output of the 
factories has since greatly increased. In 1900, when such a large crop was 
produced, over 37,000 cases, valued at about £7000, were exported. At pres- 
ent there are three factories in operation. One is at Nassau and the others 
are at Governors Harbor and Eock Sound on Eleuthera. 

Citrus Fruits. 

As stated before, the citrus fruit interests have been neglected, and the 
production has decreased until it is now small indeed to what it was formerly. 
Oranges were the first fruit of importance in the export trade. The produc- 
tion has varied greatly. At times it has been practically nothing. For the 
30 years preceding 1900 on the average nearly 3,000,000 oranges were exported 
annually. After the freeze in Florida in 1894-95, when the orange trees were 
so badly injured, the interest in orange growing revived, and the production 
was increased to its highest point. But the interest soon waned. The Amer- 
ican duty of 1 cent a pound was imposed, and this being too high for the 
Bahama growers under the conditions existing, they could not compete with 
profit. It is thus only at times of failure or partial failure in Florida and 
California, when prices are higher, that the Bahama product will bring 
enough to justify exporting. In consequence, the orange orchards are neg- 
lected. As pointed out before, the production of oranges has always been 
more or less seriously affected by the scale insects and diseases. With the 
introduction of improved varieties and proper care of the orchards, large crops 
could be obtained. At present no good orchards are to be found. The 
orchards as they existed were small and scattering, and when shipments were 
sent they were made up of fruit collected from several settlements. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 179 

The orchards have never received the care they should, even when tlie 
industry was in a flourishing condition. This is due to the lack of knowledge 
on the part of the growers. 

The Bahama Black Loam, which is suited to the production of the citrus 
fruits, occurs in large areas. Because of the stony character of this type it 
is better adapted to the production of tree fruits than to the smaller cultivated 
crops. 

As with pineapples, oranges and grape fr^^it are shipped in bulk in sail- 
ing vessels. There is no grading into sizes or as to the condition of the fruit. 
The consequence is that low prices are received, and with the present import 
duty levied by the United States, profits are still less than in the case of pine- 
apples. 

As stated elsewhere, the production of grape fruit has become more im- 
portant in the last few years. It promises to become more profitable than 
any of the other citrus fruits, or even any of the other export products. There 
is an increasing demand for it in the United States and the supply is not 
equal to the demand. At present California and Florida are the only com- 
petitors. The Florida crop cannot be depended on because of the liability to 
injury by frosts and freezing, and the California product is of poor quality, 
and alone cannot supply the trade. In years when the Florida crop fails, the 
Bahama grape fruit supplies the deficiency, and high prices are received- 
But even without this factor tlie production of this fruit proves very profit- 
able. It siicceeds well on the Islands, and is of superior quality. The trees 
are not so subject to disease as the orange. The fruit is most successfully 
grown by grafting the improved varieties on the native sour orange stock. 
The trees bear well. Two crops can be picked in a season. The December 
picking, coming into the market during the holidays, is more in demand and 
brings higher prices. 

The exports are increasing slowly, but there is a likelihood of more rapid 
increase if the present high prices continue. But the same haphazard meth- 
ods of growing are employed as with the orange, the fruit is shipped in the 
same manner, and as long as this continues the outlook is not without some 
uncertainty, especially if Florida competition should become stronger and the 
American duty should be increased. 

The fruit meets with a ready sale in the large American cities. It satis- 
fies the demand for a first-class fruit, and with the high prices received the 
duty can be paid and still leave a fair profit to the grower. There is one grower 



180 SOILS AND AGRICULTCKAL CONDITIONS 

on the Islands who has anticipated the demand for a fancy frnit. He has 
employed the l)est methods of cultivation from the beginning. Holes were 
blasted out of the rock in which to set the trees, and these were filled with 
soil. The trees then received close attention, were carefully cultivated, appli- 
cations of fertilizer were made, the trees kept pruned, and, by spraying, freed 
from fungus diseases and insect pests. As a result, large crops of fine fruit 
are obtained. The fruit is gathered carefully and assorted to certain standard 
sizes, wrapped in tissue paper, and packed in crates. It is shipped by steamer 
to New York. An agent is there to receive the shipment, and with instruc- 
tions to either sell or hold in storage, depending on the state of the market. 
Unlike the pineapple growers, this grower has found a particular market for 
his product, and is receiving fancy prices by filling the demand for a fruit 
having certain characteristics as to qualit}^ color, size and shape. A fruit of 
medium size, slightly flattened, of pale yellow color and thin, polished rind, 
was found to_ be preferred. Thus this grower is receiving good returns for 
his efforts, and has shown the practicability and profitableness of growing 
only the best grade of fruit for export, and of marketing his fruit in an enter- 
prising manner. If such methods were generally practiced, tlie condition of 
the fruit industry would be greatly improved. 

Bahama Hemp or Sisal. 

The fiber industry of the Bahama Islands promises to become of great 
importance. If the industry suffered during its early days through lack of 
knowledge and experience on the part of those who attempted to cultivate sisal 
without a proper knowledge of the conditions existing in the Islands, such 
an imdesirable state of affairs is gradually being overcome by those engaged 
in the fiber business at the present time. Experience has shown that with 
jiroper management and care, sisal cultivation can be carried on at a good 
profit. At the present time there is a large acreage under sisal cultivation, 
which is for the most part cleaned by machinery, and fourteen mills are at 
the present time operated for this purpose. The market for the Bahama sisal 
is America, but the obstacles, such as a protective tariff and inadequate ship- 
ping facilities which are so detrimental to fruit culture, do not exist for the 
sisal industry. The fiber does not deteriorate with shipping, is subject to no 
duty, and is in steady demand with an established reputation for excellence. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PUTE XXXII 



RECONNAISSANCE MAP 

SHOWING 

DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS 

—ON— 

SAN SALVADOK 



LEGEND 
Coral Sand 
Bahama Black Loam 
Bahama Red Loam 
Brackish Swamp 



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STATUTE MILES 

GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 
1905 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 181 

CONCLUSION. 

' The majority of the poijulation of the Bahama Islands is composed of 
negroes, who are not well educated; but compulsory education laws are now in 
force, and it is hoped much good will result. If the educational system could 
include instruction in practical agriculture and horticulture, this would he a 
great step toward improving the condition of the people dependent upon the soil 
for their livelihood. While at present, agriculture is passing through a period 
of depression, there seems to be no good reason why, with the selection of special 
crops, more intelligent methods of cultivation, and better business methods, 
certain lines of agriculture should not succeed well on the Islands. The finan- 
cial success of a number of men, who employ modern methods of cultivating and 
marketing their fruit, is a sufficient demonstration of the possibilities of 
agriculture in the Bahama Islands. 



VEGETATION OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



VEGETATION OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 
WILLIAM C. COKER, Ph.D., 

Associate Professor of Botany in the University of North Carolina. 



INTRODUCTION. 

With the exception of New Providence, the numerous islands of the Ba- 
hama group lie outside the usual routes of tropical travel, and access to them 
can be had ordinarily onlj' through the use of small schooners. The compara- 
tive insignificance of the Bahamas in their trade relations has intensified thi^ 
isolation and resulted in their remaining in large measure, as terra incognila 
to the rest of the world. It is a strange commentary on the mutations of 
time, that on that very island where Columbus first set foot and praised his 
God for so fair a landing, there has been placed a lighthouse with but the 
single purpose of warning the mariner from its lonely shores. 

In the hope of adding somewhat to our rather meager knowledge of these 
Islands, and of bringing into more accessible form the scattered observations 
of others, the Geographical Society of Baltimore, in the summer of 1903, 
organized an Expedition for the purpose of their exploration. I, with my two 
assistants, Mr. C. A. Shore and Mr. F. M. Hanes, was given charge of the 
botanical side, and this report is the result of observations and collections made 
during the voyage. As an apology for many deficiencies, I would call atten- 
tion to the limited time at our disposal, and to the extreme difSculty of drying 
and preserving plants on the decks of a schooner generally exposed to a stiff 
breeze. Except in the town of Nassau, where we secured a working room for 
several days, the plants had to be brought to the boat and there jiressed, 
labelled, and stowed away. On account of the salt air and frequent rains 
constant attention was necessary to prevent the decay of our specimens. 
Wherever possible notes were made on the spot, and it is from these that most 
of my descriptions are taken. 

A large part of our. time was consumed in sailing from port to port, or 
rather from point to point, as there are few protected harbors in the Islands; 



186 VEGETATION 

and at a number of landings we had time for but a few hours on shore and 
had to avail ourselves of every moment. 

On our return, the collections were distributed among a nvimber of sjDecial- 
ists, who kindly imdertook their determination and who are responsible for 
the nomenclature. All of the ferns and flowering plants, with the exception 
of the grasses, sedges and palms, were determined by Dr. N. L. Britton; the 
grasses, by Dr. H. F. Hitchcock; the palms, by Dr. 0. F. Cook; the myxomy- 
cetes by Dr. W. G. Farlow; the algae, by Dr. M. A. Howe; the fungi, by Dr. 
Geo. F. Atkinson; the lichens, by Mr. W. W. Calkins; the liverworts, by Dr. 
A. W. Evans; and the mosses, by Mrs. N. L. Britton. To each of these I am 
imder many obligations not only for undertaking the work, but for the kind- 
ness that they have in every case shown in furnishing information and in 
answering my inquiries. To Dr. K. L. Britton, Director of the New York 
Botanical Garden, my thanks are particularly due for the assistance he so 
generously offered during my stay of six weeks in the Bronx Park Museum. 
To Mr. C. A. Shore, who aided me in collecting, and to Mr. F. M. Hanes, who 
took the photographs, I wish to express my gratitude for faithful assistance 
under all circumstances. 

SKETCH OP BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN BAHAMAS. 

Since Mark Catesby's visit in 1725. these Islands have been frequently 
explored by botanists ; unfortunately, however, without system. Most of their 
scientific exploration has yielded little fruit, as there are but a few publications 
of any extent on a flora that is both abundant and attractive. Most collectors 
have been satisfied with making herbaria witho^^t troubling themselves with 
written observations. Some few have merely identified without collecting. 
The Bahama plants that have been preserved are now, however, quite numerous, 
and when thoroughly worked up, they will no doubt be found to include the 
major part of the flora of the Islands. 

The earliest collector of whom we have any information was Mark Catesby. 
After visiting Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida, he went to New 
Providence in 1725. From there he made visits to Eleuthera, Andros, Abaco 
and other islands. He remained in the Bahamas until 1726 and collected 
plants from all the points he visited. His collections are now at Oxford and 
in the British ;\Iuseum. On his return to England, Catesby published two 
large volumes of explorations which contained many illustrations.* The first 

'The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and The Bahama Islands, etc. 
London, 1731-43. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXIII 




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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 187 

volume appeared in 1731, the second in 1743. Linnjeiis based some of liis 
species on Catesby's drawings. 

No more botanical work seems to have been attempted in the Baliamas 
until Emperor Joseph II of Austria sent Franz Joseph Maerter, who was 
Professor of Natural Historj- in Vienna, with several assistants in 1783 to 
collect plants and animals in America. Landing in Philadelphia, the party 
travelled through the eastern United States to Florida. From there Maerter, 
with two companions, Boos and Schopf, went to New Providence in March, 
1784. Maerter remained but two weeks, but Schopf collected there for three 
months and Boos until September 9 of the same year. From New Providence 
these two men made excursions to several of the Out-islands. Of the collec- 
tions made by this party, some specimens are in the K. K. Hof museum in 
Vienna and some in Brussels. A few years later Andre Michaux, the well- 
known French explorer and naturalist, went from the southern United States 
to the Bahama Islands in 1789. There he collected about 863 trees and 
shrubs and a number of seeds, most of which were carried alive to France and 
there planted. 

A long period of over forty years now elapsed before another botanist 
explored the Islands. In 1830 a man named Swainson visited the Bahamas 
and remained there until 1842. Little is known regarding Swainson, not 
even his first name. He did some collecting on New Providence, but most of 
his plants are labeled from the Out-islands. His herbarium was taken to 
Kew, where it was worked over by Grisebach, who incorporated a large number 
of the species in his " Flora of the British West Indies." ' 

Sixteen years later Justus Adalrik Hjalmarson, who had been living for 
a number of years in St. Thomas and Porto Eico, visited Grand Turk Island 
in May, 1858, where he collected for fourteen days. His plants were included 
in (xrisebach's flora.' They are now divided between the Kew herbarium, 
Grisebach's herbarium in Gottingen, and Krug and Urban's herbarium in 
Berlin. The following year William Cooper, an American, collected in New 
Providence. His plants (about 150 sheets) are now in the herbarium of the 
New York Botanical Garden. At about this time Henrik Johannes Krebs, 
who had also spent most of his life on St. Thomas, paid a short visit to 
New Providence and collected a few plants which are now in the Botanical 
Museum in Copenhagen. 

'Flora of the British West Indian Islands. London, 1S61. 



188 VEGETATION 

No more botanical research was attempted in the Islands until Dr. 
Anna H. Searing, of Eochester, New York, collected in the Bahamas iu 1885. 
Her j^lants are included in the list of Gardner, Brace and Dolley." In June 
of the next year. Dr. F. H. Herrick visited Abaco with a party from the 
Johns Hopkins University, where he made collections of plants that are now 
divided between Yale University and Adelbert College, Ohio.* During this 
same year (1886) John Gardner, an Englishman, who was occupying the 
position of scientific adviser to tlie Board of Agriculture of the Bahamas, 
identified a mimber of Bahama plants and added to Brace's list.' He did not, 
however, make a collection. 

For the next two years Baron von H. F. A. Eggers,' was busy collecting 
plants in the Bahamas. He first visited America as an officer in the Danish 
army. Later he became interested in natural history, and after retiring from 
the army in 1885, he remained for a number of years in the West Indies, 
where he made explorations and collected a large number of plants. In July, 
1887, he visited Grand Turk and collected some interesting plants. Later he 
was sent by the British Association to investigate the Bahama flora. Accord- 
ingly, in February and March, 1888, he visited New Providence, Acklin, For- 
tune and Long Islands, where he collected and made notes on the general 
vegetation. His collections from the Bahamas include about 314 species (in 
addition to 15 numbers from Grand Turk). They have now been widely 
scattered, some being at Kew and most of the others with Krug and Urban in 
Berlin. A number of Eggers's plants have recently been worked up by Urljan," 
who found many new species among them. 

During this same year Dr. Charles Sumner Dolley collected in the Bahama 
Islands and added to the list of Brace and Gardner." His collections are in the 
herbarium of the University of Pennsylvania. Mr. L. J. Brace, a resident of 
Nassau, has for years been collecting and preserving Bahama plants. Some 
time ago he started a list of the flora which was added to and published Ijy 
Gardner and Dolley.' Brace's numbers are now at Kew. During the next 
year Dr. J. I. Northrop and his wife, Alice Northrop, visited the Bahamas, 

■■■Provisional List of the Plants of the Bahama Islands. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Phil., 1889, pp. 349-407. 

* Notes on the Flora of Abaco and Adjoining Islands. Johns Hopkins Univ. 
Cir., Vol. VI, 1886, pp. 46-47; also Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil,, 1889, pp. .349-407. 

^ Flora of the Bahamas. Nature. 1888, pp. 565-566; also Die Bahama-Inseln. 
Globus, Braunschweig, Vol. LXII, 1892, pp. 209-214. 

'■ Symbolae Antillanae seu Fundamenta Florae Indae Oceidentalis. Berlin. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 189 

whore they remained for over six months, collecting animals and plants on New 
Providence and Andros. Dr. Northrop died soon after his return to the United 
States, but his wife, with the aid of a number of specialists, published a list of 
the plants which they had collected. This publication is a valuable contribu- 
tion to our knowledge of the Bahama flora.' 

During the winter of 1890-91, Dr. A. S. Hitchcock, with a party of 
naturalists, made a tropical tour including the islands of Jamaica, Grand 
Cayman and the following of the Bahama group : New Providence, Eleuthera, 
Cat, Watlings, Crooked, Fortune and Inagua Islands. The plants that he 
collected on this expedition were published in the IV and IX Annual Reports 
of the Missouri Botanical Garden. This report includes 380 plants from 
the Bahama Islands, among which were several new species." 

In 1895, Mrs. G. A. Hall, at present a resident of St. Augustine, Florida, 
visited New Providence and Green Turtle Cay, collecting algae. She sent a 
number of species to Agardh, who reported on them in several of his papers. 

The activity in botanical exploration in the Bahamas which marked the 
closing years of the last century has continued over into this. Dr. John W. 
Harsbberger, at present instructor of botany in the University of Pennsyl- 
vania, while traveling in the West Indies, stopped for a few hours during 
July, 1901, at Matthewtown, Great Inagua, and collected some plants.' 

During the winter of the next year, Mrs. Amelia C. Anthony spent some 
time on New Providence and collected a number of ferns, a list of which she 
published later." A. H. Curtiss, a resident of Florida, visited the island of 
New Providence in 1903 and made a collection of plants which are now in the 
herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. During June and July of tliis 
same year, the Bahama Expedition of the Geographical Society of Baltimore 
was making its cruise of the Bahamas and collected material for this present 
volume. 

Since the return of the Bahama Expedition, Drs. N. L. Britton, C. F. 
Millspaugh and M. A. Howe have collected extensively in the Bahania Islands. 

' Flora of New Providence and Andros, with an Enumeration of the Plants 
Collected by John I. Northrop and Alice R. Northrop, in 1890. Mem. Tor. Bot. Club, 
Vol. XII. 1902, pp. 1-98, pis. 1-19. 

' Crytogams Collected in the Bahamas, Jamaica and Grand Cayman. Rept. Bot. 
Garden, Vol. IX, 1898, pp. 111-20; also Plants of the Bahamas, Jamaica and Grand 
Cayman. Fourth An. Kept. Bot. Garden, 1893, pp. 47-179. 

"Notes on the Strand Flora of Great Inagua, Haiti and Jamaica. Torreya, 
Vol. III. 1903, pp. 67-70. 

"■ Fern Hunting in Nassau. Fern Bull., Vol, X, 1902. pp. 6.5-GS. 



190 VEGETATION 

Dr. Britton accompanied by Mrs. Britton visited New Providence in April of 
1904, and again during August and September of the same year. His 
plants are in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, of which 
he is Director. Drs. Millspaugh and Howe visited New Providence, Joulters, 
Gun, North Cat and South Cat Cays, Nortli Biuiini and South Bimini. The 
plants collected by Dr. Millspaugh during this expedition number about 394 
sheets and are now divided between the Field Columbian Museum of Chicago 
and the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. Dr. Howe devoted his 
attention to the Algse and Fungi and l)rought back a large number of these 
forms, which were also deposited in the New York Botanical Garden." 

COMPOSITION AND RELATIONSHIPS OF THE BAHAMA FLORA. 

The number of native and naturalized flowering plants and ferns so far 
collected and identified from the Baliama Islands is about nine hundred and 
fifty. This includes collections made by Dr. Britton and Dr. Millspaugh since 
the return of the Bahama Expedition and not yet published, together with 
the collection of Mr. A. H. Curtiss, made in tlie spring of 1903. This numljer 
undoubtedly comprises by far the -greater part of the plants of the Islands, Ijut 
there is yet much work to be done before we can know even approximately the 
extent and variety of their indigenous flora. 

The ferns and fern-allies are represented by twenty-five species. Of 
these, all are ferns except Psilotum nudum (L.) Griseb., which is known only 
from Andros. Lycopodium, Selaginella and Equisetun are not found. The 
maiden-hair fern {Adiantum capillus-veneris L.) and Asplenium dentatum L. 
have been found only on New Providence. There are but five native species of 
Gymnosperms, the Cycads being represented by three Zainias and the Conifers 
by Pinus haliamensis Griseb. and Juniperus barhadensis L. All are confined 
to the northwestern group. Grasses and sedges are represented l)y a large 
number of species, most of which are widely distributed in other countries. 
Of these groups only Eragrostis bahamensis Hitch, is endemic. 

So far as we are able to determine at present, there are seven indigenous 
palms in the Islands. The different species have been so variously named, how- 
ever, that only by examination and comparison of collections can their identity 
be definitely settled. Hitchcock and Gardner, Brace and DoUey list Sabal um- 

" Notes on Bahama Algse. Bull. Tor. Bot. Club, Vol. XXXI, 1904, pp. 93-100; 
also Collections of Marine Algae from Florida and the Bahamas. Jour. N. Y. Bot. 
Garden, Vol. V, 1904, pp. 16-166. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 191 

braculifera (Jacq.) Mart., from Cat and Fortune Islands respectively, but 
there is no doubt that this is the same plant as the one we collected from Cat 
Island and New Providence, and identified by Dr. Cook in this report as 
Inodes palmetto (AValt.) Cook. liitchcock's Tlirinax argentea (Jacq.) Lodd., 
collected on Eleuthera and Cat Islands, is undoubtedly the Coccothriiiax 
jucunda Sarg. given in this report, while his Thrinax parviflora Sw. is prob- 
ably our Thrinax ialiamensis Cook. The cabbage-palm, given in Gardner, 
Brace and Dolley as Euterpe oleracea, is probably Cook's Cyclospathe northropi, 
collected by iSTorthrop and by us. In addition to the four palms listed in tliis 
report, Northrop collected one other on Andros, a new species named by 
Cook, Paurotis androsana, and Millspaugh in the spring of this year collected 
two other species from North Cat Cay and South Bimini, identified as Thrinax 
floridana Sarg. and Pseiidophwnix sargentii Wendl., respectively. It may 
prove, however, that when comparison is made these two may be found to Ije 
identical with others previously collected. 

Among the other Monocotyledons, the Bromeliacece, Smilacacece, and Or- 
chidacece are most abundant. Northrop lists six species of Tillandsia to which 
we add Tillandsia aloifolia Hook., from Abaco, not before collected in the 
Bahamas. Tillandsici usneoides L., the " gray moss " of our southern States, 
has been reported only in the list of Gardner, Brace and Dolley. Of Smilax 
there are three or four species at least. Of these, Smilax heyrichii Kunth of 
this report has probably been collected by others under a diflierent name. Of 
the four species of Amaryllidacece, Agava rigida Mill., the great century plant 
or bamboo, is by far the most conspicuous. It is singular that it has not been 
reported from New Providence. The orchids are rejsresented by about thirty 
species, but they are much in need of further study, as their names have 
probably been considerably confused by varioiTS collectors. Northrop's new 
species. Vanilla articulaia, from the Bahamas and Cuba, may be identical witli 
one of the south Florida forms. Of the lily family, but one species is known 
on the Islands. This is Aletris bracteata Northrop, found by Northrop on 
Andros, and endemic there. 

Of all that great group, the Amentales, comprising the oaks, hickorys, 
chestnuts, alders, hornbeams, etc., that make \ip so large a part of our conti- 
nental forests, there is but one species, Myrica cerifera L., to be found in tlie 
Bahama Islands, and it may have been introduced from the United States by 
the agency of man. It has so far been noticed only on New Providence and 
Andros. There are several indigenous species of figs, all of which are large 



192 VEGETATIOiSr 

trees. Three are listed in this report and five others are given Ijy Northrop, 
Hitchcock and Urban. It is very doubtful, however, if there are as many 
as eight species represented in these collections, and I think it nnlikely that 
there are more than this nnml^er of indigenous figs in all the islands of the 
group. 

The Loranthacece are credited with seven or eight species, but here also 
the nomenclature has probably been confused. This family is not nearly so 
abundant in the Bahamas as in some of om' other tropical islands, as Jamaica 
and Cuba. The Polygonacew, represented in temperate countries only by 
herbaceous species, comprise a number of Bahama trees of the genus Coccolobis. 
Some of them are among the most common plants of the Islands. No water 
lilies (Nymphwaceoe) had been found until we collected Castalia ainpla (DC.) 
Green, on Cat Island, and it remains the only indigenous species of that 
family so far reported. The great group, CrucifercB, so abundant in the United 
States, is represented only by the widely distributed littoral plant Cakile 
cequalis L' Her., and the introduced weed, Lepidium virginicum L. Of the 
rose family, Chrysobalanus and Prunus are the only Bahama genera. The 
first is represented by two species, the pink-fruited and black-fruited cocoa 
plums ; the second by but one species, Prunus sphcerocarpa Sw., known only 
from New Providence. The Mimosacew, rarely found in the United States, 
furnished some of the largest and most useful trees of the Islands, such as the 
horseflesh and will tamarind. The Cassiacece and Papilionacece are also well 
represented. The proportion of woody species to herbaceous ones is greater in 
these families than it is in the United States. Of the Zygophyllacew, Guaiacum 
(Lignum vitse) and two species of Tribulus are all that have been collected. 
Tribulus cistoides L. is reported only by Hitchcock. We did not see it at any 
point and its evident rarity is remarkable when we consider its wide distribu- 
tion and abundance on other tropical shores. The Linacece comprise several 
species of Erythroxylon and two species of Linum. Of the latter Linuin cur- 
tissii Small is a new species found by Dr. Britton on New Providence and soon 
to be published. The EuphorbiacecB is one of the most extensive families of 
the Islands. Most of its representatives are woody species and many of them 
are trees. The peculiar shrub, Bonamia cubana A. Eich., of our collection, 
had not before been found out of Cuba, and the large tree, Pera, humeliwfolia 
Griseb., also collected by us, has not heretofore been published from the Ba- 
hamas. Securinego acidothammis (Griseb.) Muell. Arg., collected by us on 
Andros, had not previously been found north of St. Thomas. The Celastracece, 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXIV 




Fig. 1. — "almond" tree (tekminalia catappa). Nassau 




Pig. 2. — fig tree (ficus sapotifolia), Nassau 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING VEGETATION 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS ■ 193 

Rhamnacece and Sapindacece are faiTly well represented. In the vine family 
(VitacecB), there are a good many species of Cissus, but of the true grapes 
there is only Vitis rotundifolia Michx. of the southern United States. It 
seems to occur only on New Providence. The Virginia creeper, one of our 
common plants, has been found on New Providence, Andros and Eleuthera. 
Of the mallows, a new species of Malvavisciis from Watlings Island is given 
in this report. Of the Cactacew, about six species have so far been reported, 
but it is probable that a more thorough exploration of the southern islands 
will add several to this list. It is remarkable tliat so far no cactus has been 
found on the island of New Providence. 

The Myrtacece are chiefly represented by the genus Eugenia. Tiie guava 
{Psidium guava Kadd.), although abundantly planted, is scarcely, if at all, 
naturalized in the Bahamas. This is rather peculiar, as it has made itself 
quite at home in a number of the West Indies, where, as in .Jamaica, it forms 
extensive thickets. The cultivated Pimenta vulgaris W. A., indigenous to 
Jamaica, seems also not to have established itself. The failure of these two 
plants to gain a footing without cultivation emjDhasizes the restricted condi- 
tions of soil and climate furnished by the islands of tire group. The Umbel- 
liferce, so abundant in temperate regions, can boast but two indigenous species 
here. In addition to these, one or two weeds have been introduced from 
other countries. Of the' great heath family, there is but a single Bahama 
species, Olethm tinifoUa Sw., and it has been reported only by Gardner, Brace 
and Dolley. It is also found in Jamaica, Trinidad, Mexico and South Amer- 
ica. The two species of the olive family given in this report are the only 
two found on the Islands. The Boraginaccw, Verbenacea, Labiatce, Solanacece 
and ScrophulariacecB are all fairly well represented, but the largest families 
on the Islands are the Rubiacew and Composiice. The RuMacece here consist 
principally of woody species, and the portion of woody species in the Com- 
positw is also greater than in temperate regions. The interesting family Len- 
tibidariacece contains three Bahama species, two of Utricidarla, and Pingui- 
cula pumila Michx., all insectivorous plants. Families represented in the 
Bahamas but not included in our list are the following : Gijcadaceai, Potamo- 
getonacece, Juncaginacece, Ilydrocharitacece, Liliacece, Aristolo'chiacece, Ranun- 
culacece, Batidece, Papaveracca, Pnhjgalacece, Lytliracece, Onagracew, Primu- 
laceWj Plumbaginaceoi, Ebenacoce, Guscutacem, Hydropli.yllacea', Plantaginales. 
All except two of these include but one Bahama species. 

The relative importance of families, not particularly mentioned above, 
13 



194 VEGETATION 

may be seen approximately by referring to the list of our collections. The 
large proportion of genera in comparison with the number of species has 
already been called attention to by Mrs. Northrop. The number of families 
represented by only one genus is also much larger than in more northern 
eoimtries. 

Witli the exception of the Algce, the lower plants have been given little 
attention by collectors. The Myxomycetes listed in this report are the first 
ever collected from the Islands. Most of them were found during a search of 
an hour on Mangrove Cay, Andros, and there is no doubt that many others 
might be brought to light by a more careful examination. Of the nineteen 
Fungi here reported, four were previously collected by Northrop and Hitch- 
cock. Northrop speaks of the scarcity both of Fungi and Lichens, but, accord- 
ing to our observations, Fungi were not at all uncommon and Lichens were 
exceedingly abundant. The latter encrust the bark of most shrubs and trees, 
even in the mangrove growth along the coast. Of the forty iMhens collected 
by us, one {Blodgettia confervoides Harv.) is marine and its exact position is 
not definitely established. Of the Algce, seventeen of the forty-five collected had 
been j)reviously reported by Northrop, or by Gardner, Brace and DoUey. 
Agardh has also described a number of Bahama Algce in various papers, and 
some have been included in other works. Dr. M. A. Howe, of the New York 
Botanical Garden, has visited the Bahamas since our return and made extensive 
collections of Algce on New Providence and several of the smaller northern 
islands. The eight liverworts of our list are all new to the Islands, none having 
been found before. Mrs. Northrop includes six mosses in her report, and 
these, with our two additional ones, make up the meager list of known Bahama 
forms. 

DISTRIBUTION OF THE BAHAMA FLORA. 
Both Hitchcock and Northrop have discussed the relationship of the 
Bahama flora to that of other countries, and each has given tables showing 
the distribution of the plants collected by them in a number of the West Indies 
and on the American continent. I have arranged the following table of 795 
plants, comprising, in addition to my own,- those reported by Hitchcock, 
Northrop, Grisebach, Urban, and Herrick, together with additional ones in 
the yet unpublished lists of Curtiss, Britton and Millspaugh. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 195 

Table Showixg Distkibtjtios of Seven Hundred and Ninety-Five Floweeinq Plants 
AND Ferns, Indigenous to the Bahama Islands. 

Common to Bahama Islands and Cuba 536 

Common to Bahama Islands, Mexico or Central America 311 

Common to Bahama Islands and South America 282 

Common to Bahama Islands and Southern Florida 322 

Common to Bahama Islands and Southern United States 170 

Peculiar to Bahama Islands 56 

It will be seen from this table that there are about the same number of 
plants common to the Bahamas and Cuba as are common to the Bahamas anrl 
the southern United States including tropical Florida, the numbers being 536 
as compared to 492. It is, therefore, evident that a study of the Bahama flora 
does not indicate any ancient land connections either between Cuba on the 
one side or Florida on the other. Neither does it furnish any proof against 
the supposition of such land connections. The majority of the plants common 
to the Bahamas and to the southern United States, extend also into other 
tropical countries and it seems probable that these more widely distributed 
species have invaded both the Bahamas and Florida from the south. Of the 
492 plants common to the Bahamas and the United States, there are 40 that 
are found only in these two regions. Their names and distribution are as 
follows : 

Finns bahatnensis Grlseb. New Providence, Andros, Abaco, Great Bahama, and 
Berry Islands; Florida to North Carolina and Mississippi. 

Salophila engelmannii Aschers. Andros, South Bimini (Howe); Southern Florida. 

EragrosUs eUiotti S. Wats. New Providence; Southern United States. 

Distichlis maritima Raf. (D. spicata (L.) Green.) New Providence, Watlings and 
Inagua Islands; Southern United States. 

Inodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook. (Sabal Palmetto (Watt.) R. & S.) New Provi- 
dence, Eleuthera, Watlings and Cat Islands; Southern United States. 

Coccothrinax jticunda Sarg. New Providence, Green Cay, Eleuthera, and Watlings 
Islands; Florida. 

Thrinax floridaria Sargent. North Cat Cay (Millspaugh) ; Southern Florida. 

Pseudophccnix sargentii Wendl. South Bimini (Millspaugh) ; Southern Florida. 

Aletris Tjracteata Northrop. Andros; Florida. 

Sviilax beyrichii Kunth. New Providence; Southern United States. 

Smilax auriculata Walt. New Providence and Andros; Southern United States. 

Myrica cerifera L. New Providence and Andros ; Southern United States. 

Ficus aurea Nutt. New Providence; Florida. 

Salicornia Mgelovii Torr. Andros; Southern United States. 

Dondia linearis (Ell.) Millsp. New Providence; Southern Florida. 

AUernantliera maritima St. Hil. Andros; Southern Florida. 

Cassia aspera Michx. Eleuthera; Southern United States. 

Linum curtissii Small. New Providence; Florida. 

Xanthoxylon cribrosum Spr. Andros; Southern Florida. 

Polygala boykinii Nutt. Andros; Southern United States. 



196 VEGETATION 

Sachsia haliamensis Urban. New Providence and Andros; Florida. 

Rhus blodgettii Kearney. North Cat Cay (Millspaugh) ; Key West, Florida. 

Vitis rotundifolia Mlchx. New Providence and Andros; Southern United States. 

Eugenia longipes Berg. New Providence, Andros and Eleuthera; Southern Florida. 

Jacquinia keyensis Mez. New Providence, Andros, Abaco, Eleuthera, Rum Cay, 
Long, Cat and Crooked Islands; Southern Florida. 

Miviiisops florUJana Engelm. Andros; Southern Florida. 

Gynoctonum sessiUfoUa (T. & G.) Britton. Andros; Southern United States. 

Sabbatia campanulata (L.) Torr. New Providence, Andros and Cat Islands; South- 
ern United States. 

Asclepias paupercula Michx. Abaco; Southern United States. 

Ipoinaa sagittata Cav. (Z. speciosa Walt.) New Providence; Southern United 
States. 

Scutellaria longifolia Small. Eleuthera; Southern Florida. (This species has not 
yet been published.) 

Solanum blodgettii Chapman. North Cat Cay (Millspaugh); Key West, Florida. 

Gerardia maritima Raf. New Providence, Andros, Eleuthera and Abaco; Southern 
United States. 

Gerardia purpurea L. Andros; Southern United States. 

Pinguicula pumila Michx. Andros; Southern United States. 

Eupatorium capilUfoliuvi (Lam.) Small. New Providence; Southern United States. 

Erigeron quercifolium Lam. New Providence and Andros; Southern United States. 

Baccharis a^igustifolia Michx. New Providence; Southern United States. 

Iva imbricata Walt. Andros; Southern United States. 

WiUughbwya heteropliylla Small. New Providence. Andros and Abaco; South 
Florida. 

As to the origin of tliese 40 species, it is difficult to say wliich have origi- 
nated in the United States and whieli in the Bahamas. Eragrostis cUiotti 
S. Wats., Thrinax floridana Sarg., Pseudophcenix sargentii Wendl., Myrica 
cerifera L., Pohjgala boyMnii Nutt., Vitis rotundifolia Michx., Rhus blodgettii 
Kearney, Pingiticida puinila Miclix. and Baccharis angustifolia Michx. have 
in all probability migrated from the United States to the Bahamas. As has 
already been remarked, Myrica may have been introduced by man. 

If now ■\\'e divide the Bahama Islands into two groups, the first or north- 
eastern group, comprising Andros, New Providence, Abaco, Great Bahama, 
the Berry Islands and their adjoining cays, and the second or southwestern 
group comprising Eleuthera and all the islands south of it, it will be seen 
from the above list that all except eight of the plants confined to the United 
States and the Bahamas are found only on the northwestern group. This is 
what we might expect from the proximity of this group to the Continent. 

There are at present, so far as I have been able to ascertain, fifty-six 
endemic species reported from the Bahama Islands. These, with their dis- 
tribution, are as follows: 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 197 

Eragrostis hahamensis Hitch. Inagua. 

Thrinax baTiamensis Cook. New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Eleuthera, Cat 

and Watlings Islands. (Authorities differ as to this. According to Dr. Britton, 

this is identical with Thrinax microcarpa Sarg. from Florida.) 
Paurotis androsana Cook. Andros. 
Cyclospathe northropi Cook. Andros and Eleuthera. 
HymenocalUs arenicola Northrop. New Providence and Andros. 
Epidendrum aUissimum Bateman. Cat Island and Eleuthera. 
Epidendrum gracile Lindl. (Given by Grlsebach as from the Bahamas, but he adds 

EG precise locality.) 
Epidendrum rufum. Lindl. (Given by Grisebach' as from the Bahamas, but he adds 

no precise locality.) 
Epidendrum bahamense Griseb. (Given by Grisebach as from the Bahamas, but he 

adds no precise locality.) 
Phoradendron northropitc Urban. Andros. 
Torrubia cokeri Britton. Eleuthera. 

Acacia choriophylla Benth. New Providence and Andros. 
Pithecolobium mucronaUim Britton. Long Island. 
Mimosa bahamensis Benth. Fortune Island and Inagua. 
Pithecolobimn bahamense Northrop. New Providence and Andros. 
Cassia caribwa Northrop. Andros. s» 

Ccesalpinia ovalifolia Urban. New Providence and Andros. 
Cwsalpinia hicida Urban. Ncav Providence and Eleuthera. 
Linum bahamense Northrop. New Providence and Andros. 
Erythroxylon reticulatum Northrop. Andros. 

Buxus bahamensis Baker. New Providence, Andros and Watlings Islands. 
PhyUanthiis bahamensis Urban. Andros. 
Euphorbia cayensis Millsp. Rum and Joulters Cays. 
Salvia bahamensis Britton. New Providence. 
Croton hialmarsonii Griseb. Fortune and Inagua Islands. 
Crassopetalum coriaceum Northrop. Andros. 
Thouinia discolor Griseb. New Providence, Andros, Eleuthera, Cat, Fortune and 

Inagua Islands. 
Reynosia northropiana Urban. Andros. 
Sphwralcea abutiloides Endl. New Providence. 
Malvaviscus cokeri Britton. Watlings Island. 
Pavonia bahamensis Hitch. Fortune Island. 

Helicteres spiralis Northrop. Andros, New Providence and Eleuthera Islands. 
Waltheria bahamensis Britton. New Providence. 

Xylosma ilicifolia Northrop. New Providence, Andros and Eleuthera Islands. 
Passiflora pectinata Griseb. New Providence, Andros and Turks Islands. 
Bourreria thymifolia Griseb. Rum Cay and Turks Islands. 
Terminalia spinosa Northrop. Andros. 
Casearia bahamensis Urban. Andros. 

Btimelia loranthifolia (Pierre) Britton. New Providence, Andros and Eleuthera. 
Metastelma eggersii Schttr. Fortune Island. 

Metastelma barbatum Northrop. New Providence and Andros Islands. 
Plumiera bahamensis Urban. Acklin Island. 

Cordia bahamensis Urban. Fortune and New Providence Islands. 
Heliotropium nanum. Northrop. Andros. 

Tecoma bahamensis Northrop, New Providence and Andros Islands. 
Jacaranda bahamensis R. Br. Andros. 



108 VEGETATION 

Jacaraiula cwrulea Griseb. New Providence and Cat Islands. 

Catesbcea paniculata Northrop. Andros and Green Cay. 

Scolosanthus iaJiamensis Britton. New Providence. 

Ernodea cokeri Britton. Abaco. 

Stenostomum myrtifolmm Griseb. (Given in Grisebacti as from the Bahamas, but 

he adds no precise locality.) 
Myrstiphyllum ligiistifolium Northrop. Andros. 
Scolosanthus iaJiaviensis Britton. New Providence. 
Anguria Jceithii Northrop. Andros. 
Eupatorium bahamense Northrop. Andros. 
Yernonia 'bahamensis Griseb. New Providence, Andros, Cat and Inagua Islands. 

Among the endemic species mentioned by Mrs. jSTorthrop are included 
Croton eleuteria Sw., wliicli was found by Hitchcock on Grand Cayman, and 
Vanilla articulata Northrop, which slie gives in her table of distribution as 
also from Cuba. To the endemic species listed above we may probably add 
Zamia temiis Willd., as it is not certainly known outside of the Bahamas. 

The fifty-eight flowering plants that, so far as I have been able to de- 
termine, have not before been reported from the Bahamas, are given witli their 
distribution in the table on the page following. 

In discussing the relationships of the Bahama flora, we must not forget 
that the limestone soil and exposure to salt, drought and wind, to which its 
flora is subjected, would preclude the occurrence in those Islands of many 
groups of plants that are particularly partial to certain sorts of soil or to 
fresh water, shade and low temperature. When this is kept in mind, we are 
not surprised at the absence of such families as Araliaccce and Piporacece, 
although both are quite common in the larger islands of the West Indies, and 
the Araliacew in the United States also. Peperomia magnolimfolia (Jacq.) 
C. DC, for example, is found in the Bermudas, in south Florida and in 
several of the West Indies, but neither it nor any other member of its family 
is found in the Bahamas. The absence of Selaginella, Lycopodium and 
Equisetiim is also in all probability due to uncongenial conditions and not to 
the lack of means of distribution. On the other hand, the absence of Sapindns 
saponaria L. is difficult to account for, as it is abundant in Florida, Jamaica, 
and Central and South America, and in these countries seems able to endure 
sandy soil and maritime conditions. The singular rarity of Trihulus in the 
Bahamas has already been remarked upon. 

The distribution of plants among the different islands of the group is a 
matter of considerable interest. As is to be expected, the littoral plants are 
practically identical in all the islands, and the majority of other forms also 
show no particular anomalies of distribution. Attention has already been 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXV 





« 




m 




> 




d 




M 




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n 


o 




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Q 


H 



K 
e 


M 




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y. 




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03 


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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



199 



TABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF FLOWERING PLANTS COLLECTED DURING THE 

BAHAMA EXPEDITION AND NOT PREVIOUSLT REPORTED 

FROM THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. 





Geographic Distribution. 


Species. 


6 

03 
< 


p 

•B 
< 


fl 
O 




a 

a 


c 
p 


U 
fl 

C 


& 
O 




U 

w 

;- 
a 

fl 

o 


fl 

fl 

5 


6 

c 

*i- 
a 


fl 

o 
p 

5^ 


c3 
c 

P 

n 

u 
O 


6 

SI 


South America. 
South Bimini. 
Southern California. 
Southern Florida. 
Southern United States. 
St. Thomas. 


Tesas. 

Virgin Islands. 

Watlings Island. 

West Indies. 

West Indies (French). 


HalophiUa engelmannii Aschers '^ 


* 


* 




« 


















* 
* 






■ ■ « 


• * 
















* 














































Pan'wum elephanliitcs Mees 

Setaria macrovtachya 11. B. K 






* 




* 




























* 












# 




* 
* 




.. * 










^ .. .. 
























* 
























* 


















* 

4: 


























* • ■ ■ 


■ * 


* ■ ■ 










































* 








Chcnniiodhnn spalhnjaiwm Sieb.!* 










* 








• * 






:(: 


* 

4 






* ■• 










■ * 










































# 
















Torruhia ohtusata (Jacq.) Britten 






























* 


















* 






































* 














* 


* 














































* 
































* 


* 






















« 








* 






























* 






































































* 
















Ci'otoii tlii^color Willd 








* 
* 
* 


* 
* 




* 


















































* 


















■ * 








* 
















Euphoihia brasilit:nsi>i_ L 










■ ■ * 


* •■ • 
















1 




























1 








































* 


















* 
















Securinega oci<hit]i<iuinHs (Griseb.) Muell. Arg. 
Gyminda grischocJiii Sarg 






















• • # 














* 








# •• 




• « ■ 














i 


















* 






































* 










Eiu/cnid cnnfusa^ DC 






*!•• 


* 






* 






* 








.. # 
























1 
























* 








1 


















* 
















Bumclia InrantJiifolia (Pierre) Britton 






* 




































* 
* 


* 
















Adclla nff/i'rf/dta (.Tncq ) Small 








* 


* 








■ * 








■ ■ * 


* .. - 


* • 


















Mctw^triiiiu hrurjif/fiteplianum Griseb. (?) .... 






.•!* 














« 






* 
















Cord ill rulindroyitacluja R. & P 






•Jv 


* 








■ * 




* 


* 
* 






* •• « 






■ * • 




Oitharcxi/linu (luddranr/ulare Jacq 




* 
* 


■■* 


* 
* 








■ * 


* 






* .. ■ 






• * n 




Sciiiclltiriii luii</i folia Small . 
































1 


* 








Dotiii'ii arhoi'ca L 






1 
















* 












1 




GaJimii }iispidulum Michs 




































Eriiodea cokni P.ritton 'i 


* 




1 


































ScoIosd}itJiiis ImlKnnrn.'^i.'i Britton 




Bocehoris auf/ustifolio Michs 






1 
















« 






















1 


* 


* 


1 








* 






















T 




1 


"■ 


¥ 











» Found by Howe on South Bimini subsequent to the return of the Bahama E.xpedition. ^ A weed 
in most warm countries, c Tropical America. >> Endemic. « Endemic on .Toulters Cay. f Conflned to Cuba 
and Bahamas, e Described by DC. from West Indies. '' A weed from Europe. ' Tropics of both hemi- 
spheres. J Tropical America, is A widely distributed weed in Europe, North America, South America, etc- 



200 ■ VEGETATION 

called to the rarity on the southeastern group, of plants common to the Bahamas 
and the southern United States. Mrs. Northrop found on the damp, open, 
savannas of Andros a considerable number of plants that she mentions as 
confined to that environment. That their absence on most of the other 
islands is due to the lack of similar conditions is shown by our finding several 
of them in the Killarney pine barrens of New Providence, where the condi- 
tions are nearly the same as on the savannas of Andros. As the smaller 
islands rarely offer any environment approaching that of these savannas, we 
would not expect to find upon them plants that are partial to such situations. 

The pines and cedars are confined to the northeastern group (New Provi- 
dence, Andros, Abaco, Great Bahama, and the Berry Islands), while the 
Cactacece are mostly southern in their distribution. So far, no member of 
the latter family has been reported from either New Providence, Abaco or 
Great Bahama, and, according to Northrop, there are none on the northern 
half of Andros. Cereus sivartzii Griseb., Opuntia spinosissima Mill., and 
Opuntia iuna Mill, occur on the southern half of Andros. The first is found 
also on some of the southern islands, and the last on Eleuthera, Rum Cay and 
Watlings Island. Opuntia triacantha DC, found by us on Rum Ca}^, is said 
by Gardner, Brace and Dolley to occur also on Watlings and Concepcion 
Islands. The same authors also give Melocactus communis DC. as indi- 
genous to Turks Islands and wild on Acklin Island, while a species of Echino- 
cachis is listed by them from Inagua and southern islands. The tall, columnar 
Pilocereus lanuginosa Rumpl. is not uncommon on Eleuthera, Long and Wat- 
lings Islands and probably extends to the southernmost members of the group. 
Other species of cactus will probably be found on Inagua and Grand Turk 
Islands. They have been so little explored that their flora is practically 
unknown. 

The poison-wood, which is so common on New Providence, Andros and 
Abaco, is much rarer on the eastern and southern islands. We did not find it 
on the northern part of Eleuthera and it was not at all common on Cat Island, 
Rum Cay, or Watlings Island. Duranta repens L. is very abundant on the 
western islands, but outside of these it has been reported only once, from Eleu- 
thera, by Hitchcock. We did not find it on any of the eastern group. By?-- 
sonima lucida (Sw.) DC. is also common on the western and rare on the 
eastern islands. We found a few specimens on Cat and Watlings Islands. 
Vanilla articulaia Northrop, found on Andros by Northrop, was collected by 
us on New Providence and Watlings Island. It is also -said to occur on 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 201 

Long Island. Zamia tenuis Willd. is confined to New Providence and Andres, 
and Prunus sphcerocarpa Sw. is known only from New Providence. There are, 
of course, a large number of species that have so far been collected from only 
one spot, but most of these Avill no doubt later be found to be more widely 
distributed. Until each island has been pretty thoroughly explored, it will 
scarcely be worth while to go into any detailed discussion of local distribution. 
Our data are at present not sufficient to warrant any definite conclusions. 

INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS USEFUL FOR THEIR WOOD OR 

LEAVES." 

Ik"odes palmetto (Walt.) Cook (Thatch Palm). 
Plate XXXVII, Fig. 1. 
This is the same as tlie palmetto of our southern United States. Its 
leaves are used for thatching and sometimes for baskets. It has been reported 
from New Providence, Eleuthera, Cat and Watlings Islands. 

CoccoTHRiNAX jucuNDA Sarg. (Silver-thatch Palm). 
A smaller palm than the preceding. The silvery leaves, which are much 
used for making hats and baskets, are collected green and dried in ovens. 
This palm is common along the shores of New Providence, Green Cay, Eleu- 
thera and Watlings Island. It also occurs in Florida. 

Theinax bahamensis Cook (Goat Palm, Silver Palm). 
Plate XXXVIII, Fig. 2. 
This is about the same size and appearance as the silver-thatch palm, 
but the two may be readily distinguished when in bloom by the honey fragrance 
of the former plant and the fetid odor of the latter. Leaves of the goat palm 
are used for the same purposes as those of the preceding. It is endemic to 
the Bahamas and has so far been found on New Providence, Andros, Green 
Cay, Eleuthera, Cat and Watlings Islands. 

GaiSALPiNiA VESiCAEiA L. (Braziletto) . 
A small tree with darlc heart wood that produces a valuable red or yellow 
dye. We found it on Long Island and it is said to grow on the western end 
of New Providence. It is also a native of Cuba, Jamaica and Haiti. We 
cannot find that it is now exported from the Bahamas. 

'- The words " Jessup Coll." following a species indicate that its wood may be 
found in the Jessup Collection of woods at the American Museum of Natural His- 
tory, New York City. 



202 VEGETATION 

HiEMATOSTLON CAMPECHIANUM L. (LogWOOcl). 

Plate XXXIX, Pig. 1. 
A low, spreading tree with a deeply furrowed trunk. The wood furnishes 
the valuable blue d3'e hssmatoxylon. Considerable quantities of it are shipped 
from l^assau to New York. We met with it on New Providence, Eleuthera 
and Long Island. Mr. E. S. Sweeting, of Nassau, told me that most logwood 
for export is obtained from Andros, Exuma and Cat Islands. Logwood is a ■ 
native of Central and South America and was probably introduced into the 
Bahamas, where it has now become thoroughly naturalized. 

Lysiloma paucifolia (DC.) Hitch. (Horseflesh). 
This probably reaches a larger size than any other tree in the Bahamas. 
On Mangrove Cay, Andros, we found it growing to a height of 45 feet, with a 
diameter of 18 inches. In the deeper forests of Andros, it grows much larger 
than this, and timbers two feet square are sometimes obtained from it. The 
wood is dark, heavy and capable of a high polish. It is valued for cabinet- 
making and interior decoration. It is sliipped in considerable quantities 
from Nassau to Liverpool. The horseflesh occurs on New Providence, Andros, 
Eleuthera and Fortune Islands, and is also a native of Cuba. 

Lysiloma latisiliqua (L.) Benth. (Wild Tamarind). 
The wild tamarind approaches but does not reach the size of the horse- 
flesh. It is sometimes iO feet high on New Providence, but attains its 
greatest size on Andros. The wood is heavy and hard, and of a reddish-brown 
color. It is in demand for furniture-making and shipbuilding. The wild 
tamarind is found on New Providence, Andros, Long, Cat, Fortune and 
Inagua Islands, and in south Florida and Cuba. It was previously exported 
from Nassau to Liverpool. 

SwiETENiA MAHOGANi L. (Mahogauy or Madeira). 
A large tree, reaching its greatest size on Andros. It is rather common 
in the coppice around Nassau, but is there not often over 15 feet in height. 
Several fairly large specimens may be seen just where the road dips over the 
Blue Hills. The wood is very hard and heavy, and is much used in furniture 
and cabinet-making. The madeira is found on New Providence Andros, 
Crooked, Fortune and Inagua Islands. It is also widely distributed in the 
West Indies, Central and South America. The wood is shipped from Nassau 
to Liverpool. (Jessup Coll.) 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 203 

GuAiACUJi SANCTUM L. (Ligiium Vitaj). 
Plate XXXVI, Pig. 1. 
A medium-sized tree with spreading top. Tlie wood is heavy, hard and 
very difficult to split, and is used in the manufacture of pulleys, hubs, mallets, 
ten-pin balls, etc. The resinous gum is a stimulant and alterative and is 
used in the compoimd decoction of sarsaparilla. The lignum vitEe occurs on 
ISTew Providence, Long, Fortune, Crooked, Acklin and Watlings Islands, and 
in south Florida, Cuba, Porto Eico and San Domingo. It is not now exported 
from the Bahamas. (Jessup Coll.) 

PiNus BAHAMENSis Griseb. (Pine). 
Plate XXXV, Fig. 3. 

A tall, rather slender tree considerably resembling Pinus tacla L. and 
now known to be identical with P. elliottii Engelm. from Florida. . Specimens 
55 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter at base were seen on New Providence. 
The wood decays rapidly and is not considered of much value. During our 
Civil War turpentine and resin were olstained in considerable quantities from 
the Bahama pine forests, but the industry is no longer active. The pine 
covers large areas of New Providence, Andros, Abaco, and probably occurs on 
Great Bahama. 

JuNiPEEUs BARBADENsis L. (Cedar). 

A small tree much resembling Jimiperus virginiana L. The wood is 
particularly good for pencil-making, but the supply is now so limited that 
none is exported from the Bahamas. This is the cedar that was so highly 
valued for shipbuilding in the early days of exploration. It occurs on the 
western end of Xew Providence, on Andros and Abaco, and in the Bermudas, 
Jamaica, San Domingo and Antigua. According to Sargent, the south 
Florida cedar is this species, and not Jimiperus virginiana L., as usually de- 
scribed. 

Gymnanthes lucida Sw. (Crabwood). 

A small tree, rarely over 20 feet high in the Bahamas. Walking-sticks 
of superior quality are made from the shoots. It occurs on Andros, Aljaco, 
Eleuthera and Watlings Islands, and in south Florida and many of the West 
Indies. (Jessup Coll.) 

Fagara flava (Vahl) Kr. & Urb. (Yellow-wood). 
A small tree with hard, brittle wood that is used in making furniture 
and for the handles of tools. The plant is found on Andros, Abaco and Long 



304 VEGETATION 

Islands, and in south Florida, Porto Eieo and San Domingo. Species of 
Fagara are nsed for making walking-sticks. (Jessitp Coll.) 

Ehizophora mangle L. (Mangrove). 
Plate XLI, Fig. 3, and Plate LXXXIV, Fig. 1. 
This remarkable plant is usually a shrub or small tree in the Bahamas, 
but on Watlings Island we found a grove that was 35 feet high. In Jamaica 
it sometimes reaches 70 feet. The wood is heavy and strong and, according 
to Sargent, is used for fuel and wharf-piles, on account of its strength and 
immunity from attacks of the teredo. Eichard Ligon says in "A true and 
exact History of the Island of Barbados," 1657: "The Mangrove is a tree 
of such note, as she must not be forgotten; for, though she be not of the tall 
and lusty sort of trees, yet, she is of great extent: for there drops from her 
limbs a kind of Gum, which hangs together one drop after another, till it 
touch the ground, and then takes root, and makes an addition to the tree. So 
that if all these may be said to be one and the same tree, we may say that a 
Mangrove tree may very well hide a troop of Horse. The bark of this tree 
being well ordered will make very strong thred whereof they make Hamocks, 
and divers other things they wear; and I have heard that the linnen they 
wear is made of this bark, as also their chaires and stooles." The mangrove 
occurs in shallow salt water on all the Bahama Islands, and is widely distrib- 
uted in the tropics of both hemispheres. (Jessup Coll.) 

Jacquinia keyensis Mez. (Joe-bush). 
A low, stout shrub or tree with small, thick leaves. Though very brittle, 
the wood is heavy and hard, and takes a good polish. A decoction of the 
leaves and bark is used by the negroes for washing the head. 

HiPPOMANE MANCiNELLA L. (Mauchineel) . 
This is probably the most poisonous of all trees, and its baneful properties 
attracted the attention of many of the early writers. Though highly poisonous, 
the injurious effects of the manchineel, like those of the upas, have 
been greatly exaggerated by imaginative explorers. The milky sap no doubt 
causes great inflammation in most cases, but I handled it on several occasions 
with no worse results than a small, temporary blister. The manchineel tree 
is about the height and shape of an apple tree, and its fruit superficially 
resembles the crab-apple. It was often mistaken for an edible fruit by ex- 
plorers, who suffered much evil in consequence. The wood when dried loses 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXVI 




Fig. 1. — LIGNUM viT^a: trees (guaiacum sanctuji), showing the effect of 

PEEVAILING WINDS, CLARENCE HARBOR 




Fig. 2. — sand-box tree (iiura crepitans), Nassau 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING VEGETATION 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 305 

its irritating qualities, and is liiglily valued for furniture-making. Catesby, 
in his " Natural History of Carolina," says that the wood is " very heavy and 
durable, beautifully shaded with dark and light streaks, for which it is in 
great Esteem for Tables and Cabinets, and other curious works in Joynery." 
Hans Sloane, in '' The Nat. History of Jamaica," Vol. II, speaks of the man- 
chineel as follows: " Goats feed on the fruit when fallen from the Trees, very 
greedily and in great Plenty, and yet neither their Flesh, nor which is more 
wonderful, their Milk is in the least poysonons, but eaten indifferently as 
other milk." He also notes that its wood is much " coveted by all People, 
not only for its being able to endure the Polish, but for its Durability, and 
likewise for its delicate and pleasant Colours, which are dark." Gifford 
Hughes, in "The Nat. History of Barbados," London, 1750, makes the follow- 
ing observations : " I shall conclude the Description of this Tree with a re- 
markable Observation, generally found to be true; which is, that wherever a 
Manchineel-tree grows, there is found a White-wood or a Pig-tree, near it; 
the Juice of either of the latter being an infallible antidote against the Poison 
of the former." Occurs on Andros, Watlings and Inagua Islands, and in 
south Florida, the West Indies, Mexico, Central and >South America. (Jessup 
Coll.) 

SiDEEOXYLON MASTICHODENDKON Jacq. (Mastic). 

A tree reaching 70 feet high in some countries, but rarely over 40 feet in 
the Bahamas. The wood is hard and close-grained, and is valued in Florida 
for boat-building, as it is not injured by the teredo. It is found on New 
Providence, Andros and Eleuthera, and in south Florida and the West Indies. 
(Jessup Coll.) 

DiPHOLis SALiciFOLiA A. DC. (Wild Cassada, or Bustic). 
A graceful tree, often 40 feet high in Florida, but rarely reaching that 
size in the Bahamas. The wood is heavy, strong, and takes a fine polish. It 
occurs on New Providence, Andros and Eleuthera, and in Cul:ia, Jamaica, 
and in other parts of the West Indies. (Jessup Coll.) 

Metopidm metopium (L.) Small (Poison- wood). 
A good-sized tree of the same family as our poison ivy, which it resembles 
in the irritating effect of its juice. The gum is used in medicine as a pur- 
gative and emetic. The wood is heavy and hard, but not strong. In some 
countries it is used, but it does not seem to be much valued in the Bahanurs. 



206 VEGETATION 

Of the poison-wood, Eichard Ligon in " A True and exact History of the Island 
of Barbados, 1657" says: "The poysoned tree, though I cannot commend for 

her vertues, yet for her beauties I can Yet, of this timber we make 

all, or the most part, of the Pots we cure our Sugars in; for, being sawed, 
and the boards dryed in the Sun, the poyson vapours out." (Jessup Coll.) 

INDIGENOUS MEDICINAL PLANTS. 
ICHTHYOMETHIA PISCIPULA (L.) Hitch. (DogWOOd). 

A small tree with peculiar, winged pods constricted into Joints. The 
narcotic, sedative root and bark are exported from Nassau for medicinal pur- 
poses. Parts of the tree are used by the natives to stupefy fish. The dog- 
wood ocurs on Andros, Abaco, Eleuthera and Cat Islands, and in south Flor- 
ida, the West Indies, Central and South America. (Jessup Coll.) 

PiCRAMNiA PENTANDEA Sw. (Snake-root or Bitter-wood). 
A tree 20 feet high in damp places, but dwarfed and procumbent on bar- 
ren plains. The root, which is used medicinally as a tonic and febrifuge, is 
exported from Nassau. It is found on Kew Providence and Eleuthera. and 
in Cuba, Jamaica, Antigua and Guadeloupe. 

Canella winterana (L.) Gaertn. (Wild Cinnamon or Bahama White-wood 

Bark). 
This shrub or small tree furnishes the well-known canella bark or cortex 
canelli albaj, which is used as an aromatic stimulant and tonic. It has a 
pleasant, cinnamon-like odor and a bitter taste. Shipments of this bark are 
made from Nassau to New York, but it is not so much used as formerly. 
Canella is found on New Providence, Andros and Eum Cay; also in the West 
Indies and A^enezuela. (Jessup Coll.) ■ 

Ceoton elutekia (L.) Sw. (Casearilla or Sweet-wood Bark). 
A shrub or small tree, the bark of which is used as an aromatic tonic. It 
is obtained principally from Eleuthera, and is shipped to New York from 
Nassau. It occurs on New Providence and Eleuthera, and in Jamaica and 
Grand Cayman. 

SiMARUBA glauca Kimth. 
A large and beautiful tree, not before known to occur in the Bahamas. 
Sargent says that this is one of the handsomest of tropical trees, having bril- 
liant and ample foliage, and bright-colored fruit. The wood is not useful. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 207 

being light and soft, but from the bark is obtained the medicinal drug, quassia. 
This tree has not been found in the Bahamas except where we collected it at 
the junction of Soldiers road and the Blue Hills road, New Providence. It 
occurs in Florida, Cuba, Jamaica, Nicaragua and Brazil. (Jessup Coll.) 

BuESERA siMAEUBA (L.) Sarg. (Gum-elemi). 

A good-sized tree with very soft and spongy wood. From it is obtained 
the " g-um-elemi " of commerce, used in medicine and for varnish. Branches 
of this tree when cut off and stuck in the ground will take root and grow in 
the most barren soil. We saw a row of them, thus planted, flourishing on 
the sand dunes at Governors Harbor, Eleuthera. It is found on New Provi- 
dence, Andros, Abaco, Eleuthera, Long, Cat and Watlings Islands, in south 
Florida, and most of tropical America. (Jessup Coll.) 

In addition to the above-mentioned medicinal plants, there are a great 
many others that are used by the negToes for various complaints. Some of 
the more commonly used are the following: Ipomea pes-caprw Sw. (Bay hop), 
Tetrazygm licolor (Mill.) Cogn. (Wild Guava), PhyUanthus epiphyllantlms 
L. (Hardhead), Bourreria havanensis (L.) Miers (Strong-back), Cordia ba- 
hamensis Urban (Granny-bush), Turnera uhnifolia L. (Buttercup), Bryo- 
phyllum pinnatum (Lam.) S. Kurz (Live-forever), Pluchea odorata (L.) 
Cass. (Sour-bush). 

INDIGENOUS FRUITS. 
r The indigenous flora of the Bahamas has contributed no fruits that have 

proved worthy of cultivation. The best of them are hardly equal to our per- 
simmon, and most of those given below are included only because they are con- 
sidered edible by the natives. 

Chetsophyllum oliviforme Lam. (Damson Plum, Wild Star-apple, Saffron). 
A tree 20 to 25 feet high, of the same genus as the cultivated star-apple 
(Chrysophyllum cainito L.). Wood hard, heavy, valued for charcoal-making. 
We did not see the fruits and know nothing of its quality except that it is said 
to be edible. New Providence, Andros and many of the West Indies. (Jes- 
sup Coll.) 

Teteazygia bicoloe (Mill.) Cogn. (Wild Guava, Naked Wood). 
A small tree or shrub. The wood is said to have been used for gin rollers 
when cotton was an important product of the Islands. The fruit is considered 
edible. New Providence, Andros, Abaco and Long Islands; also in Cuba. 



208 VEGETATION 

Eeynosia septenteionalis Urban (Darling Plum, Dorlin Plum). 

A small tree or shrub with hard and heav)' wood. The fruit is about the 
size of a plum, blue-black in color, and of a pleasant taste when fully ripe. The 
first account of this plant was by Catesby, who found it on Kew Providence, 
and figured it under the name of " Bullet-bush." It is plentiful on 'New 
Providence and most of the other islands, and is also found in southern 
Florida, Cuba and the Virgin Islands. (Jessup Coll.) 

Chkysobalanus icaco L., and Chrtsobalanus fellocaepus Meyer 
(Cocoa Plum, Pigeon Plum). 
Plate XLIII, Fig. 1. 
There are two forms of the cocoa plum, the one with light pink, the 
other with black fruit. Until recently these were both included under C. icaco 
L., but the black-fruited form is now known as C. fellocarpiis Meyer. Both 
forms are abundant along the shores of most of the islands, and they often 
grow together. The wood is heavy and strong, but is little used. The plant 
is usually of shrubby growth, but a specimen of the black-fruited variety 35 
feet high was seen on Watlings Island. The fruit is the size of a large plum 
and makes a very good preserve. It may also be eaten raw, but is astringent 
unless perfectly ripe. It was a favorite fruit with the Carib Indians. The 
seeds are also edible. They are very oily, and Sargent says that strung on 
sticks they are used as candles by the natives. The astringent root and bark 
are of medicinal value. The cocoa plum occurs in southern Florida and is 
widely distributed in tropical countries. (Jessup Coll.) 

CoccoLOBis uvifeea (L.) Jacq. (Sea-grape). 
Plate XLII, Fig. 2. 
A scrubby tree of contorted growth found along sandy beaches on all of 
the Islands. The fruit is borne in long grape-like clusters, and, though 
astringent, is edible when cjuite ripe. The wood is hard, takes a good polish, 
and is sometimes used in cabinet-making. Found also in southern Florida 
and in most of tropical America. (Jessup Coll.) 

Hypelate teifoliata Sw. (Eed-wood, Ebony). 
A small tree generally, but reaching a height of 40 feet on Andros. 
This is not the true Ebony and the \\'ood is not iised, but the fruit is said by 
Sargent to possess a sweet and rather agreeable flavor. It occurs on New Provi- 
dence, Andros and Long Island, and is also found in southern Florida, Cuba 
and Jamaica. (Jessup Coll.) 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 209 

Btrsonima i.ucida Eich. (Sweet Margaret). 
Usually a low shrub, but reaching 20 feet on Andros. Its rosy flowers, 
changing to purple as they develop, make this a very attractive plant. The 
greenish fruit has a pleasantly acid flavor. The plant is common on New 
Providence, Andros and Abaco, and a few specimens were seen on Cat and 
Watlings Islands. It also occurs in southern Florida, as well as in Cuba and 
some of the other West Indian Islands. 

Malpighia polytbicha Juss. (Touch-me-not). 
A shrub with stinging hairs on the leaves, whence the name. The pulpy 
fruit is about the size of a large cherry. Found on New Providence, Andros, 
Eleuthera and Cat Islands, and on Haiti. 

BuNCHOSiA GLANDULOSA (Cov.) Ricli. (West Indian Cherry). 
A good-sized shrub with pretty, yellow flowers, and fruit the size of a 
plum. Occurs on New Providence, Eleuthera and Long Islands, in the West 
Indies and South America. Not common in the Baliamas. 

BuMELiA lokanthifolia (Pierre) Britton (Milk Plum or Saffron). 

A bushy shrub with dark, edible fruit about the size of a cherry. It is 
common on New Providence, Andros, Aliaco and Eleuthera, and is found in 
southern Florida, Texas and Cuba. 

CULTIVATED FRUITS. 

/ In comparison with Jamaica, Cuba and many of the other West Indies, 

/ the number of fruits cultivated in the Bahamas is very small. This is prob- 

\ ably due in large measure to tlie very restricted range of soil and climatic 

1 conditions in the latter group. We give below only those fruits that were 

actually seen by us; many others are given by Gardner, Brace and Dolley as 

cultivated in the Bahamas, and isolated specimens of most of them may no 

doubt still be found in gardens and door-yards. 

Cocos NuciFERA L. (Cocoanut Palm). 
Plate XXVI, Fig. 2, and Plate LXXXY, Fig. 2. 
One of the commonest trees in the Bahamas. It is partial to sandy soil 
near the sea, but unless some cultivation is given the fruit is of inferior size. 

v!^ Pi-icENix DACTYLiFERA L. (Date Palm). 

This fine palm was seen only on New Providence and on Watlings 
Island. It is said to occasionally ripen its fruit in Nassau. 
14 



310 VEGETATIOIT 

An"an"as sativus Lindl. (Pineapple). 
Plate XXV, Pig. 2. 
The pineapple is grown on most of the islands, and exported fresh or 
canned. 

MusA SAPiENTUM L. (Banana). 
Plate XXVI, Pig. 1. 
Bananas are grown in suitable pot-holes in the settlements throughout the 
Bahamas. 

MusA PAEADisiACA L. (Plantain). 
Plantains are grown in most available pot-holes, but the fruit is not 
exported. 

Aktooarpus incisa L. (Breadfruit). 
Fruit and seeds both edible when roasted. Gardner, Brace and Dolley 
say that the bark, which is very tough, is beaten out into fine, white cloth by 
the natives of Tahiti and other islands of the Pacific. A tough gum, useful 
for calking boats, can be made from the sap. 

Picus CARiCA Willd. (Pig). 
The edible fig is rare in the Bahamas, and we did not hear of it except in 
Nassau. 

Anona squamosa L. (Sweetsop or Sugar Apple). 
A small tree seen only at Nassau. The fruit is fairly agreeable, but can- 
not compare with the mango. 

Anona mueicata L. (Soursop). 
A somewhat larger tree than the sweetsop. The fruit is pleasantly acid 
and makes a refreshing drink with sugar and water. 

Persea persea (L.) Cockerell (Avocado Pear). 
A good-sized tree with pear-shaped fruit that is highly esteemed. I 
have seen this fruit in the New York markets, but it is not exported from the 
Bahamas. The tree is common around Nassau and in other settlements. 

Tamarindus indica L. (Tamarind). 
Plate XXX, Pig. 1. 
When in full foliage the tamarind, with its delicate, compound leaves, is 
a very handsome tree, and it is a favorite on Nassau lawns. The pulp of the 
long fruit makes a very pleasant conserve. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXVII 




FlO. 1. — VEGETATION OF A FKESII WATER MARSH WITH THATCH FALJl (IXODES PALMETTO) 

IN CENTER, NEW PROVIDENCE 




Pig. 2. — FOREST showing pines WITH "may-pole" fern (pteridium CAUDATUM) 

BENEATH, ABACO 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING VEGETATION 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 211 

Citrus adrantium L. (Orange). 

Citrus eacemosus E. & P. (Grapefmit). 

Citrus decumana Lour. (Shaddock). 

Citrus spinosissima Meyer (Lime). 

Citrus limosum Eess. (Lemon). 

All of the above citrus fruits, except the lemon and shaddock, are cora- 

monlj' planted and exported in greater or less quantities. Lemons are rarely 

seen. 

Spondias purpurea L. (Eed Plum). 
This tree was seen only in Nassau, where its fruit is sold on the streets. 

Mangifera indica L. (Mango). 
This tree, when the best varieties are secured, yields one of the few 
tropical fruits of real excellence that is not common in our markets. It is 
freely planted about Nassau, and may be found on most of the Out-islands. 

Blighia sapida Koen. (Akee). 
A fine tree, but by no means common in the Bahamas. The fleshy, yellow 
arillus of the seed is very good when cooked, but over-ripe fruit should be 
avoided, as it has been known to produce poisoning. 

Melicocca bijuga L. (Genipe). 
A large tree with compound leaves and plum-like fruits produced in 
clusters. It is a common plant in Jamaica, but is rare in the Bahamas. We 
found it escaped in the low coppice east of Nassau. 

Ma3imee AMERICANA L. (Mammee). 
A tall, handsome tree, with large russet-colored fruit of rather poor 
quality. It is not much planted except around Nassau. 

Carica papaya L. (Papaw). 

Plate XXXIII, Fig. 2. 

This interesting plant is often seen in Bahama door-yards, and tlie 

natives seem fond of its fruif. To most visitors, however, it is far from 

attractive. The juice of the unripe fruit contains a digestive ferment whieli 

acts on meats and is often employed in place of pepsin. 



213 VEGETATION" 

PuNiCA GRANATUM L. (Pomegranate). 
The 23omegranate is easily grown in the Bahamas, and its ornamental 
fruits and flowers make it a popular shrub in Nassau gardens. 

Teeminalia catappa L. (Almond). 
Plate XXXIV, Fig. 1. 
A rather small tree with large, thick leaves that is common on the streets 
and landings of Nassau. This is not the true almond, 1}ut the fruit has an 
edible kernel. The tree is most valued for ornament and shade. 

AcHEAS SAPOTA L. (Sapodilla). 
A good-sized tree with russet-colored fruit that is very popular in the 
West Indies. It is freely cultivated on New Providence and most of the other 
islands of the Bahama group. 

TREES CULTIVATED FOR ORNAMENT. 

Some of the most common of these are the following: 
Melia azedarach L. (China Tree). 

A very attractive small tree of the same family as mahogany. The yellow 
wood takes a fine polish and has been used for interior work. The fruit is 
liked by animals and is useful as a vermifuge for horses. Sparingly natural- 
ized. 

Picus SAPOTiFOLiA Kunth and Benche (Tree fig). 
Plate XXXIV, Pig. 2. 
The conspicuous fig tree at '' Thomson's folly," near Nassau, is of this 
native species and not Ficus bengalensis L., the true banyan of India. Other 
native arboreal figs, such as Ficus jacquinifolia Rich, are well w^orthy of culti- 
vation. The seeds of many species of Ficus often sprout on the trunks and 
branches of other trees and, sending down long roots to the ground, grow to 
such an extent as to destroy and supplant the host. 

C^SALPiNiA pulciieeeima Sw. (Pride of Barbados). 
A small tree closely related to the poiuciana and, like it, a profuse and 
brilliant bloomer. It may be found in Nassau, but is not so freely cultivated 
as the poinciana. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 213 

EoYSTONiA KEGiA (IT. B. K.) 0. F. Cook (Eoyal Palm). 
Plate XXXY, Fig. 1. 

This is one of the most beautiful of palms and grows to perfection in 
Nassau. It was introduced from Cuba. 

PoiNCiANA REGIA (Boj.) Kaf. (Eoyal Poinciana). 
Plate LXXXIII, Fig. 3. 
A small tree which when in full flower can scarcely' be equalled for mag- 
nificent display. Its decorative value has secured for it a conspicuous place 
in most of the streets and gardens of Nassau. 

HuRA CREPITANS L. (Sand-box Tree). 
Plate XXXVI, Fig. 2. 
A low tree with a dense, rounded top, much used for street planting. As 
in so many other members of this family, the juice is very poisonous, but the 
wood is used in some countries for making canoes and for interior work. 

Thespesia populnea Corr. (Sea-side Mahoe). 

This is another favorite shade tree on Nassau streets, where its large leaves 
and showy flowers give it ornamental value. 

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. (Silk-cotton Tree). 
Plate LXXXVIII. 
This is one of the most striking of all tropical trees. ' Its great spreading 
top, and immense trunk, flanked on all sides with buttresses, has won for it 
the admiration of all travelers. There are some very fine specimens in Nas- 
sau, but the old tree near the Postoffice, shown in the illustration mentioned 
above, is perhaps the most perfect example of its peculiar growth. This tree 
is said to have been brought from South Carolina and to have given rise to all 
[ the others on the island. 

Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. (Spanish Cedar). 
This peculiar Australian tree grows to a great size in Nassau. Several 
fine specimens may be seen along the street in front of the Postoffice square. 
It is cultivated on most of the islands and has become naturalized in several 
places. 



214 VEGETATION 

Albizzia lebbek Benth. (Woman's Tongue). 
Plate LXXXVI, Fig. 1. 

A low, widely spreading tree that is much planted for shade. Its thin 
pods, when dr}^, keep up a constant rattling, whence the common name. 

In addition to these, most of the trees mentioned as cultivated for their 
fruits are also of ornamental value. 

Among the cultivated shrubs, the following are often seen : Plumiera 
rubra L. (Frangipani), Thevetia thevetia (L.) Millsp. Nerium oleander L. 
(Oleander), Codiceum variegatum Blume (Croton), Erytlirina crista-galli L. 
(Cock's-spur), Lagerstrcemia indica L. (Crape Myrtle), Gardenia jasminoides 
Ellis (Cape jessamine), Punica granatum L. (Pomegranate), Hibiscus rosa- 
sinensis L., Tamarix gallica L. (Tamarisk), Viburnum opulus L: (Snowball 
tree), Tecoma stans Juss. (Yellow elder). 

Space does not permit the enumeration of the many other cultivated 
shrubs, vines and herbs, but one might mention the magnificent Bougainvillea 
spectahilis Poir., shown in Plate I, and the scarcely less attractive Antigon 
leptopus H. and B. 

BOTANICAL FORMATIONS IN THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. 

To one accustomed to the grandeur of the forests of the United States 
and to the fresh and varied greens of our vegetation the impression produced 
by the low, monotonous growth of the Bahama Islands is distinctly disap- 
pointing. The color scheme is a dull, grayish-green, relieved occasionally, it 
is true, by dashes of brilliant color, siich as scarlet, yellow, white, from plants 
in flower, but lacking power to attract and charm the eye. Standing on the 
top of the Blue Hills and looking northward towards iSTassau (Plate XXV, 
Fig. 1), one sees the flaming crowns of the poinciana like burning coals in a 
bed of ashes ; all else is subdued. The Bahamas also lack the fascination of the 
fern-clad mountains of Jamaica, where the delicate and water-loving species 
grow with a profusion that can scarcely be realized. For in these Islands there 
are no mountains, valleys, running streams, or fresh and quiet waters. Here 
nature does not seem so diverse, and the opportunities she offers for a varied 
life are restricted on every side by the roclry, calcareous soil and salt-laden wind. 

But, on the other hand, the rigor of such conditions and the necessity 
of meeting them have brought about corresponding adaptations of habit and 
structure in the vegetation that are of the greatest interest to students of plant 
life. Space does not permit even a bare mention of the diverse means by 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 215 

which the heat, salt, and wind are resisted and the difficulties of living solved ; 
but some of the most noticeable may be referred to. The beach plants are 
partieularl}^ liable to be uprooted or buried by the shifting sand, and to meet 
this danger they are nearly always furnished with vegetative means of propa- 
gation, either by underground rhizomes (many grasses, as Vniola, Sporo- 
hohis), prostrate creeping branches which root at the nodes (Ambrosia his- 
pida Pursh, DistichUs maritima, Baf.), or recurved branches which root at 
their tips {Tournefortia, Sccevola). Plate XLIV, Fig. 1, illustrates this 
habit. If one part is covered or uprooted another may continue the growth. 
Beach plants are also apt to have more or less succulent leaves, which are 
either polished or reflect the intense light (Borrichia glabra Small, Sccevola), 
or hairy, to prevent too rapid evaporation (Borrichia argentea DC, Tourne- 
fortia), or the leaves may be hard, narrow, and inrolled (many grasses and 
sedges, Rliadcallis, Suriana, Jacquinia). The epidermis is generally very 
thick and the stomata are protected in various ways. 

The scrubby coppice growth that makes up the greater part of the vege- 
tation contains remarkably few succulent plants. There are no yuccas, few 
cacti, and but one species of agave. 

The conditions, however, are generally arid; the porous rock drains 
quickly and there are often periods of excessive drought. The leaves are as 
a rule hard, and grayish in color from the presence of hairs or wax. In 
many species the young leaves hang vertically and are protected by rusty 
hairs. In Langeria densiflora (Griseb.) B. & H., a tree found on New Provi- 
dence, the young leaves are coated with a kind of lacquer which, in dry weather, 
becomes very hard, and efEectually prevents evaporation. 

The plants of salt marshes and mangrove swamps possess many inter- 
esting and peculiar adaptations. In the case of Rhizophora mangle L. (Plate 
XLI, Pig. 1, and Plate LXXXIV, Fig. 2) the old leaves become much 
thicker and change their function from photosynthesis to water storage. The 
adventitious roots descend from the branches and, taking hold of the mud, 
extend the plant indefinitely. The fruits of this species germinate on the 
tree and are for a long time nourished by the parent plant. When they 
finally fall they float in the water root downwards, and on coming in contact 
with the bottom send out with remarkable rapidity the young roots that had 
already started to grow beneath the epidermis. Avicennia nitida Jacq., another 
mangrove plant, sends up from its underground roots others that rise per- 
pendicularly out of the ground for a foot or more. These aerial roots, as 



216 VEGETATION 

well as the underground ones, are verj- spongy, and the air taken in through 
their large lenticels can easity pass to the subterranean parts. The leaves 
of this plant secrete large quantities of salt, which collects in crystals on 
the surface. 

In regard to the dispersal of seeds, there is a marked difference between 
the plants of the Bahamas and those of the United States. In the former 
there is a great preponderance of plants bearing fleshy fruits, i. e., fruits 
adapted for distribution by birds, rather than those with hairy, winged, or 
barbed seeds and fruits fitted for transportation by the wind or by clinging 
to the hair of animals. 

Of plants with barbed seeds or fruits we found only three species — 
Petiveria alliacea L., a common weed about Nassau; Pavonia spinifex Cav., 
a clambering shrub, and Meibomia supina (Sw.) Britton, a low herb. Those 
with seed for wind distribution are the epiphytic Tillandsias and Orchidacece, 
most of the CompositcB, Tijplia, Swietenia, CaMiarina, and a few others. A 
number of beach plants produce seeds which are able to float for a long time 
without being damaged by the salt water, and these may thus become dis- 
tributed over great distances through the movements of ocean currents. 

PLANT FORMATIONS. 
We will now pass to a systematic consideration of the various plant for- 
mations of the islands which were visited by the Expedition. 

NEW PROVIDENCE. 

In describing the vegetation of this island, we shall begin at the south 
shore, at the point- where the South-side road meets the beach, and take up 
the formations observed in crossing to the north side. 

Sand-steand Formation. — The south side of New Providence differs 
from the north side in its more regular and more sandy beaches, and it pre- 
sents the typical sand-strand formation of tropical shores. At certain points 
along this exposure there are large areas of shoal water stretching out for 
hundreds of yards from the beach where the depth seldom exceeds a foot. 
Occupying this area is an open growth of Avicennia nitida Jacq., of stunted 
and contorted habit and with a height not often exceeding 2 or 3 feet. At 
high tide the smaller plants are almost covered with "water. The appearance 
of these shrubs is well shown in Plate XLVII, Fig. 3. Along this southern 
coast the sand-strand formation may be divided, beginning seaward, into the 
five following associations : 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXVIII 




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B 




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to 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 217 

1. TliC I'pomca pes-capne Association. — Here the Ipoinea itself is by no 
means abundant, occurring only rarely at considerable intervals, but the 
association corresponds to the Ipomea association of other tropical shores. At 
points where the Ipomea does not occur, its place is taken by the grasses, 
Paspalum vaginatum Sw. and Sporobohis virginicus Kunth. This grass strip 
varies in w'idth from 1 to 10 feet, beginning at high water mark and running 
back the greatest distance where the next association is broken. The two 
grasses occurring here are botli good sand-binders. Paspalum has thick 
trailing branches with leaves in tufts at the nodes, while Sporobolus has 
underground runners with closely tufted upright branches (Plate XLVII, 
Fig.l). 

2. The Umola-Totirnefortia Association^ following the above, occupies 
the gently sloping, or in some places quite level, sandy strip that extends to the 
scrubby coppice behind. At the point where these observations were taken its 
width was from 3 to 12 feet. JJnioki paniculata L. is not present at all points, 
but is scattered at intervals, sometimes in dense, pure growth, but frequently 
more open. Where the Uniola is absent, or scattered, its place is taken by 
large clumps of Tournefortia gnaphalodes E. Br. and Sccevola plumieri L. 
mixed with Suriana maritima L., Salmea petrobioides Griseb., Strumpfia 
maritivia Jacq., and a little Borrichia glabra Small (or B. argentea DC). 
The aromatic Ambrosui hispida Pnrsh occupies open spots in this association 
and penetrates more or less into the scrub behind. Its prostrate branches 
are often 10 or 12 feet in length, with upright shoots reaching a height of 
6 to 12 inches. Sesuvium portxdacastrum L. occurs here also, but is not so 
abundant as Ambrosia. Its fleshy procumbent stems reach a length of 6 
feet, and from every node are produced short lateral branches of a rather 
definite length. These also lie flat, except at the tips, which are turned up- 
ward, but they rarely root and may be characterized as " kurtztriebe." The 
main stems do not take root at every node but only at intervals of about 2 feet. 

.3. Pithccolobiwn-Salmea Association. — This begins immediately behind 
the association last mentioned. Its principal plants are Pithecolobium 
keyense Britton (Eam's horn), Salmea petrobioides Griseb., Torrubia longi- 
folia (Heimerl) Britton (Blolly), Jacquemontia jamaicensis (Jacq.) Hall, 
Eritlialis fruticosa L. (Black torch), Lantana involucrata, Sw. (White lantana), 
Ernodea littoralis Sw., and Solanum bahamense L. (here without spines on 
the leaves), with an occasional tuft of Cy penes bnmneus Sw. The scrubs of 
this formation are low and dwarfed, generally not more than 3 feet high. They 



318 , VEGETATION 

occupy the outer slope of the low ridge of wind-blown sand that skirts the 
shore. As the crest of this ridge is approached, the sand becomes mixed with 
a little more humus and there is a rather sudden transition into the higher 
growth of the next association. 

4. Erithalis-Reynosia (or littoral sand-coppice) Association. — This occu- 
pies the flat top, not often over 12 or 15 feet wide, of the sand ridge just men- 
tioned, and the growth averages about 8 feet, rarel}' reaching 13 feet in height. 
Most of the plants mentioned in this last association occur here also, but the 
principal constituents are Eritlialis fruticosa L. (Black torch), Beynosia sep- 
tentrionalis JJvh&n CDarling Tplum) , Metopiicni metopium (L.) Small (Poison- 
wood), Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) Britton (Blolly), Salmea petrobioides 
Griseb., Rapanea guianensis Aubl. (Beef -wood), and Ilex krugiana Loes. 
Genipa clusicefolia Gris_eb., Acacia choriophylla Benth. (Ginnecord), Bumelia 
lor antliif alia (Pierre) Britton (Kilk ]}\wni) , Bourreria liavanensis (L.) Miers 
(Strong back), Bumelia microphylla Griseb. (Ink-berry), and TJniola racemi- 
flora Trin. are less commonly present. 

5. The Silver Palm Association covers the inner slope of the ridge and 
extends to the edge of the marshy depression behind. As the name implies, 
the silver palm is the character growth here. Its height varies from 8 to 14 
feet and it is by far the most conspicuous plant of this area. Of the under- 
growth, TJniola racemifiora Trin. is most abundant. Mixed with it are dwarf 
specimens of Pithecolobium keyense Britton, Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) 
Britton, Salmea petrobioides Griseb., Eritlialis fruticosa L., Rapanea guian- 
etisis Aubl., Bourreria Jiavanensis (L.) Miers, Lantana involucrata Sw., Erno- 
dea littoralis Sw., Oorchorus hirsutus L., Beynosia septentrionali-s Urban, 
Cordia bahamensis Urban, and Metopium metopium (L.) Small. 

Fresh-marsh Formation. — This occupies a long depression behind the 
beach where the soil is saturated or entirely covered with shallow water. Thatch 
palms (Inodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook) are abundant on the damp margins 
of the marsh and a few also penetrate into the shallow water. Cladium effu- 
sum Terr., WillughbcBya heterophylla Small, Centella repanda (Pers.) Small, 
the attractive, white-flowered Sabbatia companulata' (L.) Britton and Ipomea 
sagittata Cav., with large purple flowers, are also common as marginal plants. 
Further out large clumps of Ano7ia palustris L. (Custard apple) appeared, 
and a little Bliizopliora mangle L. (Mangrove) in deeper places gave evidence 
that the water was not quite fresh. This formation is about one-half mile 
wide and passes northward into the next. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 219 

PINE-BARREN" FORMATIONS. — The pine-barreiis of N"ew Providence may 
be divided into two distinct formations, the Wet-barrens and tlie Dry-barrens. 
For the character of the soil the reader is referred to the section on Bahama 
Stony-loam in the chapter on Soils of the Bahama Islands. 

1. lite Wet-barrens, into which the fresh marsh passes to the northward, 
are about three-quarters of a mile in width at the point where they are crossed 
by the South-side road. The ground, which is composed of more or less honey- 
combed rock, is not wet except in depressions, but the water is constantly 
within a few inches of the surface. The formation differs from the typical 
pine-barrens in the occurrence of the Inodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook (Thatcli 
palm), and differs from the wetter marsh in the occurrence of the pine. It is 
intermediate ground where the pines and palms intermingle. The larger 
growth, which consists almost entirely of these two trees, is open and scat- 
tered; the slender pines reach a height of 20 to 35 feet; the palms of 15 to 20 
feet. A few small specimens of Metopium nietopium (L.) Small, Exostemnui 
carihceuin (Jacq). E. & S. and Coccolobis laurifolia Jacq. are scattered here 
and there, but they rarely reach the dignity of trees. The undergrowth is low 
and open, and its principal shrubby components are Corchorus liirsutus L., 
Pithecoloiium keyense Britton, Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) Britton, Te- 
coma bahamensis Northrop, Lantana involucrata L., Cordia bahamensis 
Urban, Byrsonima lucida (Sw.) DC, and Bourreria havanensis (L.) Miers. 
The vines, which form a very conspicuous part of the plant covering, are 
WillugTibceya heterophylla Small, Smilax beyricldi Kunth, Rhabdadenia 
sagrwi (A. DC.) Small, Rajania hastata L., and the parasitic Cassytha fili- 
formis L. Turnera ulmifolia L., Evolvulus sericeus Sw., Lippia stwchadi- 
folia Kunth, Decromena coloraia Hitch, (the "showy sedge"), CMoris pe- 
trwa Thunb., and a species of Andropogon are the principal herbaceous species. 
Here and in the next formation the little fern Ornithopteris adiantoides (Sw.) 
Presl. is most at home. 

2. The Dry-barrens, into which the above formation passes, extend across 
the central part of the island to the base of the Blue Hills, a distance of about 
5 miles. The pines rarely reach a large size, being generally slender and from 
20 to 35 feet high. Occasionally, however, a much larger specimen is seen 
(Plate XXXV, Fig. 2). Coccothrinax jucunda Sarg. (Silver-thatch palm) 
is, next to the pine, the most conspicuous and abundant tree. It is occa- 
sionally 12 feet high, but generally smaller. As undergrowth, the 
following plants are dominant: Metopium metopium (L.) Small 



330 VEGETATION 

(Poison- wood), Eapania guyanensis Aubl. (Beef-wood), Tecoma baliamcnsis 
Northrop, Petetia pappigii )Schan., Duranta plumieri Jacq. (Wild bittersweet), 
Fagara coriacea (A. Rich.) Kr. & Urb. (Hercules club). Acacia choriophylla, 
Benth. (Cinnecord), Cassia sp., Tetrazygia hicolor (Mill.) Cogu. (Wild 
guava), Ascyrum hypericoides L., Cordea haliamensis Urban, Pithecolohium 
keyense Britton (Ram's horn), Ernodea littoralis Sw., Vernonia hahamcnsis 
Griseb., Turnera uhnifolia L., Rajania liastata L. (Wild yam), Sinilax bey- 
richii Knnth, Setaria glauca (L.) Scribn., Decromena colorata, and the tough 
fern, Pteridium caudatum (L.) Kuhn. In rock holes, which are abundant, 
the orchid Bletea verecunda Sw. is common. As the foot of the Blue Hills 
is approached, the pine-barrens terminate abruptly and the next formation 
begins. 

Coppice Formations. — As in the case of the pine-barrens, the coppice 
growth of New Providence may be divided into two rather distinct forma- 
tions — the High-coppice and the Low-coppice. 

1. High-coppice. — This covers the southern slope of the Blue Hills, iind 
parts of the northern slope, particularly to the west of Nassau. The soil is 
composed of porous rocks, rather soft, and filled with innumerable excavations 
of all sizes. It is of the type described as Bahama black-loam in the chapter 
on Soils of the Bahama Islands. As an example of the plant covering of this 
formation, we shall take that section of growth at the junction of the Blue 
Hills road and Soldiers road, about three miles soutli of Nassau. A photo- 
graph of this spot is reproduced in Plate XXVII, Fig. 3. There is considerable 
soil of dark, sandy loam covering the rocks, and the trees stand close together. 
There is very little undergrowth on the densely shaded ground. The principal 
woods growing here are Coccolobis laurifolia Jacq. (Pigeon plum). Eapania 
guyanensis Aubl. (Beef-wood), Swieienia mahognni Jacq. (ilahogauy). Bur- 
sera simaniba (L.) Sarg. (Gum-elemi), Metopium metopium (L.) Small 
(Poison-wood), Lysiloma latisiliqua (L.) Benth. (Wild tamarind). Ilex kru- 
giana Loes., Ilex repanda Griseb., Simaruba glauca Knnth, Lucuma muUiflora 
A. DC. (Wild mammee), Peru humdiwfolia Griseb., Erythroxylon brevipcs 
DC. (Sareto), Acacia choriophylla Benth. (Cinnecord), Thouinia discolor 
Griseb. (Red-wood), Tecoma bahamensis Northrop, Isacoria paniculata (Nutt.) 
Sudw. {" liable"), Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Eadlk. (Butter-bough), and 
Armjris elemifera L. (White torch). The largest tree in this cop]iice was the 
wild tamarind. Specimens were 3 feet 6 inches in diameter at base, and 3.5 
feet in height, with large, wide-spreading tops. Next to it in size was Sinianiha 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 321 

glwuca Kuntli. witli a diameter of 18 inches and a height of 40 feet. Ahiiost 
as large was Pera Mi melice folia Griseb. and Swieienia maliogani Jaeii., witli a 
diameter of 1 foot and a height of 35 feet. The mahogany was badly ringed 
with sapsucker holes and it was also the only tree attacked by Phorodendron. 
Cinnecord, biitter-boiigh and Tccuiiui, which are generally low and scrubby, 
were here tall and slender, with a height of 20 to 25 feet. 

2. Low-coppice Formation. — This covers most of the northern slope of 
the Blue Hills and a large part of the flat country on the north and east sides 
of the island. In a drive from Nassau to Mt. Vernon and around by Village 
road and Wolf road one passes through a typical low coppice growth. The soil 
is Bahama l^lack-loam of the variety known as " plate rock," discussed in the 
chapter on the Soils of the Bahama Islands. A few trees, such as Bursera 
simaruljia (L.) Sarg. (Gum-elemi), Metopiviii metopium (L.) Small (Poison- 
wood), Dipholi-s saUcifoIia A. DC. (Wild cassada), and Swietenia makogani 
Jacq. (Mahogany), project occasionally above the general level, but even these 
are much smaller than in the High-coppice. The average height of the covering 
is about 10 to 15 feet, and a great variety of species struggle with each other 
here for the scanty sustenance that the rocks afford. 

Among the small trees and scrubs, wliicli are the predominant growth, the 
following are common: Exothea yaiiiculata (Juss.) Kadlk., Bourreria liavan- 
ensis (L.) Miers, Coccolohis laurifolia Jacq., Ilypelate trifoliata Sw., Bumclia 
loranthifolia (Pierre) Britton, Savia haJtamensis Britton, Erithalis fruticosa 
L., HcBmatoxylon campecliianum L., Picramnia pentandra Sw., Byrsonima 
lucida (Sw.) DC, Macreiglitia carihma A. DC, Anasiraphia northropiaiia 
Grenm., Tecoma hahqmensis Xorthrop, Torruhia longifolia (Heimerl) Brit- 
ton, Torruhia obtitsata (Jacq.) Britton, Psychotria unclata Jacq., Ocotea cates- 
hyana (Michx.) Sarg., Fagara fagara (L.) Small, Duranta repens L., Leu- 
ca'iia glauca (L.) Benth., and Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl.) Urban. Tlelic- 
tcres spiralis Northrop, Melicocca bijuga L. and Croton eleuterla Sw. are less 
often seen. 

The principal vines are Trioptens rigida Sw., Jacquemontia jamaiccnsis 
(Jacq.) Hall, Smilax leyrichii Kunth, Smilax havanensis Jacq., and Sinilax 
oblongata viscifolia (Derham.) Schulz. The long, yellow threads of the para- 
sitic Cassytlia filiformis Jacq. often cover and greatly injure the other growth. 
It was only in this formation that we found Vanilla articulata Northrop on 
New Providence. Its succulent stems were sometimes rooted and sometimes 
not. In the latter case it lives entirely as an epiphyte. 



222 VEGETATION 

Salt-maksi-i Formation. — Kear the foot of the north slope of the Bhie 
Hills and directly south of Nassau, the Low coppice is interrupted by a large 
tract of marshy land in the center of which is a considerable pond of water. 
This rises and falls with the tides and is almost as salty as the sea itself. The 
soil consists of honeycombed rocks, with edges so sharp that walking is diffi- 
cult. Within the innumerable crevices there is a deposit of soft, sticky, white 
ooze, described in the chapter on Soils of the Bahama Islands as "brackish 
swamp marl," which to all appearances is as barren as the rock itself. On the 
edges of the pond this ooze completely covers the rock, and the conditions for 
plant growth are here so unfavorable that only the extremely resistant Aster 
tennuifoUvs L. and Distichlis maritima Eaf. have gained a footing. Both of 
these species have long rhizomes running an inch or two under the surface 
and sending up aerial shoots at the nodes. They cover the soil rather closely 
in places, but are absent in others. Behind these where the honeycombed rock 
is exposed is an exceedingly dwarfed and prostrate growth of Conocarpus 
erecta sericea Fors. and Rhacicallis maritima (Jacq.) Schum. Their gnarled 
and contorted stems run like snakes among the knife-like edges of the rocks. 
But in spite of all discouragements, these plants were bearing fruit, even 
when less than 6 inches in height. Even here the parasitic Cassijtha was 
running along the rock from plant to plant and attacking everything in its 
way. Further from the margin of the water other low scrubs began to appear, 
still much dwarfed, but not so prostrate. Among these were Torrubia longi- 
folia (Heimerl) Britton (BloUy), Bumelia microphylla Griseb. (Ink-berry), 
Jacquinia heyense Mez. (Joe-bush), and Mimusops sieberi A. DC. (Wild sapo- 
dilla). The two grasses, Uniola pwniculata L. and Uniola racemiflora Trin., 
also found a place here, and several species of Tillandsia attached themselves 
to the shrubbery, even in the most exposed situations (Plate XL, Fig. 2). On 
the eastern end of the marsh, where conditions were more favorable to growth, 
the Conocarpvs reaches 15 feet in height, and Iva cheiranthifolia Kunth, and 
Cladium effusum (Sw.) Torr. appear in considerable abundance. oSTear the 
outer edges of the marsh the Coccothrinax jucuncla Sarg. (Silver- thatch palm) 
forms a conspicuous fringe and at about this point the ordinary low coppice 
growth comes in. 

The vegetation of the fresh marshes that extend for some distance along 
the north shore just behind the beach to the Avest of Nassau, is very similar to 
what has been already described for similar situations on the south side, but 
some plants were common here that were not found on that side. Among 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XXXIX 





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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 333 



them may be mentioned Myrica cerifera L., Baccliaris aiigustifol'.a Mir' x., 
and Sagittaria landfolia L. Plate XXXVII, Fig. 1, is a view of a fine modes 
palmetto (Walt.) Cook (^^-, 1„L palm) standing in one of these fresh marshes 
on the north side. . 

EocKY-SHORE FORMATION. — The north shore of Xew Providence differs 
from the south shore in the occurrence of exposed rocks at many places. These 
rocks are at some points precipitate; at others they form a gentle slope, and 
in such places are apt to be covered for some distance with a coating of sand 
next to the sea. In such sandy situations the vegetation is very similar to 
that of the south beach; but where the rocks are exposed there is an abrupt 
chaiige. In many places the exposed rocks are covered with a dense growth 
of Rhacicallis 7naritima (Jacq.) Schum, and Siiriana maritima L. in pure 
association, the sand-strand plants being entirely absent. Behind the Rhaci- 
callis and Suriana is Coccolohis uvifera (L.) Jacq. and the attractive white- 
flowered Genipa clusicefolia (Jacq.) Griseb. Following these and extending 
slightly into them are found the ram's horn, darling plum, bloUy, jack-lrash, 
wild lime and other littoral coppice plants. At places Hymenocallis arenicola 
Northrop forms attractive clumps of bloom. 

MANGROVE CAY, ANDROS. 

Here for the first time we met with a forest in the Bahama Islands. Pass- 
ing over a range of hills and down a long slope, we came to a low, irregular 
country where' the growth gradually became higher until it finally passed 
into what might be called a forest, where the Lysiloma paucifolia (DC.) 
A. S. Hitch. (Horseflesh), Lysidoma latisiliqua (L.) Benth. (Wild tamarind), 
Fagara coriacea (A. Eich.) Kr. & Hrb. (Doctor's club), and Hypelate tri- 
foliata Sw. (Eed-wood) reached a height of 40 to 50 feet with a diameter of 
2 feet or more. ISText to these in size, with a height of 30 to 40 feet, were 
Coccolobis laurifolia Jacq. (Pigeon plum), Metopiuni metopium (L.) Small 
(Poison-wood), Ichthyomethia piscipula (L.) Hitch. (Dogwood), and Swie- 
tenia mahogani L. (Mahogany). The growth was thick and the shade dense. 
The floor of rock was deeply excavated and very irregular, and in crevices and 
depressions were deposits of black-loam, where fleshy fungi were rather abun- 
dant. On rotting wood we collected in a few minutes all of the Myxomycetes 
listed in this report, and there is no doubt that a thorough search would dis- 
cover a large number of this group on Andros. 

On the shoreward side of the hills just mentioned, where an uneven plain 



224 VEGETATION 

extends to the sand-strand, we found large specimens of the two figs, Ficus 
sapotifolia, Kiinth & BehciiO znAJJ'icus jaquinafolia Rich., the one with large, 
the other with small leaves. Both are show^hrkE^-r'^, XXXIX, Fig. 2. Near 
the base of one of these fig trees was a deep banana hole Vi :'>ere the fungi grew. 
Along the solid walls of this depression the fig roots hung in twisted ropes 
through circular holes that the}' had cut in the calcareous rock. Kear this 
point, on the surface of the rocks, grew an abundance of our common Portu- 
laca oleracea L. (Purslane), with other plants that are usual in the low cop- 
pice. A few hundred feet away, on the slope of the hill, grew Lysiloina pauci- 
foliola (DC.) A. S. Hitch. (Wild tamarind), Swieienia maliogani L. (Ma- 
hogany), Goccolohis laurifolia Jacq. (Pigeon plum), Burse.ra simaruba (L). 
Sarg. (Grum-elemi), Acacia chorioplii/lla Benth. (Cinnecord), Mctopium meto- 
pium (L.) Small (Poison-wood), and £';/r/p;u'a conf^f.sa DC. (Stopper). Xone 
were more than 25 feet in height. On the shore at this point we took a photo- 
graph of a fine specimen of Toiimefortia f/naphaloides (Jacq.) R. Br. which 
showed to perfection its method of multiplication by off-shoots from the 
rooting tips of descending branches (Plate XLIV, Fig. 1). 

In the shallow water sejjarating Mangrove Cay from Little Mangrove 
Ca}' — the latter a very small island, only a few hundred yards from shore — 
grew Halopliylla engehnanii Aschers, a delicate aquatic flowering plant of the 
family Elodeacece that had not before been found in the Bahamas. With it 
grew Coccocladus occidentalis (Harv.) Cramer, in great quantities, looking 
like miniature Myviophyllum. At other points in the shallow water along the 
shore we collected Penicillus capikitus Lamarck (Mermaid's shaving brush), 
Udotea conglutinata (Ell. & Soland) Lamonr, and the curious Rhipocephalus 
phoenix (Ell. & Soland) Kuetz., which stood like toy trees on the sandy bot- 
tom. Among them were Caiderpas and a number of other sea weeds that are 
given from Andros in the list. 

Off this point the dredge was let down in about 4 fathoms of water and a 
number of other sea-weeds were secured. 

GREEN CAY. 
Running east and west near the south side of this island is an elevated 
ridge which supports a fairly high coppice growth. Between this ridge and 
the north shore is a low coppice of maritime plants with occasional depressions 
of marshy areas. The vegetation of these depressions shows brackish condi- 
tions, Conocarpus, Avicennia, Anona pahistres L., Cladium effusum Torr. and 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 335 

Sesuvium portulacastrum L. being the characteristic growth. A considerable 
part of the dry area of the low coppice is set with scattered Coccoth.rinax 
jucunda Sarg. (Silver-thatcli palms), some specimens 12 feet high. In lower 
and damper places the Thrinax bahamensis Coolc (Goat palm) takes its place. 
Both of these palms were in bloom dnring onr visit. The flowers of the first 
had a disagreeable, fetid odor, while those of the second had a pleasant, honey- 
like fragrance. The latter palm is lower than the first, not often reaching 
over C feet. The low coppice in which these palms were scattered was com- 
posed principally of Pithecolobium Iceyense Britton (Kam's horn), Jacquinia 
keyensis Mez (Joe-bush), Reynosia septentrionalis Urban (Darling plum), 
Golubrina colubrina (L.) Millsp. (Wild coffee). Cassia lineata Sw., and 
Antirrhoea myrtifolia (Griseb.) Urban, the latter with delightfully fragrant 
flowers. The higher coppice on the hills was of the usual sort, but contained, 
in addition to the plants ordinarily found on jSTew Providence, Ovmacum 
sanctum L. (Lignum vitfe), which was very attractive Vii\\ its pretty blue 
flowers. Covering the barren rocks behind the beach was a low growth of 
Ernodea Kttoralis Sw., which, unlike any others seen, had white flowers; 
Genipa clusiifolia (Jacq.) Griseb., Catesbcea fasciculata Northrop, and An- 
tirrhoea myrtifolia. Passiflora fmtida L. was growing among these scrubs, and 
extended in some cases almost to the edge of the water. One specimen was 
standing perfectly erect in a pocket of sand near the shore. Extending across 
the bare sand of the beach was Cassytha filiformis L., attaching itself to the 
plants that came in its way. At places where its j-ellow filaments came into 
contact with the sand, suckers were produced which caught hold of the soil 
particles and helped to secure the stems in position. Plate XLVII, Fig. 3, 
shows the beach on Green Gay with the low coppice in background. 

CURRENT SETTLEMENT, ELEUTHERA. 

The island at this point is about one-half mile wide and trends approxi- 
mately north and south. The town is situated on the east side and about a 
mile below it the island is cut through by a deep current bordered by solid 
rock cliffs. The west beach is very rocky, but in places there are sandy areas 
of considerable extent. In one of these sand inlets grew a fine clump of large 
and small Inodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook (Thatch palm). They occupied a 
marshy depression where they were no doubt able to procure practically 
fresh water. Between the palms and the beach was a fine garden of 
Hymenocallis in full bloom. Here also grew Corchoriis hirsutus L., 
15 



226 VEGETATION 

Evolvulus ariuscuhis Poir., with pretty little white, saucer-shaped flower; 
Genchrus tribuloides L., Ipomwa pes-capne L., and Euphoriia huxifoUa L. 
Suriana maritima, L. also occurred, but Coccolobis uvifera (L.) Jaeq., Tourne- 
fortia gnaphalodes (Jaeq.) E. Br. and Sccevola plumieri Valil. were absent. 
On the roclcy sides of the passage above mentioned grew Rhacicallis maritima 
(Jaeq.) Schum., Erithalis fridicosa L., Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) Brit- 
ton, Conocarpus erecta L., Phyllantlms epiphyllanthtis L., Genipa clusicefolia 
(Jaeq.) Griseb., and an occasional clump of Uniola racemiftora Trin. 

Eunning north and south near the center of the island is an elevated 
ridge where the coppice is quite high for Eleuthera. The largest trees of this 
growth were Coccolobis laurifolia Jaeq., Biirsera simaruba (L.) Sarg., and 
Sideroxylon masticliodendron Jaeq., the latter reaching 30 feet in height with 
a base diameter of 2 feet. Metopium metopium (L.) Small (Poison-wood) 
was not seen at any point at this landing, and it is evidently rare in the 
northern part of Eleuthera. 

Near the base of the ridge on the western side were growing a number of 
specimens of the tall, columnar Pilocereus lanuginosa Eumpl., which we here 
saw for the first time.. 

Opposite the town the central ridge drops considerably into a slightly 
elevated, rocky plane, where the covering is of the low coppice type. Here 
occur Coccolobis laurifolia Jaeq. (Pigeon plum), Bumelia loranthifolia 
(Pierre) Britton (Milk plum), Fagara fagara (L.) Small (Wild lime). Bur- 
sera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (Gum-elemi), Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) Brit- 
ton (Blolly), Bumelia microphylla Griseb. (Ink-berry), Picrodendron baccatum 
bahamense Kr. and Urb., Ichthyometliia piscipula (L.) Hitch. (Dogwood), 
Pitliecolobium heyense Britton (Eam's horn). Acacia choriophylla Benth. (Cin- 
necord), and Ilcematoxylon campechianum L. (Logwood). The principal vines 
were Serjania subdentata (Juss.) Poir., Gouania domingensis L., and Partheno- 
cissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. In sandy places Lantana crocea Jaeq. and 
Lantana involucrata L. were abundant. The eastern shore is sandy and has the 
usual growth of such situations as Iva imbricata Walt., Coccolobis uvifera (L.) 
Jaeq., Cenchrus tribuloides L., Euphorbia buxifoUa L., etc. 

SPANISH WELLS, GEORGE ISLAND. 
The town of Spanish Wells is situated on a sandy plain which covers a 
considerable part of the south side of the island. The growth on this sand flat 
differs from that on any situation we have mentioned. It may be called the 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 337 

Lantana-C or chorus Association. It is in such soil that the cocoanut pahn pai- 
ticularly flourishes. Here grow Lantana crocea Jacq., Lantana involucrata 
L., Corcliorus liirsutus L., Baccharis dioica Vahh, Solarium havanense Jacq., 
Bumclia loranthifolia (Pierre) Britton, Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) 
Britton, Acacia choriophtjUa Benth., Chrysohalanus icaco L., Chrysohalanus 
fellocarpus Meyev, and the vines Jacquemontia jamaicensis (Jacq.) Ilall., 
and a species of CUtoria. The east sliore of the island is also sandy, and 
here were some low dunes covered with a scrubby growth. At places where 
these dunes were being encroached upon by the sea, the long, deep roots of 
Pithecolobium keyense Britton, Erithalis fruticosa L., Torrubia longifolia 
(Heimerl) Britton, Coccolobis uvifera (L.) Jacq., and Jacqtdnia keyense 
Mez were exposed. Other plants of the dunes were Corcliorus hirsutus L., 
Coccothnnax jucunda Sarg., Sccevola plumieri A^ahl., Ambrosia hispida 
Pursh, Uniola paniculata L., and Suriana maritima L. These dunes were 
about 10 feet in height, being the only ones of any consequence seen except 
those at Governors Harbor, Eleuthera. 

A visit of a few hours was made to the mainland of Eleuthera opposite 
George Island. Here a fine grove of cocoanut palms occupied a sandy 
inlet on the rocky shore. Among the cocoanuts the undergrowth was princi- 
pally Corchoi-us with a little Lantana, Euphorbia (Horse bean), etc. On the 
rocks behind this sand inlet was a low coppice of Sideroxylon mastichodcn- 
dron Jacq., Fagara fagara (L.) Small, Coccolobis laurifolia Jacq., Torrul^ia 
longifolia (Heimerl) Britton, Amyris elemifeiu L., and Bursera simaruba 
(L.) Sarg. Among these a few plants of Opuntia tuna Mill, were seen. No 
poison-wood was found either here or on George Island, while Byrsonima 
lucida (Sw.) DC. (Sweet margaret) and Duranda plumieri Jacq. (Wild 
bittersweet) were not noticed at any place on Eleuthera. 

GREGORY TOWN. ELEUTHERA. 

At this point the coast is rocky and precipitate on both sides of the 
island. From shore to shore the distance is about 3 miles, and near the 
eastern side the country is cut by a number of irregular ridges extending 
north and south. Landing at Gregory Town on the west side, we went 
across the island, passing first through pineapple fields on red soil behind 
the town. These fields were infested with the Leuccena glauca (L.) Benth. 
(Jumby bean), which is often a troublesome weed in such situations. Pass- 
ing the pineapples, we ascended the slope of a high ridge which was covered 



228 VEGETATION" 

with a low, dense growth of scrubs and trees. The most common species 
were Fagara fagara (L.) Small (Wild lime), Bourrevia havanensis (L.) 
Miers (Strong back), Bumclia microphylla Griseb. (Ink-berry), Reynosia 
septentrionalis Urban (Darling plum), Goccolohis laurifolia Jacq. (Pigeon 
plum), Eugenia confusa DC. (Stopper), Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (Gum- 
elemi). Acacia chonophyJIa Benth. (Cinnecord), Baccharis dioica Vahl. 
(Broom-bush), Torrubia longifolia. (Heimerl) Britton (Blolly), and Melo- 
chia tomentosa L. Here we passed for the first time a few plants of the 
beautiful, yellow-flowered Catesba;a spinosa L., which was afterwards found 
in great abundance at Clarence Harbor, Long Island. The principal vines 
among this scrubby gro\rth were Smilax beyrichii Kunth, J acquemontia 
jamaicensis (Jaeq.) Hall, Serjania diversifolia Eadlk., and a species of 'Passi- 
floj-a. 

On the flat top of the ridge were found, in addition to most of the 
plants just mentioned, occasional specimens of Iclitkyometlua piscipula (L.) 
Hitch, with its peculiar winged and jointed pods; also Lantana involucrata 
L., Fiffus sapotifolia Kunth & Benche, Tecoma baliamensis Northrop, with 
almost white flowers, Erlthalis fruticosa L., Xylosma ilicifolia ISTorthrop, 
and the spiny blue-flowered Antliacanthus acicularis K"ees., here first seen in 
bloom. 

On the top of the long, gentle slope descending eastward from the summit 
of«this ridge were considerable areas of hard, smooth rock, broken irregularly 
with deep depressions. Exposed to the full force of the sun and wind and 
absolutely bare of soil, except in the crevices, these rocks seemed nevertheless 
a paradise for vines, which covered them to the exclusion of all other growth. 
Here flourished Serjania diversifolia Eadlk., Cissus sicyoides L., Partheno- 
cissus quinqucfolia (L.) Planch., Galactia rudolpliioides (Griseb.) Benth. & 
Hook., Rhabdadenia biflora (Jaeq.) Mill., and Smilax beyrichii Kunth. In 
the deep depressions among these vine-clad rocks grew Bursera simaruba (L.) 
Sarg. ( Gum-el emi), Bumelm microphylla Griseb. (Ink-berry), and Fimis 
sapotifolia Kunth & Benche, while in the smaller crevices were stunted speci- 
mens of Phyllanthus epiphyllanthus L. (Hardhead) and Fagara fagara (L.) 
Small (Wild lime). 

The long eastern slope of the high ridge is broken about lialf-way down 
by a second smaller ridge, which rises to about 60 feet above the sea, and 
slopes gently down to the precipitate cliffs that form the shore. The type of 
growth that covers this eastern slope presents a different appearance from 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XL 




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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 339 

anj'tliing seen ou anj- of the other iskmds. It is a typical sca'ul); h)w, rigid 
and ahnost impenetrable. The conditions are extremely xerophytic and the 
growth in consequence is low and depauperate, rarely reaching a height of 
over 3 feet. There is no appreciable soil, the hard rock ringing like metal 
under foot. In spite of all discouragements, the covering was dense, forming 
an almost unbroken surface. It was composed principally of the following 
phints : Baccharis dioica Vahl. (Broom-busli). Croton eleuterea Sw. (Cas- 
carilla), Coccolohis laurifolia Jacq. (Pigeon plum), Phyllanthiis epiphyllan- 
tlms (L.) (Hardhead), Anthacanthus acicularis Nees., Lantana crocea Jacq., 
Laniana involucrata L., Acacia cJioriopliylla Benth. (Cinnecord), Bumclia 
microphylla Griseb. (Ink-berry), and Jacquiiiia keijensus Mez (Joe-bush). 
About 300 yards from the sea, where the ground Isecomes almost level, 
the growth is somewhat higher, and a few species not occurring on the 
hillside find a footing. Among them are Erithalis fruticosa L. (Black 
torch), Coccolohis laurifolia Jacq. (small-leaved Pigeon phim), and Burscra 
simaruha (L.) Sarg. (Gum-elemi). Here was beautifully shown the eifects 
of wind action on plant growth. The scrub was about 6 feet high, and 
formed a dense, canopied roof, open beneath. The trunks were naked and 
gnarled, often prostrate and rooting at intervals. Eising here and there 
from among the low growth on the hill slope appeared the great flower-shoots 
of Agave rigida Mill., some reaching a height of 35 feet (Plate XL, Pig. 1). 
Their appearance only accentuated the barrenness of the scene. 

For a distance of about 50 feet from the sharp edges of the rocky shore, 
the surface is entirely bare of vegetation; then begins to appear a little 
Suriana maritima L. and Borrichia glabra Small, which gradually collects 
itself into a more or less distinct line. Following this is a fringe of Rhaci- 
callis maritima (Jacq.) Schum., with Sesuvium portulacastrum L. creeping 
among it. It is peculiar that the Rhacicallis here appears behind and not in 
front of the Suriana and Borrichia. At one spot near the sea a depression 
in the rock of aboiit 100 yards in length and GO feet in breadth had become 
filled in with sand. The covering here formed a sharp contrast to that of the 
rocks. It consisted of beautiful areas of Uniola paniculata L., broken with 
dense patches of Hijmenocallis arenicola Northrop in full flower, with Euphor- 
bia buxifolia L. and Ipomwa pes-caprce L. creeping on the outskirts. A fine- 
growth of large and small Inodes pahnetto (Walt.) Cook (Thatch palms) 
formed a background to tlie lower growth. 



230 ■ VEGETATION" 

GOVERNORS HARBOR, ELEUTHBRA. 

Landing in the town on the west side of the island, the first thing of 
interest observed was a grove of Oasuarina trees under T\-hich were a great 
number of their seedling plants. These seedlings were most abundant in 
damp soil on the edge of a small, brackish marsh. The_y were the only young 
Gasuarinas that we saw during the trip. In only two other places had we 
noticed that Oasuarina had established itself uncultivated. These were on 
New Providence, where one or two small trees were seen on the south beach 
and near the margins of the salt marsh described in the treatment of that 
island. 

Passing over the usual ridge through the center of the island, we found 
on the eastern beach the best example of dunes that we met with in the Ba- 
hamas. These dunes, the highest of which were about 40 feet above the sea, 
are arranged in a broken series with slight depressions between them. They 
slope landward to a low meadow of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Kuntze (Bermuda 
grass), which passes easily into the rocky slope of the hills behind. The 
beach at the foot of the dunes is covered at high-tide mark by an association 
of Uniola paniculata L., Tournefortia gnaphalodes (Jacq.) E. Br., Iva imhri- 
cata Walt., and Cakile wqiialis L'Her. Behind these is a fringe of tall Suriana 
maritima L. with which is mixed a little Sahnea peirohioides Griseb. and 
Cenchrus tribuloides L. Ci/pcnts hrunneiis Sw., Cenchrus and Sahnea, to- 
gether with scattered individuals of Agave rigida Mill., cover the seaward 
slope of the dunes and their outer ridges are occupied by Uniola paniculata L., 
Cyperus hrunneus Sw., and fine beds of Hyinenocallis arenicola Northrop. 
The slight depression between the outer and inner ridges is filled with Setaria 
glauca (L.) Scribn., Cliloris petrcea Desv., Sahnea petrobioides Griseb., Agave 
rigida Mill., and Hyinenocallis arenicola Northrop, which is here even more 
abimdant than on the higher places. The tops of the inner ridges are covered 
with Cliloris peirwa Desv., Cyperus hrunneus Sw., Strum pfia maritima Jacq., 
Salmea petrobioides Griseb., Euphorbia buxifolia L., and the trailing Am- 
brosia hispida Pnrsh. Urechites andrewsii (Chapm.) Small, here low, bushy 
and scarcely trailing, is also rather abundant. The abrupt, landward slope 
of the dunes is furnished with an open growth of Setaria glauca (L.) Scribn., 
Cenchrus tribiiloides L., Leptilon canadense (L.) Britton, and Malpighia 
polytricha Juss. The latter is here very depauperate, and not over a foot and 
a half high. 

The growth on the western slope of the central elevation is not of the 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 331 

strongly xerophytic type mentioned above at Gregory Town, Imt is of the 
usual low coppice character. Here was growing a little Metopium melopium 
(L.) Small (Poison-wood), the first seen on Eleuthera, and a few specimens 
of Bunchosia glandulosa Eieh., a rare plant in the Bahamas; but the most 
abundant species were Lantana crocea Jacq., Lantwna involucraia L., Crolon 
lucidus L., Fagara fagara (L.) Small, Bumelia microphylla Griseb., Melochia 
tomentosa L., Erithalis fruticosa L., and the vines Croton lucidus L., Smilax 
beyrichii Kunth, and Jacqucmontia jamaicensis (Jacq.) Hall. Helicteres 
spiralis Northrop was also found here for the first time since leaving New 
Providence. 

Along the side of the road, at the top of the ridge, was a good deal of a 
little mint, Scutellaria longiflora Small, that has just been described by Dr. 
Small from south Florida. It, of course, had not before been reported from 
the Bahamas, and is now -known only from south Florida and from this point. 

TARPUM BAY, ELEUTHERA. 

Extending back from the town for several miles is a flat, rocky plain, 
p^hich is bounded on the west by a range of hills. This plain was extremely 
dry at the time we were there, but the vegetation showed little signs of suifer- 
ing from lack of water. We found here a number of plants not before seen, 
among them being Cardiospermum helicacaiium L., Teucrium auhense L., 
and Cassia aspera Mich. The jDrincipal trees and scrubs that formed the 
rather low coppice of the flat plain were Eugenia confusa DC, Acacia chorio- 
pliylla Benth., Croton lucidus L., Fagara fagara (L.) Small, Lantana involu- 
craia L., Pithecolobium keyense Britton, Tecoma baliamense Northrop, Cor- 
cliorus hirsutus L., Torruhia coJeeri Britton, Coccoloiis laurifoUa Jacq., 
Bourreria havanensis (L.) Miers, and Phyllanthv^ epiphyllanthus L. The 
following were less abmidant: Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg., IcMliyomethia 
piscipida (L.) Hitch., Metopium metopium (L.) Small, and the plants men- 
tioned above as here first collected. The principal vines were Jacqitfviontia 
jamaicensis (Jacq.) Hall, Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch., and a 
species of Sorjania. Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) S. Kurz (Live-forever) 
was very abundant and from its fallen leaves were growing a number of young 
plants. 

The banana-holes that occurred here and there in the rocky plain showed 
a type of vegetation in every respect different from the ordinary level. The 
contrast was about as marked as if a tub of waterlilies were set anions; a bed 



333 VEGETATION 

of Agaves. In one such banana-hole, about 30 feet across, grew Anona palus- 
tris L. (Custard-apiDle), Ficus sapotifolia Ivuntli & Benche, Picramnia- pen- 
tandra Sw. (Snake root), here 15 feet in height Psijchotria uiidata Jaeq. and 
Cladium efusum Torr. Attached to the sides of the deijression, beneath its 
overhanging edges, flourished Adiantum melanolucum Willd., Odontosoria 
davata Sw., and other ferns. 

POWELLS POINT, ELEUTHERA. 

The beach at this point is sandj', with rocks projecting at intervals. Be- 
liind the beach is a sliglitlj' elevated, sandy plain, which extends for about 
100 yards and is then interrupted by an extensive mangrove marsh. At oiie 
end of this marsh, where the water is shallow, there was a dense, almost pure 
growth of Eleocharis celhdosa Torr., which occupies an area of about 100 by 50 
yards and is unbroken except for occasional clumps of mangrove. This was 
the first time we had noticed this sedge, but it was found again in a similar 
situation at Arthurs Town, Cat Island. On the hills behind the swamp 
mahogany and mastic were conspicuous. 

In the sandy jjlain, above mentioned, grew a number of small specimens of 
the Cyclospathe northropi Cook (Hog-cabbage palm), here first seen. Along 
the shore, just behind the usual beach plants, was a dense thicket, the outer 
face of which was sheared by the wind into a slope leading from the ground 
to a height of about 6 feet. The most noticeable peculiarity of this coppice 
was the grouping of its different plants into almost pure association, which 
followed each other not from without inward, but along the beach. A pure 
growth of Reynosia septentrionaUs Urban (Darling plum) would be suc- 
ceeded by an equally pure growth of Pithecolobmm Jceyense Britton (Eam's 
horn) ; this by Acacia clioriopliylJa Benth. (Cinnecord), and this by Eugenia 
buxifolia (Sw.) Willd. The area occupied by each was sometimes as much as 
30 feet. This was the only place in the Bahama Islands where we found 
coppice plants of a single species forming clumps of any extent uninterrupted 
by other forms. In fact, the mixed character of tropical vegetation and the 
almost entire absence of extensive bodies of single species, is one of the most 
striking and remarkable differences that it presents to our temperate grofl'th. 
The conspicuousness of this characteristic is well shown by the giving of the 
name " Family Wood " to Coccolobis Icrugii Lindau in Watlings Island because 
it occasionally forms small areas without admixture with other plants. As one 
passes through a typical Bahama coppice, different plants are met with at every 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 333 

step. The variety seems interminable and on first acquaintance one is appalled 
with the difficult}' of becoming acquainted with them. 

ARTHURS TOWN, CAT ISLAND. 

The general configuration of the land is similar to that at Tarpum Bay, 
and a wide, flat plain stretches inward from the western side. About 1 mile 
from the shore there are a series of small fresh-water pools, where we found 
many things to interest us. Utricularia was here first seen on the Islands, as 
was also the beautiful waterlily, Castalia ampla (DC.) Green, not before 
reported from the Bahamas, which dotted the water with pure white flowers. 
Along the edges of the pools grew the two attractive little plants Spigelia 
anthehma L. and Sabhatia campaniilata (It.) Britton, with Centella repanda 
(Pers.) Small, a species of Polygonum, and several of the Onogracece. None 
of these plants is often met with in the Bahamas, as they indicate fresh water, 
and fresh water is exceedingly hard to find in these Islands. Myrica cerifera L. 
and Inodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook (Thatch palm), which are also fond of 
fresh water, were not uncommon here. 

The rocky plain was covered with about the same sort of growth as that 
described from Tarpum Bay. Here we saw the scrub Bonamia cubana A. Eich., 
a remarkable member of the Euphorhiacece, not before reported out of 
Cuba. A large specimen of Ficus irevifolia Nutt., 40 feet in height, was 
passed near the town; from its trunk and branches hung great quantities of 
small and matted aerial roots. 

In a long, brackish marsh a few hundred feet behind the beach was a 
fine association of Typha domingensis Pers. and the sedge EJrocharis cellulosa 
Torr. mentioned from Powells Point. Except at this place, Typha was seen 
only on New Providence, where it is abundant at Lake Killarney. 

Epiphytes were rather common in the coppice cover of the rocky plain. 
Tillandsia idriculata L. with flower stalks about three feet high was most 
conspicuous. One thatch palm was particularly attractive with its covering 
of ferns and yellow orchids. 

PORT NELSON, RUM CAY. 

The town is situated on a sandy level which passing westward into a low. 

damp flat, finally sinks into a mangrove marsh. Near the shore were vigorous 

specimens of Mimusops sieberi A. DC. (Wild sapodilla), 20 feet high, the 

largest that we met with. Here also grew a number of maho2;any trees, 3.5 feet 



234 VEGETATION 

in height. The sandy plain just mentioned is covered with Chloris harljaia 
JSTash., Setaria glauca (L.) Scribn., Ipomcea pes-caprce Sw., Oanavalia obtusi- 
folia (Lam.) DC, Cassia bahamensis MilL, Baccharis dioica Vahl., Torrubia 
longifolia (Heimerl) Britton, Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass., Bitmelia loranthi- 
folia (Pierre) Britton (here called Wild resin), Melochia tomentosa L., and 
Bourreria havanensis (L.) Miers; with the vines Rhabdadeiiia biflora (Jacq.) 
Mill, and Urechites andrewsii (Chapm.) Small. Colubrina colubrina (L.) 
Small (Wild coffee), not before seen except on Green Cay, was also rather 
abundant. It formed a spreading tree, about 13 feet high, that gave a dense 
shade. Here also we first met with the Opuntia triacaiitha DC. (Dildo cactus), 
with small purple flowers and very sharp spines. Opuntia tuna Mill., with yel- 
low flowers, was also scattered about. These Opuntias and the Colubrina ex- 
tended to the top of the ridge which ran along southern-eastern shore. On the 
top of this ridge, among tlie hard, smooth roclfs, we found Gossypium barba- 
dense L. (Cotton) growing wild. Its bolls had opened and the white lint was 
produced in abundance. Here on top and down the eastern slope grew Agave 
rigida i\Iil]., Plumiera obtusa L., Metopium nietopium (L.) Small (Poison- 
wood), and Guaiacum sanctum L. (Lignum vitae), all of low, stunted habit. 
Here we first found Guettardia scahra Vent. In addition to these there were, 
of course, the plants more ordinarily found in such situations, sucli as Bumelia 
loranthifolia (Pierre) Britton (Milk plum), Beynosia septentrionalis Urban 
(Darling plum), and Bumelia microphylla G-riseb. (Ink-berry). This ridge 
extends in a semicircle, enclosing to the eastward a flat plain that seemed to have 
been culti\'ated in part. The vegetation of the enclosed plain was of a distinctly 
different type from that on the ridge. There was little shrubbery, but weeds 
and grasses were abundant. Bidens leucantha Willd., Abena jamaicensis (L.) 
Hitch., Leptilon canadense (L.) Britton, Phiilhiitlms niruri L., Turnera ulmi- 
folia L., Chloris petrcea Desv., Cenchrus tribuloides L., Evolvulus arbusculus 
Poir., 8ida carpinifolia L., and Sabnca petrobioides Griseb. were all abundant. 
The principal scrubs were Lantana crocea Jacq., Lantana involucrata L., 
Cassia, bahamensis Mill., Melochia tomentosa L., Baccharis dioica Vahl., Cor- 
chonis Irirsutus L., and Pithecolobivm kcyense Britton. 

Behind the hills on the northeast side of the cay is a large salt-water 
pond whose immediate. margins are clothed with a dense jungle of Rhizophora 
mangle L., which varies from a few feet to many feet in width. Behind this 
is a slightly less dense association of Conocarpus, Laguncularia and Avicennia. 
Growing among them we found, to our amazement, the Calonyction bona-nox 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XLI 





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THE BAHAJCA ISLANDS 235 

(L.) Small (Moon flower) of our gardens. Within this association are open 
places of various sizes where the gronncl is composed of soft, white mud that 
is so extremely salt and barren as to be in some places entirely devoid of 
vegetation. Avicennia, low and depauperate, extends farthest into these mud 
flats. The individual plants are widely scattered, but their aerial roots project 
thickly out of the ground. Among them, but extending not quite so far in, 
grows the grass Sporobolus virginicus Kunth, wliicli next to the Avicennia is 
probably the most salt-resisting plant in the Bahamas. Salicornia, nnibigua 
Michx. is in many places mixed with the grass, or either may occur in pure 
association. Sesuvium ■portulacastrum L. is often found among the Salicomia, 
or just behind it. This flat marsli rises very gradually towards the west and 
as conditions become a little less hard, Baccharis dioica Vahl. makes its appear- 
ance and soon gets to be abundant. Next appears the Dodoncea viscosa L. 
(Candlewood), with its winged pods; then Pithecolobium Iceyense Britton 
(Ram's horn), Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) Britton (Blolly), and Reynosia 
septentrionalis Urban (Darling plum). About the point where the latter ap- 
pear, the flat plain that we have previously described begins. 

Fine specimens of the hog-cabbage palm are said to grow on the northern 
edge of the island, but as we were ashore but a few hours we had no time to 
look for it. 

WATLINGS ISLAND. 
Beginning with the beach, we shall describe the vegetation met with as 
one passes directly eastward from C'ocklnirn Town across the island until the 
second large lake about 6 miles inward is reached. Further than this we did 
not go. For the sake of convenience the plants will be described under the 
different formations and associations that were included in this range. 
Beginning then with the beach on the western side, we have first : 
The Sakd-strand Formation. — This may be divided here into four 
plant associations, as follows : 

1. Tournefortia-Suriana Association. — This 'occupies the rocky or sandy 
ledge that runs along the beach at high-tide mark. The rock here is not hard, 
but soft and generally covered with sand. The association is but a few feet 
wide and, beside Tourncfortia and Buriana, contains scarcely any other plants, 
except a little trailing Ambrosia liispida Pursh. Behind this ledge there is a 
sandy flat of about 20 feet in width which is covered by the following : 

2. DisticMis- Ambrosia Association. — The two plants, Distichlis niariliiiia 



236 VEGETATION 

Eaf. and Ambivsid hispida Pursh, form almost the entire covering of this 
area. There is very little shrubbery, but in some places the peculiar beach 
form of Erithalis fruticosa L. (Black torch) spreads its procumbent branches 
on the ground. 

3. The Cocoa-plum Association. — This occupies the rounded sandy eleva- 
tion immediately behind the flat area of the above. It is about 25 feet wide 
and is composed almost entirely of the two species of Chrysohalanus fellocarims 
Meyer (Cocoa plum) and Chrysobalanus icaco L., which for long distances 
may be entirely pure. Scattered individuals of Coccolobis uvifeva (L.) Jacq., 
Ilex hrugiaiia Loes., Ernodea liUoralis Sw., Genipa clusicefolia (Jacq.) G-riseb., 
Metopium metopium (L.) Small (Poison-wood), Reynosia septentrionalis Ur- 
ban (Darling plum), and Eugenia confusa DC. (Stopper) appear in this 
association, but they do not form a conspicuous part of the covering. On the 
landward slope of this elevation the next association appears. 

4. Inodes-Lantana Association. — The Inodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook 
(Thatch palms) here form a very distinct line that may be seen in Plate XLIII, 
Fig. 1. They are 20 to 25 feet high, and extend somewhat into the next for- 
mation. Among them grow Lantanas, Phyllantlms epiphyllanthus L., Clitoris 
petrcea Desv., Cenchrus tribuloides L., and a little of the half-prostrate Dal- 
bergia ecastropJiyllum (L.) Taub. 

Fkesh-marsii Formation. — At the foot of the sand slope there is a long, 
narrow fresh marsh, generally not over 20 or 30 feet in width. In places 
there is standing water, but often the soil is merely damp. The paljns extend 
into this formation only in dry places, and not abundantly. In the deeper 
pools grows Typlia domingensis Pers., while in shallower water and on the wet 
margins are dense, pure associations of Eloocharis cellulosa Torr. The deli- 
cate little trailing Monniera monniera (L.) Britton also occurs around the 
water, where it is often mixed with Lithopliila verm.icularis (L.) Uline. Scat- 
tered here and there in this formation was a tall grass 8 or 10 feet high, which,' 
not being in flower, we have not been able to identify. At one place in the 
marsh to the north of the town we found a black-fruited Chrysobalanus fello- 
carpvs Meyer (Cocoa plum), 25 feet high and 14 inches in diameter — a size 
most unusual for this species. 

CoNOCARPDS-FLAT FORMATION. — This extends backward from the marsli 
for several hundred yards. The ground is of honeycomb rock with water in 
the depressions, and is covered with an almost pure association of Conocarpus 
erecta sericea Fors. This wet area slowly rises into a long, gentle slope, which 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 237 

culminates about three-quarters of a milo from the town and then gently 
slopes again to another Conocarpus-fiat behind the western lake. 

Low-coppice Formation. — This covers the elevation just mentioned, 
which follows the Conocarpus-flat. The growth, which is not often more than 
8 or 10 feet high, is composed principally of the following species: Croton 
lucidus L., Amyris ehmifera L. (White torch), Calliandra hcematomma Benth., 
Erithalis fruticosaJj. (Black torch) , Bou7-reria havanensis (L.) Miers (Strong- 
back), Goccoloiis laurifolia Jacq. (Pigeon plum), Rapania guyanensis Aubl. 
(Beef-wood), Reynosia septentrionalis Urban (Darling plum), Bumelia micro- 
phylla Griseb. (Ink-berry), Mimusops sieberi A. DC. (Wild sapodilla), MpAo- 
pmm metopium (L.) Small (Poison -wood), ChytracuUa pallens (Griseb.) 
Britton (Spice-wood), Coccolobis l-nigii Lindau (Family-wood), Pliilanthus 
myrtilloides Griseb. (Boar black torch), Exostemma carihmum (Jacq.) E. & S. 
(Prince-wood), Buxus bahamensis Baker (Crispy-wood), Eugenia, confusa DC. 
(Stopper), Ilex hrugiana Loes, Eugenia huxifolia (Sw.) Willd. (White head), 
Mayteniis buxifoUa (Eich.) Griseb., Byrsonima lucida (Sw.) DC. (Sweet mar- 
garet), and Gymnanthes lucida Sw. This formation passes eastward into the 
low, rocky marsh described below. 

Conocarpds-mangeove Foemation. — Here the growth is not dense and 
is generally about 8 feet high. Except near the lake shore, the growth is pure 
Conocarpus, but on the water's edge is a dense fringe of Rhizophora mangle L. 
At certain places behind this mangrove, Avicennia nitida Jacq. reaches a size 
not approached at any other point visited. It is 50 feet high and 3 feet in 
diameter at base. Beneath these trees the soil is a soft, black mud, through 
which innmnerable aerial roots protrude. On sandy margins of the lake we 
found for the first time the Hippomane niancinclla L. (Manchineel) of evil 
repute. Here also was Balis maritima L., a low, succulent plant growing in 
scattered clumps, and LitJwphylla vermicularis (L.) Uline. 

The water of the lake was very clear and in most places not over 4 or 5 
feet deep. Acetabidaiia grew in the greatest abundance on its rockv floor, and 
Ruppia maritima L. was also plentiful. The water here is as salt as that of 
the sea, with which it no doubt has underground connection, as it rises and 
falls with the tides. 

High-coppice Formation. — This small lake connects by a narrow channel 
with a larger lake east of it from which it is separated at most places by a 
sharp ridge. On this elevation was a coppice growth of larger size than any 
so far described for the island. Here grow fine spreading specimens of 



238 VEGETATION 

Guaiacum sanctum L. (Lignum vita?), 18 feet high; also a si^eeies of fig, 
Metopium metopium (L.) Small (Poison-wood), Gymnantlies lucida Sw. 
(Crab-wood), Bowreria havanensis (L.) Miers (Strong-back), Coccolobis 
laurifolia Jacq. (Pigeon plum), Ichthyomethia piscipula (L.) Hitch. (Dog- 
wood), Bursera simariiha (L.) Sarg. ( Gii ni-elenii ) , Acacia clioriopliylla 
Benth., Tecoma iaiiamensis Northrop, TJiouinia discolor Griseb., Citharexy- 
lum quadrangulare Jacq., Cldococca parvifolia Willd., Bumelia microphylla 
Griseb. (Ink-berry), Lantanas, Oajanus cajan (L.) Millsp., with the vines 
Smilax heyrichii Kiinth, and Serjania subdentata (Juss.) Poir. Here also 
grew Thrinax bahamensis Cook (Goat palm) in more or less abundance. On 
a small cay in the large central lake was a magnificent grove of Rhizopliora 
mangle L., which reached a height of 30 feet. In its branches the black 
cormorants were building in great number. 

The large central lake is bounded on the west by another high and 
broader ridge. Its covering is very much like that of the other ridge just 
described. The cohimnar Pilocereus lanuginosa Rumpl. occurred here, as 
did also Opuiitia tuna Mill. From the western base of this ridge there 
extends another rocky Conocarpus-flat like that already described, which is 
bounded eastward by a third salt lake. In the Conocarpus-flat, near the lake, 
was growing a good deal of Vanilla articulata Northrop, climbing up into the 
Oonocarpus. On the sandy shore grew manchineel again, with the goat 
palm and Gonocarpus. 

About one-half mile iiorth of Cockburn Town there are along the beacli 
some low sand dunes where Goccothrinax jucunda Sarg. (Silver palm) is 
abundant. The gentle, landward slope of these dunes supports a low, scrubby 
growth of such typical sand-growing plants as Solanum baJiamense L.. Tur- 
nera ulmifolia L. (here called "Buttercup"), Plucliea fwtida (L.) B. S. P., 
Baccharis dioica A^ahl., Petitia pwppigii Schan., Ernodca littoraUs Sw., Genipa 
clumfolia (Jacq.) Gviseh. , Phyllanthvs cpiphyllantli.us h. (Hard-head), Pti/ic- 
colobium heyense Britton (Ram's horn), Cassia species, Eugenia confusa DC. 
(Stopper), with the Yines Rhahdadenia hi/iora (Jacq.) Mill., Urechites andreiu- 
sii (Chapm.) Small, Smilax beyrichii Kunth, Jacquemoniia, jamaicensis 
(Jacq.) Hall, species of Passifl.ora. and the trailing, parasitic Gassytha. 
Chloris petrcea Desv., Setaria glauca (L. ) Scribn., and Genchrus tribuloides 
L. were the principal grasses here. As this slope approaches the fresh-water 
marsh, there appeared distinct associations, almost piire, in series as follows: 
(1) Plucliea odorata (L.) Cass.; (3) Lippia species; (3) Cladium effusum 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 339 

Ton-.; (4) I nodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook; then comes the narrow fresh-water 
marsh, followed by the Conocarpus-flats already described. A little further 
north from this point the fringe of Cladium effusuin Torr. widens ont into a 
beautiful flat about one-half mile wide, where the Cladium grows tliickly 
and in pure association. 

CLARENCE HARBOR, LONG ISLAND. 
At this point we found much to interest us. Two ranges of hills begin 
here and extend northwestward, one about a mile from the north shore, the 
other close to the south shore. Between them is a roclvy plain about 2 miles 
wide which, behind the town, extends uninterruptedly across the island. On 
this plain the conditions are extremely xerophytic, but most so in the part 
lying nearest the settlement. Here were growing considerable thickets of 
Fagara fagara (L.) Small (Wild lime) and Catesbcea spinosa L., reminding 
one in their appearance of the thickets of Chickasaw plum, common around 
settlements in the southern United States. The Gateshma was here seen for the 
second time. It was heavily loaded with fruit and showed but few flowers. 
Other abundant plants in this area were Bumelia microphylla Griseb., Croton 
linearis Jacq., Cordia bahamensis Urban, Cordia globosa (L.) H. B. K. (here 
first met with), Melochia tomentosa L., Cordia cylindrostachya II. & P., 
Bovrreria havanensis (L.) Miers, Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) Britton, 
with the smaller herbaceous plants, Heliotr opium parviflorum L., Sida car- 
pinifolia L., Bidens leucantlia Willd., and Clitoris barbata Nash. On the 
north slope of the line of hills nearest the town, the conditions are also 
extremely xerophytic. Here was a low growth resembling somewhat that 
found at Gregory Town, Eleuthera, but not so regular and low. The con- 
stituents of this scrub were, however, not the same as at Gregory Town. The 
most abundant plants were Lantana involucrata L., Erithatis fruticosa L., 
Pithecolobium heyense Britton, Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp., T&coma baha- 
mensis Northrop, Psychotria undata Jacq. (here a low scrub 2 feet and 6 
inches high), Reynosia septentrionalis Urban, Eugenia confusa DC, Eugenia 
buxifolia (Sw.) Willd., Tetrazygia bicolor (Mill.) Cogn., Croton longifolia, 
Phyllanthus epiphyllanthus L., with the vines Smilax beyrichii Kimth, Jacquc- 
montia jamaicensis (Jacq.) Hall, and Stigmatophyllon sagrceanum Jiiss. 
Growing on the ground, on this hillside, we found the rare fungus, Dijilorystis 
wriglitii B. & C, a member of the Lycoperdinece. Near the top of the hill 
were fine specimens of Pilocereus lanuginosa Eunipl., mentioned above from 
Current Town, Eleuthera, and Watlings Island. 



240 VEGETATION 

Passing northward from the town along the coast and then turning to 
the left and ascending the hill, we came to an old field covered with an 
extremely dense growth of Leuccena glauca (L.) Benth. (Jumby bean) and 
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. (Stinking pea) in almost pure association. The 
tops of the plants, which were about 7 feet and 6 inches high, formed an almost 
level floor. On the top of the ridge beyond this field there is a rather high 
coppice composed largely of different species from those so far mentioned 
from this point. The most abundant constituents of the higher growth were 
Lysiloma bahamensis Benth. (Wild tamarind), Rapania guyanensis Aubl. 
(Beef-wood), Guaiacum sanctum L. (Lignum vitffi), Krugiodendron ferreum 
(Vahl.) Urban (Iron-wood), Erythroxylon brevipes DC. (Sareto), Tetrazygia 
hicolor (Mill.) Cogn. (Wild giiava), Tccoma baha-mensis 'Rovthio]), Ccesalpinia 
vesicaria L. (Braziletto), Fagara flwva (Vahl.) Kr. & Urb. (Yellow-wood), 
Reynosia, septeiitrionalis Urban, Amyris elemifera L. (White torch), Gym- 
nanthes liicida Sv,'. (Cmh-vfood.) , Maytenus buxifolia (Eich.) Griseb. (Spoon- 
wood), Hypelate trifoliata Sw. (Eed-wood), Exostemma caribosum (Jacq.) E. & 
S. (Prince-wood), Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) Britton (Blolly), and Bur- 
sera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (Gum-elemi). The height of these trees is about 15 
to 20 feet. In nearly all cases the bark of the trunks was white from crus- 
taceous lichens. In fact, it was hard to find a square inch of bark that was not 
covered with these lichens. The trunk of the gum-elemi is an exception. 
Its habit of defoliating its bark in thin, papery sheets prevents the lichens 
from securing a foothold. As a consequence, its red trunks show in sharp 
contrast among the white ones of its neighbors. The wild guava is peculiar 
in having white bark that is natural and not due to a covering of lichens. 
This is true also, by the way, of Jacquinia keyensis Mez (Joe-bush), and to a 
less extent of Coccoloiis laurifolia Jacq. (Pigeon plum). The undergrowth 
of the above coppice consists principally of Fagara fagara (L.) Small (Wild 
lime), Catesbece spinosa L., Fagara coriacea (A. Eich.) Kr. & Urb. (Doc- 
tor's club), Bumelia microphylla Griseb., Bunchosia glendulosa Eich., Erithalis 
fruticosa L. (Black torch), Chiococca parvifolia WuUschl., Cordia bahamensis 
Urban, Phyllanthus epiphyllanthus L. (Hard-head), and Croton longifolia. 
The vines Triopteris rigida Sw., Smilax beyrichii Knnth, and Jacquemontia 
jamaicensis (Jacq.) Hall were also abundant. 

It will be observed that the growth in this coppice differs from any that 
have been before described. It possesses, on the one hand, the character of 
the low xerophytic condition, and on the other, the peculiarities of what we 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XLII 




Fig. 1. VEGETATION ON ROCKY COAST, NEW PROVIDENCE 




Fig. 2. — vegetation on sandy shore, new providence 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING VEGETATION 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 241 

have called the high coppice wliere moisture is more plentiful. It may 
perhaps be explained from the dry conditions being here modified by an un- 
usually productive soil, for the soil is of red loam, which is the most fertile 
on the Islands. 

On the opposite side of the island from the town we found several hog- 
cabbage palms growing in a thick coppice of R&ynosia septentrionalis Urban 
(Darling plum). This was the third time we had seen the hog-cabbage palm, 
and nowhere was it large. 

WHICH POINT, ABACO. 

The shore at this point was rocky and sandy. In addition to the usual 
beach, plants, such as Suriana maritima L., Salmea petrohioides Griseb., 
Tournefortiw gnaphalodes (Jacq.) E. Br., Uniola paniculaia L., Iva imbri- 
cata Walt., Distichlis maritima Eaf., Cenchrus tribuloides L., Ambrosia hispida 
Pursh, Hymeiiocallis arenicola ISTorthrop, and Ipomcea pes-caprce L., etc., we 
found here for the second time the new Eupliorbia with whitish leaves (Euphor- 
bia cayensis Millsp.), first collected from Enm Cay. On the low, narrow sand 
ridge just liack of the beach grew an abundance of Dodonwa viscosa L., men- 
tioned above from Eum Cay, and a little Ichthyomethia piscipula (L.) Hitch. 
(Dog- wood), neither of which had before been seen in such a situation. In ad- 
dition to these, the principal plants of this elevation were Cassia choriophylla 
(Cinnecord), Ernodea littoralis Sw., Bourreria havanensis (L.) Miers 
(Strong-back), Jacquinia l-eyensis Mez (Joe-wood), Erithalis friiticosa L. 
(Black torch), Bumelia loranthifolia (Pierre) Britton (Milk plum), G&nipa 
clusicefolia (Jacq.) Griseb., Tetrazygia bicolor (Mill.) Cogn., Torrubia longi- 
folia (Heimerl) Britton, Swietenia mahogani L. (i\Iahogany), Fagara coriacea 
(Yellow-wood), and Cassytha filiformis L. Junipcrus barbadensis L. (Cedar) 
was not seen here, but occurred sparingly farther inland. Behind tlie beach 
was a Conocarpus-flat of the usual character, and this was followed by the 
extensive pine-barrens, which occupy a large part of the island. The ground 
in these barrens was covered with a dense, tangled growth of Pteridium cau- 
datum (L.) Kuhn (Maypole fern) from 4 to 6 feet high. This growth we 
found more difficult to penetrate tlian any we had met with. Our progress 
could hardly be called walking, and it took us about an hour to pass a half 
mile into it. This extraordinarily dense growth of fern was no doubt partly 
to be accounted for by the repeated burnings to which the forest had been sub- 
jected in order to facilitate the hunting of wild hogs. Plate XXXVTI, Fig. 2, 

16 



342 VEGETATION 

gives an idea of the conditions liere. Among the pines the following scmbs 
or trees were observed : Tetrazygia hicolor (Mill.) Cogn. (Wild gnava), Cordia 
bahamensis Urban, Iclitliyomctliia piscipula (L.) Hitch. (Dogwood), Bursera 
simaruha (L.) Sarg. (Gnm-elemi), Metopium metopium (L.) Small (Poison- 
wood), Swietenia mahogani L. (Mahogany), Tecoma lahamensis ISTorthrop, 
Bumelia micropliylla Griseb. (Ink-berry), Acacia choriophylla Benth. (Cinne- 
cord), Antliacanthus acicularis ISTees., Duranta repens L. (Bitter-sweet), Erno- 
dea littoraUs Sw., Myrica cerifera L., Willuglibceya heterophylla Small, Rajania 
hastata Ivunth, Byrsonima lucida (Sw.) DC. (Sweet margaret), Erythroxylon 
brevipes DC. (Sareto), Morinda roioc L., Ilypelaie trifoliata Sw. (Red-wood), 
Bourreria havanensis (L.) Miers. (Strong-back), Exothea panicidata (Jnss.) 
Eadlk. (Butter-bough), Vcrnonia bahamensis Griseb., Gymnanihes lucida Sw. 
(Crab-wood), Eugenia buxifolia (Sw.) Willd., Entlialis fruticosa L. (Black 
torch), Rapania guyanensis Aubl. (Beef -wood), and Coccolobis laurifolia Jacq. 
(Pigeon plum). Beneath the ferns was found the new species of Ernodea 
(Ernodea coheri Britton), with much more delicate leaves than the common 
Ernodea littoraUs Sw. Here also was found Galium hispidulum Mich., first 
collected from the Bahama Islands. 

At certain places the Conocarpus-flat was bordered with an association of 
Aster tenuif alius L. and Blsticlilis maritima Raf., mixed in places with a little 
Salicornia ambigua Michx., resembling, with the exception of the Salicornia, 
the association already mentioned on the border of a brackish pond in New 
Providence. In the coppice behind this association grew Swietenia mahogani 
L. (Mahogany), Bumelia loranthifoUa (Pierre) Britton (Milk plum), and a 
little, scattered Juniperus barbadensis L. The milk plum was here the 
highest seen, reaching 12 feet, with a diameter of 9 inches. Epidendrum 
fucatum Lindl. (Yellow orchid) and Phorodendron spatliulifolium Kr. & Urb. 
were abundant on the trees, the mistletoe showing its usual preference for 
mahogany. 

LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED. 

* Names preceded by an asterisk indicate that the species was collected for the 
first time in the Bahamas by the Botanical corps of the Bahama Expedition. 

MYXOMYCETES.'= 
*PUysarum compressum A. & S. Dr. Farlow says: " This specimen is interesting 

as being a form of the species noted in the tropics by Lister, but although not 

quite the northern form, still not specifically distinct." 
*Physarum globuUferum (Bull.) Pers. 



'' Determined by Dr. W. G. Farlow. All collected at Mangrove Cav. Andros. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 243 

*Physaru7n viricle Pers. 

*Didymmm sqtiamulosum (A. & S.) Fr. (D. effusum Link). 

*Dictydium cancellatum (Batsch.) Macbricle (D. umMlicatuvi Schrad.). A widely 
distributed species. 

*Arc.yria punicea Pers. 

*Arcyria arstedtii Rostf. (?). Dr. Farlow remarks of tlie above tliat " it answers 
to descriptions of Arcyria arstedtii Rostf. in most respects, but the capillitium 
is not tlie same as in specimens of tliat species. It may be new." 

* Arcyria cinerea (Ball.) Pers. {A. aJbicla Pers.). 

*Heniitrichia clavata (Pers.) Rostf. 

*Lycogola epidendron (L.) Fr. 

*8temonitis lierliatica. Dr. Farlow says of this: " It resembles in some respects 
yS. herbatica Peck, and also S. smithei Macbr.. but as far as can be told from 
the specimens, the spores have not the ferruginous color of the latter species." 



SCHIZOPHYCEiE. " 

Gleocapsa sp. On damp rocks, Mt. Vernon, Nassau. 

Nostoc commune Vauch. On bare rocks, Mt. Vernon, Nassau. Cosmopolitan. 

Scytonema sp. Lichenised. On bare rocks, Mt. Vernon, Nassau. 

Calothrix (rruginea Bornet. On floating Sargassum, Atlantic Ocean off South Caro- 
lina. Cosmopolitan. 

Lyngbya majusciila (Dillw.) Harv. Eleuthera opposite Current Settlement. Cos- 
mopolitan. Determined by Dr. M. A. Howe. 

CONJUGATiE. 

Spirogyra rivulai-is var. minor Hansg. In a rock hole, Killarney barrens. New 
Providence; Europe. Determined by Mr. F. S. Collins. 

CONFERVALES. 

Trentepolia aurea (L.) Mart. On trees and rocks, Soldiers road, Nassau. Deter- 
mined by Dr. M. A. Howe. 

RUizoclonium ripariitm var. implextim (Dillw.) Rosenw. In a brackish pool, Mt. 
Vernon, Nassau. Exposed at low tide. Cosmopolitan. Determined by Mr. 
F. S. Collins. 

SlPHONEiE." 

Bryopsis plumosa (Huds.) Ag. Rocks, west shore of Eleuthera, opposite Current 
Settlement. 

Caulerpa racemosa uvifera (Turn.) J. Ag. West shore of Eleuthera, Current Settle- 
ment. 

Oaulerpa cupressoides ericifoKa (Turn.) Web.-v. Bosse. Little Mangrove Cay, 
Andros. 

Caulerpa paspaloides (Bory) Grev. Green Cay. Dredged in 4 fathoms. 

*Caiilerpa compressa (Web.-v. Bosse) Howe. Clarence Harbor, Long Island. In 
4 feet of water. This species has been described from our material by Dr. 
M. A. Howe in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, Vol. XXXI, 1904, pp. 93-94. 

Aurainvillia longicaulis (Kuetz.) Marr. & Bood. 

" Determined, except the last, by Mr. F. S. Collins. 

'^ Determined by Dr. M. A. Howe. 

f It is not known exactly how many Algaa are new to the Bahamas. 



844 VEGETATION 

Aurainvillia nigricans Dene. West shore of Eleutliera, opposite Current Settlement. 
PeniciUus capitatus Lamarck var. The typical form has a longer stalk and rounder 

head. Mangrove Cay, Andros. 
*Rhipocephalus pJimnix (Ell. & Soland.) Kuetz. Mangrove Cay, Andros. This species 

has been discussed by Dr. M. A. Howe in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, Vol. XXXI, 

1904, p. 94. 
XJdotea conghitinata (Ell. & Soland.) Lamour. Mangrove Cay, Andros; Green Cay. 

Dredged in 4 fathoms. 
Halimeda tridens (Ell. & Soland.) Lamour. Mangrove Cay, Andros; Green Cay. 

Dredged in 4 fathoms. 
Halimeda tuna (Ell. & Soland.) Lamour. West shore of Eleuthera, opposite Cur- 
rent Settlement. 
Codium tomentosum (Huds.) Stackh. West shore of Eleuthera, Current Settle- 
ment. 
Yalonia utricularis Ag. West shore of Eleuthera, Current Settlement. 
Valonia ventricosa J. Ag. On rocks, Eleuthera, opposite Current Settlement. 
Siplionocladiis memhranaceiis (Ag.) De Ton. var. Mangrove Cay, Andros. 
Ghamwdoris peniciiliim (Ell. & Soland.) Kuntze. Gregory Town, Eleuthera. 
Dictyospharia favulosa (Ag.) Decne. Mangrove Cay, Andros: Green Cay. Dredged 

in 4 fathoms. 
Microdictyon crassuin J. Ag. Green Cay. In 4 fathoms of water. This species has 

been discussed by Dr. M. A. Howe in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, Vol, XXXI, 1904, 

p. 94. 
Anadyomene stellata (Wulf.) Ag. Mangrove Cay, Andros. 

AcetahiUum crenulatiim (Lamour.) Kuntze. Green Cay; dredged in 4 fathoms. 
Coccocladus occidentalis (Harv.) Cramer. Mangrove Cay, Andros'; Green Cay. 

Dredged in 4 fathoms. 
^Coccocladus occidentalis laxus Howe. Big Pond, Nassau. In small sink-holes. 

This variety was described by Dr. M. A. Howe in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, Vol. 

XXXI, 1904, p. 95, pi. 6. 
■*Neome7-is cokeri Howe. Opposite Current Settlement, Eleuthera. This species 

was described from our material by Dr. M. A. Howe in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 

Vol. XXXI, 1904, p. 97, pi. 6. 

Charace^. t 

Chara foliolosa zeylanica Klein. Fresh marsh, Arthurs Town, Cat Island. De- 
termined by Mr. C. B. Robinson. 

Chara foliolosa Muhl. (Chara gymnopus A. Br. forma Humioldtii A. Br.). In a 
slightly brackish pool, Mt. Vernon, Nassau. Determined by Mr. C. B. Robinson. 

PH.^EOPHYCEiE."' 

Cystoseira myrica (Gmel.) Ag. Gregory Town, Eleuthera. 
TurHnaria tiirbinata (L.) Kuntze. Spanish Wells, George Island. 
Sargassum hacciferum (Turn.) Ag. Atlantic Ocean, south of Gulf Stream. 
Sargassum pteropleuron Grun. Taken in the Atlantic Ocean off Hatteras, and 

again south of Gulf Stream. 
Sargassum filipendula Ag. forma laxum J. Ag. Atlantic Ocean, south of Gulf Stream. 

'" Determined by Dr. M. A. Howe. 
f Determined by Mr. C. B. Robinson. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 245 

Sargassum bacciferum (Turn.) Ag. Atlantic Ocean, south of Gulf Stream. 
Sargassiim sp. ( ?) Immature and sterile. West shore of Eleuthera, Current 
Settlement. 

DiCTTOTALES." 

Oymnosorns variegahis (Lamour.) J. Ag. (Zonaria variegata Lamour). Green Cay; 

on floating Sargassum off Hatteras. 
PacLina durvillwi Bory. On rocks, Eleuthera, opposite Current Settlement. 
Neurocarpus justii (Lamour.) Kuntze. Thrown up on the beach at Hope Town, 

Abaco. 
Dictyota dentata Lamour. Gregory Town, Eleuthera. 

Dictyota bartayresiatm Lamour. On rocks, Eleuthera, opposite Current Settlement. 
Dictyota fasciola (Roth) Lamour. Gregory Town, Eleuthera. 

EHODOPHYCEiE." 

Liagora annulata J. Ag. Gregory Town, Eleuthera. Somewhat resembling Liagora 
valida in habit, but clearly distinct — firmer, beautifully annulate from near 
the base to the partially calcified apices; the apices are rounded-obtuse in 
iluid-preserved material, but often become attenuate acuminate on drying. 
The annulations appear to be due to unequal calcification in well-defined alter- 
nating zones. 

Galaxaura lapidescens (Ell. & Soland.) Lamour. On rocks, west shore, Eleuthera. 
Current Settlement. 

Cordylecladia irregularis Harv. West shore, Eleuthera, Current Settlement. 

Laurencia papulosa (Forsk.) Grev. Gregory Town, Eleuthera. 

Laurencia tuberculosa gemmifera (Harv.) J. Ag. Mangrove Cay. Andros; Green 
Cay; dredged in 4 fathoms. 

Chondria dasyphylla (Woodw.) Ag. (?). Mangrove Cay, Andros. 

Chondria sedifolia Harv. Mangrove Cay, Andros. 

Digenea simplex (Wulf.) Ag. Gregory Town, Eleuthera. 

Bostrychia montagnei Harv. Mt. Vernon, Nassau. 

Herposiphonia pecten-veneris (Harv.) Falkenb. 

Amansia multifida Lamour. Gregory Town, Eleuthera. 

Dasya gibbesii Harv. Gregory Town, Eleuthera; Mangrove Cay, Andros. 

Spyridia filamentosa (Wulf.) Harv. 

Ceramium iyssoideum Harv. Mangrove Cay, Andros. 

Centroceras clavulatum (Ag.) Mont. West shore, Eleuthera; on floating Sargassum 
in Gulf Stream, off North Carolina. 

Gorallina suhulata Ell. & Soland. Attached to the above, Gregory Town, Eleuthera. 

Jania capillacea Harv. On floating Sargassum, Atlantic Ocean, off North Carolina. 

Teemelline^. 

Auricularia nigra (Sw.) Burt. (Hirneola nigra (Sw.) Fr., Peziza nigra Sw.). 
Near Nassau; Mangrove Cay, Andros. 

" Determined by Dr. M. A. Howe. 
" Determined by Dr. M. A. Howe. 
" Determined by Dr. Geo. F. Atkinson. 



246 vegetatiok 

Dacrtomycetine^d. 

*Guepinia iMlmiceps Berk. (?). On dead limbs, Soldiers road. New Providence. 
Widely distributed in tropical countries. 

Hymenomycetine^e. 

*Amauitopsis farinosa Schw. In dry soil, Watlings Island, New Providence. Dis- 
tribution: North Carolina, New York. 

Gollyhia sp. (?). Near C. lacerata, but spores long, narrow, tapering at base, 9-12 x 
3-5 mm. On rotting wood, Soldiers road, New Providence. 

*Lentinus strigosus Fr. On dead stems of palms, Watlings Island, on decayed wood ; 
Mt. Vernon, Nassau. Distribution.: North Carolina, Ceylon, Cuba. 

*Marasmius hermudensis Berk, (or near). Mt. Vernon, Nassau. Distribution: 
Bermudas. 

*Marasmius opacus B. & C. (or near). On leaves. Soldiers road, Nassau. Distribu- 
tion: North Carolina, Central America, New South Wales, Australia. 

*Marasvuus nirlulus B. & C. (?). New Providence. Distribution: Cuba, Central 
America. 

*Marasmius ramealis (Bull.) Fr. New Providence. Distribution: Europe, North 
America. 

*Marasmms rotula (Scop.) Fr. Small form, on dead sticks, Mt. Vernon, Nassau. 
Widely distributed. 

*Marasmius vaillantii Fr. (?). On banana leaves. Mangrove Cay, Andros. Distribu- 
tion: England, South Carolina. 

Schizophyllum alneum (L.) Schroet. New Providence. Cosmopolitan. 

*Favolus aliitaceus B. & Mont. Mangrove Cay, Andros. Distribution: Brazil, Maine, 
Malacca. 

*Polyporus occidentaVis Kl. (?). On dead trunks. Mangrove Cay, Andros; Little 
Mangrove Cay, Andros. Widely distributed. 

Polypo7-us sp. (?). Young stage at base of trees. New Providence. 

*Polypo?'us guyanensis Mont. Mangrove Cay, Andros. Distribution: Central Amer- 
ica, Brazil. 

*Polystictus abietinus Fr. On dead pine, Soldiers road, Nassau. Distribution: 
Europe, North America and Arctic regions. 

*Polystictus hirsiitus Fr. On dead wood, Grants Town, Nassau; Mangrove Cay, An- 
dros. Cosmopolitan. 

Polystictus sanguineus (L.) Mey. On dead limbs. New Providence. Widely dis- 
tributed. 

*Trametes hydnoides (Swartz.) Fr. New Providence. Widely distributed in trop- 
ical America. 

Lycoperdine^. 

Diplocystis ivrigMii B. & C. On ground, dry hillside, Clarence Harbor, Long Island. 
Found on Inagua by Hitchcock and on Andros by Northrop. Reported only 
from the Bahamas and Cuba. 

PYRENOMYCETINEiE. 
Xylaria sp. Mangrove Cay, Andros (Sterile). 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XLIII 




Fig. 1. — VEGETATION ON SANDY AND ROCKY SHOKE, WATLINGS ISLAND 




Pig. 2. — vegetation on rocky beach, watlings island 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING VEGETATION 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 247 



LICHENES.=° 



*Arthohia spectaMUs Flo. On bark, Spanish Wells, George Island (47). 

*Arthonia cinnaharina Wall. On leaf stalk of Palmetto, Arthurs Town, Cat Island 
(51). 

*Buellia disciformis Fr. On a tree, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (1.3). 

*Cccnogoniuin clisiunctum Nyl. On bark, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (29). 

*Chiodect07i splucrale Nyl. On wood, Mangrove Cay, Andros (43). 

*Graphis elegans Ach. On trees, Mt. Vernon, Nassau, and Little Mangrove Cay, 
Andros (3, 42).' 

*Grapliis achariana Tuck. On mango tree, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (6). 

*Oraphis afzelii Ach. On a tree, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (14). 

*Graphis nitida Nyl. On bark, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (21). 

*Graphis dumastii (Fee) Nyl. On bark, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (30). 

*Graphis poitccoides Nyl. On bark. Mangrove Cay, Andros (44). 

*GrapJiis radiata Montague. On bark. Mangrove Cay, Andros (45). 

*Gyalecta lutea (Dicks) Tuck. Near Mermaid Pool, Mt. Vernon, and along Soldiers 
road, Nassau (11, 26). 

*Glyphis cicatricosa Fr. On bark, Powells Point, Eleuthera (50). 

*HeterotJiecium domingense (Pers.) Flotow. On bark, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (20). 

*Hetei'othecium tuberculosum (Fee) Flotow. On trees. Soldiers road, Nassau (28). 

*Leptogmm margineUmn Sm. On bark. Blue Hills road. New Providence (25). 

*Lecanora pallida Schaerer. On trees. Little Mangrove Cay, Andros, Spanish Wells, 
George Island (39, 46). 

*Lecanora varia Nyl. On mango tree. Little Mangrove Cay, Andros (34). 

*OpegrapUa varia Ach. On bark. Soldiers road, Nassau (27). 

*Pyxine cocoes (L.) Fr. On mango tree, Mt. Vernon, Nassau; Powells Point, Eleu- 
thera (7, 49). 

*Pyrenula mamillana Ach. On mango tree, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (8). 

*Pyrenula aurantiaca Fee. On mango tree. Little Mangrove Cay, Andros (33). 

"Pyrenula leucoplaca Kbr. On mango tree. Little Mangrove Cay, Andros (36). 

*Pyrenula fallaciosa Tuck. On mango tree. Little Mangrove Cay, Andros (40). 

*Parmelia citrata Ach. On rocks, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (9). 

*Parmelia latissima Fee. On mango tree, Little Mangrove Cay, Andros (38). 

*Pertusaria leioplaca Kbr. On a scrub. Blue Hills, New Providence (24). 

*Pertusaria velata Nyl. On mango tree. Little Mangrove Cay, Andros (37). 

*Pannaria molybdaa (Pers.) Tuck. On bark, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (19). 

*RamaUna calicaris Fr. On mango tree, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (4). 

*Ramalina gracilis (Pers.) Nyl. On trees, Watlings Island (52). 

Trypethelium cruentum Montague. On bark of mango tree, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (1). 

*Trypetheliuni sprenglii Ach. On mango tree, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (5). 

*Trypethelium madreporiforme Eschw. On trees, Mt. Vernon, Nassau; Little Man- 
grove Cay, Andros (12, 41). 

*Trypethelium ocholeucwm var. pallescens Mull. On bark, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (15). 

* Trypethelium, interpositum Nyl. On trees, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (31). 

*Thelotrema microporum Montague. At base of scrub, salt flats, near Nassau (23). 

*Verriicaria virens Nyl. On rocks, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (22). 

Blodgettia confervoides Harv. Green Cay, west shore Eleuthera, Current Settle- 
ment. A marine lichen. (See Wright: Trans. Irish Acad. 28:21, pi. 2, 1881.) 
■ Determined by Dr. M. A. Howe. 

■'" All but the last determined by Mr. W. W. Calkins. 



248 VEGETATION 

HBPATICyEr^ 
*Frullania gibbosa Nees. On trees. Soldiers road, Nassau. 
*Frunania squarrosa (R. Bl. & N.) Dum. On trees, Mt. Vernon and Soldiers road, 

Nassau. 
*Mastigoleieunia auriculata (Wils. & Hook.) Schiffn. On trees, Mt. Vernon and 

Southeast road, Nassau. Contained rotifers in the saccate under lobes of the 

leaves. 
'■'Brachiolejeunea corticalis (Lehm. & Lindenb.) Schiffn. On trees in high coppice 

near beach, ten miles west of Nassau. Also along Soldiers road, Nassau. 
^Cheilolejeunea phyllobola (Nees & Mont.) Schiffn. On trees and rooks, Mt. Vernon, 

and along Soldiers road, Nassau. 
*Microlejeunea Iticens (Tayl.) Evans. At base of tree, Mt. Vernon, Nassau. 
*Microlejeunea bullata (Tayl.) Evans. On trees. Soldiers road, Nassau. 
"'Diplasiolejeunea unidentata (Lehm. & Lindenb.) Schiffn. On trees. Soldiers road, 

Nassau. 

MUSCL=" 

Octoblepharmn albidwn Hedw. At base of trees, Mt. Vernon, Nassau. Widely dis- 
tributed. 

Barbula agraria (Sw.) Brid. {Tortula agraria Sw.). In a banana hole. Soldiers 
road, Nassau. Distribution: Florida, West Indies and South America. 

*Calymperes disciforme C. M. On trees, Mt. Vernon, Nassau. In reference to this 
species, Mrs. Britton says: "It has been reported from the Antilles and 
Martinique as well as from Florida. It agrees with Austin's specimens from 
Caloosa, Florida, although one of the main characters of the leaves is so 
misleading that one would naturally place it in an entirely different section 
. . . the margin is said to be hyalin, but this is not true." 

PTBRIDOPHYTA.-^ 

Ornithopteris adiantoides (Sw.) Presl. In a barren field. Soldiers road, Nassau 

(49). Abundant in the pine-barrens on New Providence. 
Asplenium dentatum L. The Caves, New Providence (17). 
Pteris longifoHa L. Banana hole by Soldiers road. New Providence (4S). 
Polypodimn polypodioides (L.) Hitch. Mt. Vernon, Nassau (120). 
C amply oneuron phylUtidis (L.) Presl. On trees, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (122). 
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. In a banana hole, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (130). 
Adianttim vielanolucum Willd. In a banana hole, Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (396). 
Dryopteris patens (Sw.) Kuntze. In banana holes. East road, Nassau; Mangrove 

Cay, Andros (136, 230). 

-' Determined by Dr. Alexander W. Evans. All of these species are widely 
distributed in tropical America, Frullania squarrosa (R. Bl. & N.) Dum. being 
found also in the tropics of Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands. All of the species, 
except Frullania gibbosa Nees. and Diplasiolejeunea unidentata (Lehm. & Lindenb.) 
Schiffn., are also known from the southern United States. — A. W. Evans. 

■-■- Determined by Mrs. N. L. Britton. 

^ Ferns and Seed Plants followed by numbers, excepting Grasses, Sedges and 
Palms, were identified by Dr. N. L. Britton. Species not followed by numbers were 
identified by me, but not collected. Localities preceding numbers are the points of 
collection; those following numbers are points where the plants were seen but 'not 
collected. The latter are open to possibilities of error, and are given only for what 
they are worth. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS • 349 

Blechnum, serrulatum Rich. Low, wet places, West road, Nassau (172). 
Pteridium caiodatum (L.) Kuhn. (May Pole.) Soldiers road. New Providence (254). 

Abundant in pine-barrens on New Providence and Abaco. 
Geniopteris reptans Sw. In banana holes, Eleuthera, opposite Spanish Wells (331). 
Odontosoria clavata (Sw.). In banana holes in pine-barrens. New Providence (297). 
Phlebodiiim aureum (L.) R. Br. On trees, Eleuthera (335). 
Acrosticnum aureum L. (Wild Ginger). Very abundant in deep depressions, Mt. 

Vernon, Nassau. 

CONIFERS. 

Juniperus harhadensis L. Which Point, Abaco (568). 

Pinus liaiiamensis Gvi&e\>. {Pinus elUottii 'Engelm.) . New Providence; Abaco. 

PHANEROGAM.-E. 
TYPHACEiE. 

Typlia domingensis Pers. Lake Killarney, New Providence; Arthurs Town, Cat 
Island; Watlings Island. 

JSTAIADACEJi;. 

Ruppia maritima L. In West lake, Watling Island (486). 

Alismace^. 

Sagittaria lancifolia L. In a fresh bay, West road, Nassau (176). 

ELODEAOE.a!. 

"HalophiUa engelmannii Aschers. In shallow sea water, Mangrove Cay, Andros 
(577). 

GEAMINEiE.'" 

*Andropogon virginicus L. Elbow Cay, Abaco ( 569 ) . 
*Andropogon tener Kunth. Pine-barrens, New Providence (542). 
Andropogon sp. (,7) (Bed-grass). Pine-barrens, New Providence (548). 

'' Determined by Dr. A. S. Hitchcock. In looking over the grasses Dr. Britton 
and Mr. Nash have altered a number of Dr. Hitchcock's identifications. For the 
sake of comparison we give these changed identifications as follows: 

Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene (4, 491). 

Uniola virgata (Poir.) Griseb. (7, 301, 349). 

Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze (96, 261). 

Gapriola dactylea (L.) Kuntze (97). 

Eiistachys petrwa (Sw.) Desv. (99, 350). 

Pasijahim sp. (197, 267). 

ChwtocMa imherbis (Poir.) Scribn. (263). 

Paiiicum maximum Jacq. (338). 

Panicum proliferum Lam. (489). 

Chwtochloa caudata (Lam.) Scribn. (522). 

Schigachyrium sp. (542). 

Syntherisma fimbriatum (Link) Nash (570). 



250 • VEGETATION 

*Paspalum vaginatum Sw. Fertile spot near beach. Watlings Island; South beach, 
New Providence (479, 546). 

Paspalum cccspitosum Fluegge. I.ittle Mangrove Cay, Andros; Rock quarry, Nassau 
(197, 267). 

*Panicicm elephantipes Nees (Guinea Grass). Fertile soil. Current Settlement, 
Eleuthera; sand near shore, Watlings Island (338, 489). 

*Setaria macrostachya H. B. K. Water Cay, Long Island (522). New Providence; 
Cat Island; Watlings Island; Mangrove Cay: Rum Cay. 

*8etaria filiformis Sw. Blue Hills, New Providence (304b). 

Setaria glauca (L.) Scribn. Soldiers road, New Providence (263); Governors Har- 
bor, Eleuthera; Cat Island; Watlings Island; Rum Cay. 

Cenchrus tribaloides L. Beach near Nassau (101). Seen at nearly all points. 

Panicum ftmbriatitm H. B. K. In a potato field. Elbow Cay, Abaco (570). 

Sporobolus virginicus Kunth. Beach, Eleuthera; Current Settlement, Governors 
Harbor, Eleuthera; salt flats, Rum Cay; low savanna. Water Cay; Long 
Island; South beach. New Providence (346, 389, 439, 527, 547). 

Sporobolus indicus (L.) R. Br. Rock quarry, Nassau (266). 

Sporobolus jacguemontii Kunth. On beach and in pine-barrens. New Providence 
(95, 260, 550). 

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Kuntze. Along roads, Nassau (97); Governors Harbor, 
Eleuthera. 

Cnioris petnva Desv. On beach and along Soldiers road, Nassau; Current Settle- 
ment, Eleuthera (99, 261, 350); Governors Harbor, Eleuthera; Cat Island; 
Rum Cay; Watlings Island; Long Island; Abaco. 

cnioris harbata Nash (0. polydactyla Sw.). Soldiers road. New Providence (262); 
Rum Cay; Long Island. 

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Grants Town, Nassau (285). 

Vniola paniculata L. Beach near Nassau (109); seen in all the islands visited. 

Uniola racemiflora Trin. (,U. virgata (Poir.) Griseb.) Edge of a brackish pond 
near Nassau; on rocky coast. Current Settlement, Eleuthera (7, 349); abund- 
ant on the south shore of New Providence, and on dunes at Governors Harbor, 
Eleuthera. 

Distichlis maritima Raf. Edge of brackish pond near Nassau; on fixed dunes, 
Watlings Island (4, 491), Abaco. 

Stenotaphrum americanum Schk. Beach near Nassau (96). This and Sporobolus 
jacquemontii Kunth. form the turf of the golf links at Fort Charlotte, Nassau. 

Arthrostylidium capiUifolium Griseb. (Old Man's Beard). Blue Hills road, New 
Providence (46). 

CTPEKACEiE."'' 

*Cyperiis vahlii Steud. Edge of salt marsh. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (505). 
Cyperus rotundus L. Grants Town, Nassau (290). 

'-' Determined by Dr. A. S. Hitchcock. In looking over the sedges Dr. Britton 
and Mr. Nash have altered a number of Dr. Hitchcock's identifications. For the 
sake of comparison we give these changed identifications as follows: 

Fimbrystilis spadicea (L.) Vahl. (83, 449). 

Cladium jamaicense Crantz (86). 

Cyperus ottonis Baeckl. (189, 420). 

Scleria Utliosperma (L.) Sw. (304, 305). 

Cyperus fuligineus Chapm. (505). 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 251 

Oyperus lirunneus Sw. Sandy soil near shore, Nassau; on beach, Powells Point, 
Eleuthera (189, 420); Governors Harbor, Eleuthera; Cat Island. 

Eleocharis ceUulosa Torr. In a shallow salt marsh, Powells Point, Eleuthera (41fl) ; 
Cat Island; Watlings Island. 

Decromena colorata Hitch. Pine-barrens, New Providence (52); Cat Island. 

Scirpus ferrugineus L. Wet pine-barrens, Lake Killarney, New Providence; salt 
flats, Rum Cay (83, 449). 

*Sch(rmis nigricans L. RocUs on border of a salt pond, Nassau ( 8 ) . 

Cladium effusum Torr. (C. Jamaicense L.) (Saw grass). Wet-barrens, Lake Killar- 
ney, New Providence (86); Cat Island; Watlings Island. 

Palm^.'" 

Inodes palmetto (Walt.) Cook (Sabal palmetto (Walt.) R. & S.) (Thatch palm). 

West road. New Providence; near shore, Watlings Island; Arthurs Town; 

Cat Island (437, 459, 530, 576) ; also at Current Settlement, Gregory Town and 

Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera. Affects borders of fresh or slightly brackish marshes. 
Tiirinax bahamensis Cook (Goat palm. Silver palm). Green Cay; border of the 

Eastern lake, Watlings Island; Nassau (250, 251, 481, 529, 539). Inhabits 

rocky ground in the interior. 
CoccotTirinax jiicunda Sarg. (Silver-leaf palm. Silver-thatch palm). Green Cay; 

Spanish Wells, George Island; Watlings Island (248, 249, 306, 307, 490, 528); 

New Providence; Long Island. Inhabits dunes and sand plains near shore. 
Cyclospathe nortliropi Cook (Hog-cabbage palm). In low coppice near shore. 

Powells Point, Eleuthera (414); Watlings Island; Long Island. Inhabits 

humus soil among rocks. 

Beomeliace^. 

Tillandsia xitriculata L. Arthurs Town, Cat Island (435). 
*Tillandsia aloifolia Hook. Which Point, Abaco (575). 

CoMMELINACEiE. 
Rhwa discolor (L'Her.). Hance. Mt. Vernon, Nassau. 

Smilacace^e. 

*Smilax beyrichii Kunth. Pine-barrens, New Providence (51, 298). 

Smilax havanensis Jacq. West road, Nassau, (108). 

Smilax oblongata viscifolia (Duham) Schulz. Mt. Vernon, New Providence (33). 

AMARYLLIDACEiE. 

Agave rigida Mill. (Bamboo). Seen at Gregory Town, Governors Harbor and Tar- 
pum Bay, Eleuthera. 

Hymenocallis arenicola Northrop. West road, Nassau; Gregory Town, Current 
Settlement, Governors Harbor, and Powells Point. Eleuthera; Water Cay, Long 
Island; Abaco. 

DiOSCORACEiE. 
Rajania hastata L. Pine-barrens, New Providence (54). Which Point, Abaco. 

-" Determined by Dr. O. P. Cook. 



252 vegetation 

Okchidaoe^. 

Bletia verecunda Sw." Rock holes in pine-barrens, New Providence (292). 

Epidendnim gracile Lindl. On a rocky bluff, Current Settlement, Eleuthera (351). 

Epidendriim fucatiivi Lindl. On trees, border of a Gonocarpus flat. Which Point, 
Abaco (559). 

BrougMonia lilacena Henfr. On barren rocks near sea. Current Settlement, Eleu- 
thera (370). 

Vanilla articiUata Northrop. Soldiers road, Nassau (in flower) ; edge of Gonocarpus 
flat, East lake, Watlings Island (in fruit) (578, 579). 

CASUAEINACEiB. 

Gasuarina eqimefifolia Forst. (Spanish Cedar). , Naturalized on New Providence 
and at Governors Harbor, Eleuthera. 

MyRICACEiE. 

Myrica cerifera L. (Wax-berry). On edge of a fresh-water bay near Lake Killarney. 
New Providence (165). Also in similar situations. West road. New Provi- 
dence, and on Cat Island, and Abaco. Said to have been introduced from the 
United States. 

MORACE^H!. 

Ficus jacquinifoUa Kich. (Fig-tree). Mangi-ove Cay, Andros (209). 

*FiCMS sapotifolia Kunth & Benche. (Fig-tree). Mangrove Cay, Andros; Thomp- 
son's Polly, Nassau (215, 294). 

Ficus irevifolia Nutt. (F. popuUra var. bahamensis Urban) (Fig-tree). Arthurs 
Town, Cat Island; Clarence Harbor, Long Island (433, 512). 

IjLMACEiE. 

Trema lima (Lam.) Hitch. (Mahoe). East road, Nassau; Mangrove Cay, Andros; 
Spanish Wells, George Island (141, 212, 312). 

TJeticace^. 
Fleurya wstuans (L.) Gaud. Grants Town, Nassau (288). 

Loranthace^. 

Dendropemon purpureus (L.) Kr. & Urb. On trees, Thompson's Folly, Nassau (296). 
Phorodendron spathuHfolium Kr. & Urb. On ti^ivietenia mahagoni. Blue Hills, New 
Providence, Which Point. Abaco (303, 558). 

POLYGONACEiE. 

Coccolotis krugii Lindau. Low coppice, Watlings Island (473). 

Goccolobis retusa Griseb. On east side of hills, Gregory Town, Eleuthera (358). 

CoccoloMs diversifolia Jacq. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (520). 

Goccolobis laurifoUa Jacq. (Pigeon Plum). Low coppice. Green Cay (238). Seen on 

all islands visited except Rum Cay. 
Goccolobis uvifera (L.) Jacq. (Sea Grape). Common on the shores of all the 

islands visited. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XLIV 





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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 253 

CHENOPODEiE. 

*Chenopodium spathulatum Sieb. Gregory Town, Eleuthera (373). 

Atriplex cristata H. B. K. Powells Point, Eleuthera (416). 

Salicornia ambigua Michx. Port Nelson, Rum Cay (448); Which Point, Abaco. 

AjIAKANTACEiE. 

Lithophila vermicularis (L.) Uline. North beach west of Nassau; Little Mangrove 
Cay, Andros; edge of West lake, Watlings Island (37, 201, 476). 

*Alternantnera maritima St. Hil. Little Mangrove Cay, Andros (196). 

Alternanthera repens (L.) Kuntze. A weed in door-yards, Spanish Wells, George 
Island (313). 

Iresine panicuJata (L.) Kuntze. In sand near shore. Mangrove Cay, Andros; Tar- 
pum Bay, Eleuthera (214, 407). 

*Am.aranthus tristis L. Soldiers road, Nassau (264). A weed. 

BatidEzE. 
Batis maritima L. Shore of West lake, Watlings Island (482); Elbow Cay, Abaco. 

PHTTOLACCACEiE. 

Rivina Tmmilis L. Near The Caves, New Providence; Mangrove Cay, Andros; 

Arthurs Town, Cat Island (76, 210, 424). 
Rivina hcvis L. In the coppice. Elbow Cay, Abaco (572). 
*Petiveria alliacea L. Grants Town, Nassau (293). 

NYOTAGINACEiE. 

'■■Torrubia obtusata (Jacq.) Britton. Low coppice, New Providence (5, 252). 

Torrubia longifolia (Heimerl) Britton (Blolly-bush). Nassau; near shore, Spanish 
Wells, George Island; Watlings Island (15, 41, 316, 472); seen at most points 
visited. This is the plant identified by Northrop as Pisonia obtusata Sw. 

'■'Torrubia cokeri Britton. Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (401); low coppice, New Provi- 
dence. A new species described by Dr. Britton in the Bulletin of the Torrey 
Botanical Club for November, 1904. 

BrrrJiaavia paniculata Rich. Current Settlement, Eleuthera (344). 

Barhaavia scandens L. Gregory Town, Eleuthera (374). 

AlZOACE^. 
Sesuvium portulacastrum L. On sandy beaches of all the islands visited. 

PORTULACEiE. 

PortuJaca oleracea L. East road, Nassau; Mangrove Cay, Andros (131, 219, 221). 

Portulaca pilosa L. Among dry rocks, Port Nelson, Rum Cay (440). 

Portulaca halimoides L. Mount Vernon, Nassau; Mangrove Cay, Andros (128, 220). 

Anonace^. 

Anona palustris L. (Custard apple, Pond apple). In brackish bays. New Providence, 
Cat Island; Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera. 



354 VEGETATION 

NYMPHiEACE^33. 
*Castalia ampla (DC.) Green. In a fresh isond, Arthurs Town, Cat Island (434). 

LaUKACEyE: 
Ocotea catesXiyana (Mich.) Sarg. Low coppice, Mt. Vernon, Nassau (30). 
GasaytUa fiUformis L. Parasitic on trees and scrubs, Nassau (112). Also on Man- 
grove Cay, Anclros: Green Cay; Watlings Island; Long Island; Ahaco. 

Lythrace^h. 
Ammania latifoHa L. On margin of a brackish marsh, Watlings Island (460). 

CEUCIFERiE. 
Cakile wquaHs L'Her. Governors Harbor, Eleuthera (385). 
Lepidiiim virginicwm L. A weed introduced about Nassau. 

Cappahidace.*. 
*Capparis jamaicensis Jacq. (Wild Orange). Clarence Harbor, Long Island (497, 
506). On vigorous young shoots the leaves are long and narrow. 

CEASSULACEiE. 

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Krug. (Live-forever). New Providence; Tarpum 
Bay, Eleuthera; Cat Island. 

EOSACE^. 
Chrysodalanus icaco L. (Cocoa plum. Pigeon plum). West road, Nassau (SS). 

On the shores of all the islands visited. Fruit pink. 
Ghrysohalanus fellocarpus Meyer (Cocoa plum, Pigeon plum). Common, with the 

above, on all the islands visited. Fruit black. 

MiMOSACEiE. 

Acacia clioriophylla Benth. (Cinnecord). Mangrove Cay, Andros (207). Common 
on all the islands visited. 

Leiicmna glaiica (L.) Benth. (Jumby-bean). Nassau (38). Gregory Town, Eleu- 
thera. A common weed in old fields. 

Lysiloma latisiUqiia (L.) Benth. (L. bahamensis Benth.) (Wild Tamarind). Sol- 
diers road. Nassau (47). Mangrove Cay, Andros; Cat Island; Long Island. 

Lysiloma paucifoUa (DC.) A. S. Hitch. (Horseflesh, Sabicu). Not uncommon on 
New Providence, Andros and Eleuthera. 

Galliandra formosa Benth. Eleuthera, opposite Spanish Wells (321); Gregory 
Town, Eleuthera. Leaves sensitive. Only a few specimens found. 

Galliandra hcematomma (DC.) Benth. (Brier-tree). Watlings Island (484). Also 
on Abaco. Abundant in low coppice. 

Pithecolobium h.ystrix Benth. Killarney pine-barrens. New Providence (182). 

*Pithecolohium mucronatum Britton (sp. nov.f). A scrub about 2 m. high, the 
young shoots and peduncles sparingly pubescent. Leaves with two pairs of 
leaflets, the petiole 1 cm. long or less, longer than or equalling the stiff, sharp, 
puberulent, stipular spines, and mostly longer than the petiolules; leaflets coria- 
ceous, rather narrowly obovate, 2 cm. long or less, glabrous, bright green and 
shining above, pale green and dull beneath, the midvein excurrent as a mucro 
0.5-1 mm. long; peduncles axillary to the upper leaves and much exceeding 
them, slender, 5 cm. long or less, erect-ascending; inflorescence puberulent; 



t Species thus designated have been described by Dr. M. L. Britton, and are 
here published for the first time. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 355 

flowers pink; calyx-lobes, ovate, acute; corolla-lobes ovate to ovate-lanceolate. 

Dry thicket near Clarence Harbor, Long Island, W. C. Coker, July IG, 1903 

(518). Not common (51S). 
PitJiecolohium keyense Britton (Ram's horn). Nassau (57). Common near the 

coast on both sides of New Providence, and on all the other islands visited. 
Pithecolo'bium hahatnense Northrop. East road, Nassau (159). 

Cassice^. 

Gwsalpinia iahamensis Lam. Lake Killarney pine-barrens, and West road, New 
Providence (1, 84, 166). 

Cwsalpinia lucicla Urban. Gregory Town, Eleuthera (360). 

Ca'salpinia sp. (?). Thick coppice near lake, Watlings Island (470). 

*Ca'salpinia vesicaria 'L. (Braziletto). Clarence Harbor, Long Island (516). 

Cassia bahamensis Mill. (Stinking Pea). Blue Hills road, New Providence (9); 
Current Settlement, Gregory Town, and Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera; Cat Island; 
Rum Cay; Long Island. A common weed. 

*Cassia Hneata Sw. Blue Hills road, New Providence; Green Cay (10, 245). 

Cassia occidentalis L. Nassau, Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (178, 279, 403). 

*Cassia aspera Mich. Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (402). 

Guilandina major (DC.) Small (Nicker bean). Common near shore on New Provi- 
dence. Beans slate color. 

Guilandina crista (L.) Small (Nicker bean). Common near shore on New Provi- 
dence. Beans red. 

Hcematoxylon campechianum L. (Logwood). Current Settlement, Eleuthera; Clar- 
ence Harbor, Long Island; New Providence. 

Papilionacbjj;. 

Crotalaria verrucosa L. Low, dry plane, Clarence Harbor, Long Island (499). 

Abrus precatorius L. (Bead-vine, Wild Licorice, Crab's eyes). Near Mt. Vernon, 
Nassau (115). 

Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. (Pigeon pea). Mangrove Cay, Andros (206); Watlings 
Island. 

Meibomia supina (Sw.) Britton. Grants Town, Nassau; Gregory Town, Eleuthera 
(281, 359). 

Ichthyomethia piscipula (L.) Hitch. (Dogwood). Mangrove Cay, Andros; Eleu- 
thera, opposite Spanish Wells (233, 327). Tarpum Bay and Current Settlement, 
Eleuthera; Cat Island: Watlings Island; Which Point, Abaco. 

Stylosanthes hamata (L.) Taub. In streets of Current Settlement, Eleuthera: pine- 
barrens. New Providence (339, 541). 

Galactia spiciformis T. & G. Governors Harbor, Eleuthera; Elbow Cay, Abaco (386, 
571). 

Galactia bahamensis Urban. Port Nelson, Rum Cay (454). 

Galactia rudolphioides (Griseb.) Benth & Hook. Pine-barrens, New Providence; 
Gregory Town, Eleuthera (55, 368). 

Sophora tomentosa L. Near coast, Port Nelson, Rum Cay (446). 

Cracca cinerea (L.) Morong. Sandy soil. Port Nelson, Rum Cay (450). 

Dalbergia ecastophyllum (L.) Taub. (Titi). West road, 8 miles from Nassau, 
margin of brackish pond near beach, Watlings Island (170, 458). 

Canavalia obtusifolia (Lam) DC. (Horse bean). Sandy places near the shore, New 
Providence; Spanish Wells, George Island: Cat Island; Rum Cay; Mangrove 
Cay; Long Island. 

Canavalia sp. Edge of town, Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (411). 



256 VEGETATION 

OXALIDACE^. 
Oxalis corniculata L. Grants Town, Nassau (275). 

Zygophyllace^. 

Guaiacum sanctum L. (Lignum vitae). Green Cay (235); Green Cay; Rum Cay; 
Watlings Island; Clarence Harbor, Long Island. 

LlNACE.a!. 

Erytliroxylon irevipes DC. (Sareto). Low coppice, New Providence; Powells Point, 
Eleuthera; Arthurs Town, Cat Island; Clarence Harbor, Long Island (137, 
421, 427, 509) ; Abaco. Fruit of this or the following species was found in 
stomachs of Iguanas killed on Watlings Island. 

Erytliroxylon obovatum MacF. Blue Hills, New Providence; Mangrove Cay, An- 
dros; Clarence Harbor, Long Island (508, 222, 555). 

Liniim, bahamense Northrop. On the beach. Which Point, Abaco (566). 

Malpighiace^. 

Triopteris rigida Sw. East road, Nassau; Watlings Island (40, 477); Long Island. 

Byrsonima Tucida (Sw.) DC. (Sweet Margaret). Killarney barrens, New Provi- 
dence (65); Watlings Island; Cat Island; Abaco. 

Stigmatopliyllon sagrceanum Juss. Mangrove Cay, Andros; Clarence Harbor, Long 
Island (223, 502). 

Malpiglna polytricha Juss. (Touch-me-not). Spanish Wells, George Island (311). 
On fixed dunes, Governors Harbor, Eleuthera; New Providence; Long Island. 

Bimchosia glandulosa (Cav.) Rich. Killarney pine-barrens, New Providence; Cur- 
rent Settlement and Governors Harbor, Eleuthera (64, 348). Not common at 
any point. 

EUTACEiE. 

Fagara fagara (L.) Small (Wild Lime). Low coppice, Nassau (32). Common on 

Eleuthera, and Cat Island. 
Fagara flava (Vahl). Kr. & Urb. (Yellow-wood, Doll-bush). Elbow Cay, Abaco 

(574). 
Fagara coriacea (A. Rich.) Kr. & Urb. (Hercules' club. Doctor's club). Mangrove 

Cay, Andros; Clarence Harbor, Long Island (232, 511). 
Picramnia pentandra Sw. Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (400). 
*8imaruba glauca Kunth. (Bastard Mastic). High coppice, Blue Hills road, New 

Providence (538). 

TEEEBINTHACEiE. 

Amyris eleniifera L. (White Torch). Low coppice, Watlings Island (464); Spanish 
Wells, George Island; Long Island. 

SlMAEUBACE^. 

Picramnia pentandra Sw. East road, Nassau (147). 

Picrodendron baccatum bahamense Kr. & Urb. Rocky coppice. Current Settlement, 

Eleuthera (352). Only a few specimens seen. 
Suriana maritima L. (Bay Cedar). Along the shores of all the islands visited. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS - 257 

BURSERAOEJE. 

Swietenia mahogani L. (Mahogany, Madeira). Low coppice. Soldiers road. New 
Providence (153, 259); Powells Point, Eleuthera; Rum Cay; Abaco. 

Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (Gum-elemi). Common on New Providence, Eleu- 
thera; Watlings Island; Long Island; Abaco. 

Meliace^tj;. 
Melia azedarach L. (China-tree). Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (413). 

EOPHOEBIACE^. 

Croton eleuteria (L.) Sw. (Cascarilla, Sweet-wood bark). Low coppice, Nassau 

(3a). 
Croton linearis Jacq. (Granny-bush). Near shore. New Providence; Governors 

Harbor, Eleuthera (23, 3S7) ; Tarpum Bay and Powells Point, Eleuthera; Long 

Island. 
Croton lucidus L. Opposite Spanish Wells, George Island; Watlings Island (326, 

471). 
*Croton discolor AVilld. Port Nelson, Rum Cay (453). 
Croton lobatus L. Pine-barrens, New Providence (553). 

Phyllanthus epiphyllahtlius L. (Hardhead). Mt. Vernon, Nassau; Clarence Har- 
bor, Long Island (31, 524); common on Eleuthera, Cat Island; Watlings 

Island. 
Phyllanthus niruri L. Mangrove Cay, Andros (227). 
* Phyllanthus virens Muell. Arg. Opposite Spanish Wells, George Island (328); a 

clambering scrub. 
EuphorMa punicea Sw. Small Cay in lake, Watlings Island (487). 
*Euphorl)ia havanensis Willd. Banana field. Soldiers road, Nassau (45). 
Euphorbia buxifolia L. On beach. New Providence (114); on sandy beaches of all 

the islands. 
Euphorbia piluUfera L. Eleuthera, opposite Spanish Wells (319); among cocoanut 

palms near shore. 
*Euphorbia brasiliensis L. Gregory Town, Eleuthera (371). 
"Euphorbia cayensis Millsp. On beach. Rum Cay (452); Abaco. A new species, 

first collected by us; afterward collected and named by Dr. Millspaugh. 
Buxus bahamensis Baker. Killarney pine-barrens. New Providence; Watlings Is- 
land (68, 474). 
*Savia bahamensis Britton (Joe-wood, Bastard Crab-wood). Low coppice. East 

road, Nassau (157, 160). A new species described by Dr. Britton in Torreya, 

July, 1904. 
GymnantUes lucida Sw. (Crah-wood). Spanish Wells, George Island; Watlings 

Island (314, 467); Gregory Town, Eleuthera; Long Island; Abaco. 
Bernardia bernardia (L.) Britton (Bernardia carpinifolia Griseb.). Tarpum Bay, 

Eleuthera (405). 
Argythamnia candicans Sw. Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (409). 

Hippomane mancinella L. (Manchineel). Low coppice, Watlings Island (468, 485). 
Exwcaria sagrwi Muell. Low coppice Watlings Island (478). 
*Bonamia cubana A. Rich. Low, dry coppice, Arthurs Town, Cat Island (428). 
Drypetes lateriflora (Sw.) Kr. & Urb. Blue Hills, New Providence (535). 
*Pera humeliwfolla Griseb. (Brown Ebony). High coppice at junction of Soldiers 

road and Blue Hills road, New Providence (537). A large tree. 
17 



258 VEGETATION 

*8ecurinego acidothamnus (Griseb.) Muell. Arg. Base of a rocky hill, Mangrove 
Cay, Andres (225). Not before known north o£ St. Thomas. 

Anacardiace^. 
Metopium metopium (L.) Small (Poison-wood). Common on New Providence; 
Mangrove Cay; Andros; and Abaco. Less common on Eleuthera; Cat Island; 
Rum Cay and Watllngs Island. 

Celastrace.e. 

Crassopetalum paJletis (Smith) Northrop. Mangrove Cay, Andros; Current Settle- 
ment, Eleuthera (231, 341). 

Maytemis buxifolia (Rich.) Griseb. (Spoon-wood). Clarence Harbor, Long Island; 
low coppice, Watlings Island (494, 475). 

*Gyminda grisebachii Sarg. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (504). 

Schwfferia frutescens Jacq. West road, Nassau (72). 

Ilicace^. 
Ilex krugiana Loes. High coppice. Blue Hills road. New Providence (536); Wat- 
lings Island. 
Ilex repanda Griseb. High coppice. Blue Hills road. New Providence (552). 

SAPINDACE.a;. 

Thouinia discolor (Griseb.) (Hard-bark, Quicksilver-bush). East road, Nassau; 
Eleuthera, opposite Spanish Wells (143, 329). Watlings Island. 

Hypelate trifoUata Sw. (Candle-wood, Red-wood). East road, Nassau; Mangrove 
Cay, Andros; Clarence Harbor, Long Island (152, 234, 493). 

Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Radlk. (Butter-bough). East road and Blue Hills 
road. New Providence; Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (149, 399, 534); Abaco. Ber- 
ries said to be poisonous. 

Melicocca Mjuga L. (Genipe). East road, Nassau (154). 

Serjania suddentata (Juss.) Poir. (Foul-foot vine). Mangrove Cay, Andros; Eleu- 
thera, opposite Spanish Wells (217, 333). 

Serjania diversifolia Radlk. (Foul-foot vine). Gregory Town, Eleuthera (357). 

Cardiospermum haUcacabuin L. (Balloon-vine). Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (397). 
Probably introduced. 

Dodonwa viscosa L. (Candle wood). Port Nelson, Rum Cay; near the beach. Which 
Point, Abaco (444, 567). 

Ehamnace,^. 

Reynosia septentrionalis Urban (Darling plum, corrupted by the natives to Dorlin 
plum). West road. Nassau; Spanish Wells, George Island (24, 309). Gregory 
Town, Powells Point, and Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera; Cat Island; Watlings 
Island; Long Island; Rum Cay. 

Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl.) Urban (Iron-wood, Hard-wood). East road, 
Nassau; Clarence Harbor, Long Island (42, 503). 

Colubrina coluhrina (L.) Millsp. (Wild Coffee). In sand near beach. Green Cay; 
Rum Cay (240, 442); Long Island. 

Colubrifia reclinata (L'Her.) Brogn. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (519). 

Gouania domingensis L. (Chew Stick). Not uncommon in the coppice on New 
Providence and Eleuthera. 

VlTACEiE. 

Cissus sicy aides L. Mt. Vernon, Nassau; Gregory Town, Eleuthera (117, 380). 

Cissus sp. Blue Hills, New Providence (304). 

Cissus acida L. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (498). 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XLV 












■m^m 



Fig. 1. — WHITE LILIES (IIYIMENOCALLIS AHENICOLA) IN FLOWER, WEST SHORE, 

ELEUTHERA 




Fig. 2. — vegetation* on rocky shore, near clarence harbor, long island 



VIEWS ILLUSTKATING VEGETATION 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 259 

Cissus microcariia Va.h\. (Bull-vine). Nassau. 

Yitis rotundifoUa Mich. Pine-barrens, Blue Hills road, New Providence. 

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. Seen in a rocky clearing on Mangrove 
Cay, Andros; and among almost bare rocks on top of a hill at Gregory Town, 
Eleuthera; also at Current Settlement and Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera. 

TiLIACEvE. 

Corchorus hirsufus L. Near shore. New Providence; in a potato field, Elbow Cay, 
Abaco (39, 573). 

MaLVACE.'E. 

Sida carpinifolia L. Mt. Vernon, and Rock Quarry, Nassau; Current Settlement, 
Eleuthera (133, 270, 343). 

Sida ciliaris L. Current Settlement, Eleuthera (340). Prostrate on exposed rocks. 

Aiutilon crispiim (L.) Medic. Clearing in coppice. Current Settlement, Eleuthera 
(345). 

Gossypiuni harbadense L. (Cotton). Top of a barren, rocky hill, Rum Cay (456). 

Pavonia spinifex (L. ) Cav. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (495). Also seen at 
Lake Killarney, New Providence. 

Malvaviscus cokeri Britton (sp. nov.-j-). A scrub, 2 m. high or less, with round 
glabrous branchlets. Leaves ovate, acuminate, cordate, thin, 7-nerved, entire 
or slightly repand, the upper surface glabrous but papillose, the under side 
glabrous except for tufts of hairs in the axils of the principal veins, and a 
few scattered ones on the veins, the blades 5 or 6 cm. long, 3 or 4 cm. wide, 
the petioles slender, 1.5-2.5 cm. long; peduncles slender, puberulent, 2 or 3 
times as long as the petioles; involucrebracts narrowly linear, acuminate, 
glabrous, 1 cm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, about as long as the calyx; calyx-lobes 
triangular-ovate, acuminate, about one-half as long as the tube, woolly within; 
petals about 2 cm. long; stamen-column 3 cm. long or more. Foot of a dry, 
rocky hill, interior of Watlings Island (483). Bahamas, W. C. Coker, July 12, 
1903. 

STERCULIACEiE. 
Helicteres spiralis Northrop. Mt. Vernon, Nassau; Governors Harbor, Eleuthera 

(44, 391). 
Melochia tomentosa L. (Stain-bark). Mt. Vernon, Nassau (121). 
Melochia pyramidata L. Grants Town, Nassau (289). 
Waltheria americana L. Current Settlement, Eleuthera (337). 

Hypeuicace^. 
Ascyrum hypericoides L. Pine-barrens, New Providence. 

BixACE.i-;. 
Xylosma ilicifolia Northrop. Low coppice, opposite Spanish Wells, George Island 

(324). 
Xylosma sp. Pine-barrens, Which Point, Abaco (562). 

Canellace.15. 
Canella winteriana (L.) Gaertn. (Wild Cinnamon, Bahama Whitewood bark). East 
road, Nassau; Port Nelson, Rum Cay (124, 447). 

TuRNERACE^Ti;. 
Turnera ulmifolia L. Blue Hills road, and East road. New Providence (11, 132, 
269). A weed near settlements on all of the islands visited. 



260 VEGETATION 

PASSIFLORACEJi;. 
*Passiflora rubra L. Grants Town, Nassau (274). 

Passiflora pectinata Griseb. Killarney pine-barrens, New Providence (70). 
Passiflora minima L. In a cleared coppice, Mangrove Cay, Andros (228). 
Passiflora fccticla L. Grants Town, Nassau; Green Cay (282, 242). On Green Cay 

a stout specimen about two feet high was found growing quite upright on the 

sandy shore. 

CACTACEiB. 

Opuntia tuna Mill. Governors Harbor. Eleuthera; Port Nelson, Rum Cay (392, 457) ; 

Spanish Wells, Georges Island; Watlings Island. 
*Opuntia triacantha DC. (Dildo). Port Nelson, Rum Cay (438). 
Pilocereiis lanuginosa Rumpl. Current Settlement, Eleuthera (354); Watlings 

Island; Long Island. 

Ehizophorace^. 

Rhizophora mangle L. (Mangrove). Common along protected salt water in all the 
islands. 

MYETACEiE. 

*Eugenia confusa DC. (Stopper). East road, Nassau (144); Current Settlement, 
Gregory Town, Tarpum Bay and Powells Point, Eleuthera; Mangrove Cay; Cat 
Island; Long Island; Rum Cay. 

Eugenia longipes Berg. Killarney pine-barrens. New Providence; low coppice, near 
shore Powells Point, Eleuthera (187, 418). Specimens at Powells Point had 
branches descending three or four feet and then running closely pressed to 
the sand. 

Eugenia axillaris (Sw.) Willd. Mangrove Cay, Andros; Eleuthera, opposite Span- 
ish Wells (216, 322) ; Gregory Town, Eleuthera. 

*Eugenia punctata Vahl. Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (40G). 

Eugenia buxifolia (Sw.) Willd. Powells Point, Eleuthera; Watlings Island (417, 
462) ; Rum Cay; Long Island; Abaco. 

Ghytraciilia pallens (Griseb.) Britton (Spice-wood). Low coppice, Watlings Island 
(466). 

COMBRETACEiE. 

Lagunculariaracemosa (L.) Gaertn. (White Mangrove). New Providence (78). 
Conocarpus erecta L. (Button-wood). In saline soil on all the islands visited. 
Gonocarpiis erecta sericea Fors. (Button-wood). A white-leaved form of the above, 
and growing with it on all the islands visited. 

Melastomace/e. 

Tetraeygia bicolor (Mill.) Cogn. (Wild Guava). East road, Nassau (139). New 
Providence; Watlings Island; Long Island; Abaco. 

Samydacej-:. 

Banara reticulata Griseb. Pine-barrens, New Providence; Governors Harbor. Eleu- 
thera (186, 544, 390). 

* Zuelania lactioides Rich. Killarney barrens. New Providence (97); also on Blue 
Hills road. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 261 

IjMBELLIFERiE. 

Centella repanda (Pers.) Small. On edge of a fresh bay. West road, Nassau (177) ; 
Cat Island, Watlings Island. 

*F(rnicuHnn fcmlcuhim (L.) Karst. (Fennel). Grants Town, Nassau (284). Natura- 
lized from Europe. 

MYKSINIACEiE. 

Rapania guyanensis Aubl. (Beef-wood). Killarney barrens and Soldiers road, New 

Providence (60, 533). Long Island; Abaco. 
Jacquinia Tceyensis Mez. (Joe-bush). Edge of brackish pond, Blue Hills road, New 

Providence; Green Cay: Eleuthera, opposite Spanish Wells (6, 236, 334); 

Gregory Town and Powells Point, Eleuthera; Rum Cay; Long Island; Abaco. 
Icacorea paniculata (Nutt.) Sudw. High coppice. Blue Hills road, New Providence 

(299, 532). 

SAPOTACEiE. 

Mimusops sieheri A. DC. (Wild Sapodilla). Brackish flats near Nassau (13); Rum 

Cay; Watlings Island; Green Cay. 
Bumelia microphylla Griseb. (Ink-berry). Brackish flats, New Providence; Little 

Mangrove Cay, Andros (16, 58, 202) ; also on the other islands visited. 
*BumeUa loranthifolia (Pierre) Britton (Milk Plum, Saffron). Killarney barrens 

and East road. New Providence; Spanish Wells, George Island (20, 156, 

315); Gregory Town and Governors Harbor, Eleuthera; Cat Island; Rum Cay; 

Mangrove Cay; Long Island, Abaco. This is given in Northrop as B. cubensis 

Griseb. 
Dipholis salicifolia (L.) A. DC. (Wild Cassada, Bustle). East road, Nassau; Green 

Cay; Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (140, 257, 395); Powells Point, Eleuthera. 
Ghrysophyllum sp. West road, Nassau (180). 
Sideroxylon mastichodendron Jacq. (Mastic). Eleuthera, opposite Spanish Wells 

(325); West road, New Providence; Current Settlement, Tarpum Bay, and 

Powell's Point, Eleuthera. 
*Lucuina multiflora A. DC. (Mammee Sapota, Wild Mammee). East road, Nassau 

(158). Also in high coppice, Blue Hills road. New Providence. 

Ebenace^. 

Macreightia caribwa A. DC. (Cannabis-bark). Low coppice on East road, Nassau 
(150). 

Oleace^. 

*Adelia segregata (Jacq.) Small. In sandy soil, Spanish Wells, George Island (310). 
*Xinienia americana L. Prostrate on the exposed beach. Rum Cay (451). 

LoOANIACEiE. 

Cynoctomim mitreola (L.) Britton. Wet places. West road, Nassau (175). 
Spigelia anthelviia L. By fresh marsh, Arthurs Town, Cat Island (429). 

GENTIANACEiE. 

Etistoma exaUaUim (L.) Griseb. Beach near Nassau; Arthurs Town, Cat Island 

(35, 422); Rum Cay. 
Sabbatia campanulata (L.) Torr. Marshy soil, Lake Killarney, New Providence; 

Arthurs Town, Cat Island (74, 432). 



262 vegetation 

Apocynace^. 

Yallesia glabra Cav. Gregory Town and Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (361). 
Rhabdadenia sagrcri (A. DC.) Small (Echites sagrcei A. DC). Pine-barrens, New 

Providence; Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (75, 302, 394); all points on Eleuthera; 

Watlings Island. 
Rhabdadenia hiflora (Jacq.) Mill. {Echites biflora Jacq.). Edge of conocarpus marsh, 

west of Nassau (79); Mangrove Cay; Gregory Town and Governors Harbor, 

Eleuthera; Rum Cay; Watlings Island; Abaco. 
Urechites andrexvsii (Chapm.) Small {Echites andrewsii Chapm.). West road, 

Nassau (81). 
Echites umbellata Jacq. Soldiers road, Nassau (253); Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera; 

Rum Cay; Watlings Island. 
Ammocallis rosea (L.) Small {Viiica rosea L. ). Soldiers road. New Providence 

(255) ; in sand near shore. Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera. Also cultivated. 
Plumiera obtusa L. (Frangipani). West road, Nassau; Mangrove Cay, Andros; 

Powells Point, Eleuthera; Rum Cay. 

A.SCLEPIADACEiE. 

Asclepias curassavica L. Nassau (125, 272). 

Metastelma palustre (Pursh.) Schltr. Green Cay; Governors Harbor, Eleuthera 

(237,384). 
*Metastelma brachystephanum Griseb. (?). Water Cay, Long Island (525). 

C0NV0LVULACE,15. 

Ipomcea dissecta Vursh. {I. sinuata Ort.). Nassau; Arthurs Town, Cat Island (2, 

426). 
*Ipomwa sagittata Cav. (7. speciosa Walt.). Border of a fresh marsh on South 

side, New Providence (549). 
Ipomna pes-capra' L. (Bay Hop.) Beach near Nassau (105). Watlings Island. 
J acquemontia jamaicensis (Jacq.) Hall. West road, Nassau (103). 
Evolvulus arbusculus Poir. On sand near beach. Current Settlement, Eleuthera 

(336); Cat Island; Rum Cay; Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera. 
Evolvulus sericeus Sw. Pine-barrens, New Providence (544). 
Calonyction bona-nox (L.) Boj. {Ipomaa bona-nox L.) (Moonflower). Rum Cay, 

among Mangroves (445). Naturalized from India. 

BORAGINACE/E. 

Heliotropium curassavicum L. Beach near Nassau (36). 

Duranta repens L. (Bitter-sweet). Low coppice, New Providence (61); Mangrove 

Cay, Andros; Abaco. 
Cordia sebestena L. West road, Nassau; Little Mangrove Cay, Andros (62, 195). 
Cordia bahamensis Urban. (Granny-bush). Near north shore. New Providence (77. 

106); Cat Island; Long Island; Abaco. This is given in Northrop as C. lima 

R. & S. 
* Cordia cylindrostachya R. & S. Gregory Town, Eleuthera: Clarence Harbor, Long 

Island (378, 496). 
Cordia globosa (L.) H. B. K. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (501). 
Cordia sp. Rum Cay (448). A weed along shore. 

Bourreria havanensis (Willd.) Miers. (Strong-back). Mangrove Cay, Andros; Sol- 
diers road. New Providence (208, 213, 258). Common on all the islands visited. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 263 

Bourreria thymifolia Griseb. On sand near the shore, Rum Cay (443). 
Tournefortia gnaphaloides (Jacq.) R. Br. On sandy shores of all the islands visited. 
Heliotropium parviflorum L. Nassau (129, 271). A common weed. 

YEEBENACEiE. 

Lantana involucrata L. Killarney barrens, New Providence. In sand near shore, 

Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (21, 410). Spanish Wells, George Island; Gregory 

Town, Eleuthera; Rum Cay; Cat Island; Watlings Island; Long Island; Abaco. 
Lantana crocea Jacq. Near Mt. Vernon, Nassau; Clarence Harbor, Long Island 

(126, 513); common in Eleuthera; Rum Cay; Watlings Island. 
Lippia canescens Kunth. Beach near Nassau (98). 

*Lippia stwchadifolia Kunth. By a fresh marsh, Arthurs Town, Cat Island (430). 
Lippia nodiflora (L.) Michx. Grants Town, Nassau (280). 
Valgrianodes jamaicensis (L.) Kuntze. (Ahena jamaicensis (L.) A. S. Hitch.). On 

the beach, Nassau (113); Mangrove Cay; Cat Island; Rum Cay; Watlings 

Island. 
Petetia pwppigii Schau. Pine-barrens, New Providence; Mangrove Cay, Andros; 

Arthurs Town, Cat Island (162, 224, 423, 556); Watlings Island. 
*Citharexyliim quadrangulare Jacq. High coppice. Mangrove Cay, Andros; along 

shore, Watlings Island; Clarence Harbor, Long Island (226, 488, 514). 
Priva lappulacea (L.) Pers. Grants Town, Nassau (268). 

Avicennia nitida Jacq. (Black Mangrove). In salt marshes on most of the islands. 
Duranta repens L. (Bitter-sweet). Common in low coppice. New Providence; 

Mangrove Cay; Abaco. 

L^BIATiE. 

*8alvia micrantha Vahl. East road, Nassau; Mangrove Cay, Andros; Gregory 

Town, Eleuthera (155, 205, 376). 
Leonurus sibirictis L. Grants Town, Nassau (283). 
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. Grants Town, Nassau (287). 
*ScuteUaria longiftora Small. Along road. Governors Harbor, Eleuthera (388). 

A new species just described from south Florida by Dr. J. K. Small. 
Teucriim cubense L. Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (398). 

SoLANACEiE. 

Solanum hahamense L. Mt. Vernon and West road, Nassau; near shore. Rum Cay 
(119, 171, 441); Mangrove Cay, Andros; Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera; Cat Island; 
Watlings Island; Long Island. 

Solanum nigrum L. Near shore. Mangrove Cay, Andros (229). 

Solanum. aculeatissimum Jacq. Grants Town, Nassau (276). 

* Solanum liavanense Jacq. (Old-man's plum, Devil's plum). Sandy soil, Spanish 
Wells, George Island (317). Berry said to be poisonous. 

Solanum verbascifolium L. Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera (393). New Providence, Man- 
grove Cay; Rum Cay; Watlings Island. 

*Datura arhorea L,. Grants Town, Nassau (277). 

Capsicum, baccatum L. Governors Harbor, Eleuthera (382). 

ScROPHULAEIACE.Ti;. 

Capraria biflora L. West road, Nassau; Gregory Town, Eleuthera (82, 375). 
Maurandia atitirrhiniftora (Pers.) Willd. (Wild Yam). East road, Nassau (146). 
Stemodia maritima L. Brackish bays. West road, Nassau (191). 



364 VEGETATION 

Gerardia maritima Raf. Edge of brackish pond, Nassau; Which Point, Abaco 
(300, 565). 

Gerardia domingensis Spreng. Spanish Wells, George Island (355). 

RusseUia juncea Zucc. In a graveyard, Spanish Wells, Eleuthera (308). Intro- 
duced, but now thoroughly established. 

Monniera monniera (L.) Britton. Borders of a fresh marsh near shore, Watlings 
Island (461). 

Buchnera elongata Sw. Pine-barrens, New Providence (543). 

Lextibulaoeje. 
Utricularia sp. Fresh-water pool, Arthurs Town, Cat Island (436). 

BlGNONIACE^. 

Tecoma iahamensis Northrop. Nassau (110). Mangrove Cay, Andros; Clarence 
Harbor, Long Island; Gregory Town and Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera; Cat Island; 
Watlings Island; Abaco. 

StenoloMum starts (L.) G.Don. (Tecoma stans (L.) Juss.) (Yellow Elder). Nassau 
(295) ; Current Settlement, Eleuthera. 

ACANTHACE^. 

Diapedium assurgens (L.) Kuntz. Rock quarry, Nassau; Water Cay, Long Island 

(273, 523). 
Anthacanthiis acicularis (Sw.) Nees. Gregory Town, Eleuthera (377); Watlings 

Island; Abaco. 

EuBIAOEjE. 

Philanthus myrtiltoides Griseb. (Boar Black-torch). Low coppice, Watlings Island 
(469). 

Antirrhcea lucida (Sw.) Hook. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (517). 

Antirrhasa myrtifolia (Griseb.) Urban. Near the beach. Green Cay (246). 

Langeria densiflora (Griseb.) B. & H. High coppice. Blue Hills road. New 
Providence (551). 

Chiococca parvifolia Willd. Low coppice. Soldiers road. New Providence (557). 

Chiococca pinetorum Britton. Killarney pine-barrens, and low places on North 
shore. New Providence (18, 80, 163, 185). 

Chiococca racemosa L. Gregory Town, Eleuthera (363). 

*Galium hispidulum Mich. In pine-barrens. Which Point, Abaco (563). 

Ernodea cokeri Britton (sp. nov.f.). Stems very slender, trailing, finely pubescent, 
3 cm. long or longer, much branched. Leaves narrowly linear, 2-3 cm. long, 
1-1.5 mm. wide, rough-pubescent, very acute, 1-nerved, narrowed at the base 
into very short petioles; stipules about 2 mm. long; fruit somewhat obovate, 
sessile, about 4 mm. long, crowned with the 5 subulate calyx-lobes, which are 
6 or 7 mm. in length. Growing under Pteridium caudatum (E.) Kuhn in pine- 
barrens. Which Point, Abaco (564). W. C. Coker, July 20, 1903. 

Ernodea littoralis L. Killarney pine-barrens, New Providence; near beach, Green 
Cay (63, 244). Common on the shores of all the islands. The Green Cay 
plants had white flowers. 

RachicalUs maritima (Jacq. ) Schum. On rocks along shore. West road. New Provi- 
dence (19) ; common in like situations on all the islands visited. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XLVI 




Fig. 1. — VEGEIATIOX OX BOKUJiR OF SALT PAX, RUJM CAY 




Fig. 2. — vegetation in meadow, water cat, long island 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING VEGETATION 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 265 

Psychotria undata Jacq. Mt. Vernon, New Providence; Eleuthera, opposite Span- 
ish Wells; in a banana hole, Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera; Clarence Harbor, Long 
Island (28, 330, 412, 507). 

Strumpfia maritima Jacq. Killarney pine-barrens. New Providence (59); common 
near the shores of all the islands visited. 

HameUa patens Jacq. Bluebeard's Tower, Nassau (127). 

Scolosanthus hahamensis Britton. Low coppice. East road, Nassau (13S). 

Erithalis friiticosa L. (Black-torch). Low coppice. New Providence; on sandy 
beach, Watlings Island (43, 73, 161, 192, 463); common on all the islands 
visited. The Watlings Island specimen is a peculiar beach form with thick, 
round leaves and procumbent, trailing branches. 

Gatesbcca fasciculata Northrop. Near the beach. Green Cay (247). 

Catesbcra spinosa L. (Prickly Apple). Side of hill, Gregory Town, Eleuthera (367) ; 
abundant on Long Island. 

Outtarda scahra Lam. Low coppice, Eleuthera, opposite Spanish Wells (318); not 
uncommon in pine-barrens on New Providence. 

Outtarda elliptica Sw. Arthurs Town, Cat Island; Clarence Harbor, Long Island 
(42'5, 515). 

Randia aculeata L. Pine-barrens, Soldiers road, Nassau (56). 

Morinda roioc L. Gregory Town, Eleuthera (379). Which Point, Abaco. 

Exostemma caribccum (Jacq.) R. & S. (Prince-wood). Watlings Island (465). New 
Providence. 

Genipa clusia'folia (Jacq.) Griseb. (Seven-year-apple). New Providence; Rum Cay; 
Green Cay; Current Settlement, Eleuthera; Watlings Island; Long Island; 
Abaco. 

CUCURBITACE^. 

Anguria keithii Northrop. Mangrove Cay, Andros (204, 218). 

GOODENIACEJ!. 
Scwvola pliimieri (L.) Vahl. A common beach plant on all the islands visited. 

Composite. 

Aster tennuifoUus L. Edge of a brackish pond, Nassau (3b); Abaco. 

Borrichia sp. Edge of a brackish pond, Nassau (14). 

Borrichia argentea DC. Common on shores of all the islands visited. 

Borrichia glabra Small. Common with above on all the islands visited. 

Iva cheiranthifoUa Kunth. Blue Hills road. New Providence; Green Cay (12, 239). 

Iva imbricata Walt. On sandy shores. Green Cay; Current Town, Eleuthera; Wat- 
lings Island; Governors Harbor, Eleuthera; Rum Cay; New Providence. 

Baccharis dioica Vahl. Killarney barrens. New Providence (183); along shore, and 
in moist places. Mangrove Cay, Andros; Gregory Town and Powells Point, 
Eleuthera; Cat Island; Rum Cay; Watlings Island. 

*Baccharis angustifolia Michx. (Broom-bush). Edge of Mangrove Swamp, West 
road, Nassau (194). 

*Leptilon canadense (L.) Britton. Governors Harbor, Eleuthera; Rum Cay (381, 
455). 

Ageratum muticum Griseb. Arthurs Town, Cat Island (431). 

Isocarpha oppositifolia (L.) R. Br. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (492). 

Melanthera deltoidea Michx. Clarence Harbor, Long Island (500). 

Eupatorium repandum Willd. Water Cay, Clarence Harbor (526); growing with 
Salmea. 

Eupatorium sp. Which Point, Abaco (560). 



266 VEGETATION 

Bidens leticantha Willd. Nassau (22); New Providence; Mangrove Cay, Andros; 

Abaco. 
Salmea petrohioides Grlseb. Beach near Nassau (25); common on shores of all 

the islands visited. 
Stemmodontia triloliata (L.) Cass. West road, Nassau (26). 
Verno7iia bahamensis Griseb. Pine-barrens, New Providence (53); Abaco. 
Eupatorium ageratifolmm DC. West road, Nassau (100). 
Tridax procumbens L. Beach near Nassau (104). 
Parthenium hysterophonis L. West road. Nassau (107). 
Melanthera nivea (L.) Small. Fort Montague, Nassau; Little Mangrove Cay, Andros 

(134, 198). 
Emilia sonchifolia (L. ) DC. Bluebeard's tower, Nassau (135). 
Anastraphia northropiana Greenm. (Brass-wood). East road, Nassau (151). 
'Willug'hb(rya heterophylla Small. Damp iDine-barrens, New Providence (164, 545); 

Abaco. Listed by Northrop as W. scandens. but the Bahama plant has now 

been given specific rank by Small. It is identical with the south Florida form. 
Phichea purpiirascens Sw. Marshy places, West road, Nassau (173). 
Pluchea fa-tida (L.) B. S. P. West road, Nassau (174, 356). 
Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass. (Sour-bush). West road. Nassau (27); Mangrove Cay; 

Watlings Island; Long Island. 
Ambrosia artemisiafolia Li. Grants Town, Nassau (291). 
Ambrosia hispida Pursh. Nassau (34) ; common on sandy shores on all the islands 

visited. 

The plants that are given in the preceding lists may be summarized as 
follows : 

Myxomycetes 11 

Fungi 22 

Lichens 40 

Algae =■ 59 

Liverworts 8 

Mosses 3 

Total number of lower plants 143 

Perns 14 

Flowering plants 423 

Total number of plants listed 580 

Of these there are — 

Unidentified species of flowering plants 10 

Unidentified species of lower plants 6 

Plants identified but not collected 37 

Three new species are here first described; the}^ are Pithecolobnim mucro- 
nattim Britton, Malvaviscus cokeri Britton, and Ernodea colceri Britten. In 
addition to these, two new species from our collection have already been de- 
scribed. These are N&omeris colceri Howe, an alga, and Torrubia col-eri Brit- 
ton, a flowering plant. Three other new species first collected by us, but pub- 

-" This does not include five species of Algse collected in the Atlantic Ocean 
and therefore not properly listed among the Bahama plants. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 267 

lished from type specimens collected later by Dr. Britton, Dr. J. K. Small and 
Dr. Millspangh, are Savia bahamensis Britton, Scutellaria longiflora Small, and 
Eupliorhia caijensis Millsp. 

Of identified species all of the Mj'xomycetes, 15 of the Fungi, 38 of the 
Lichens, all of the Liverworts, 1 of the Mosses and most of the Algs had not 
before been collected from the Bahamas. 

Specimens of wood, now at the University of North Carolina, were col- 
lected from the following 40 trees : 

From Clarence Harbor, Long Island : 
Tetrdzygia bicolor (Mill.) Cogn. 
Ccesalpinia vesicaria L. 
Tecoriia bahamensis Northrop. 
Fagara flava (Vahl.) Kr. & Urb. 
Reynosia septentrionalis Urban. 
Erytliroxylon obovatum MacF. 
Erytliroxylon brevipes DC. 
Lysioloma bahamensis Benth. 
Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl.) Urban. 
Guaiacum sanctum L. 
Amyris elemifera L. 
Gymnanihes lucida Sw. 
Rapanea guyanensis Aubl. 
Mayteiiiis buxifolia (Eich.) Griseb. 
Hypelate trifoliata Sw. 
Exostemma caribwum (Jacq.) K. & S. 
Torrubia longifolia (Heimcrl) Britton. 
Bursera simariiba (L.) Sarg. 
Coccolobis diversifolia Jacq. 
Coccolobis uvifera (L.) Jacq. 
Bourreria havanensis (L.) Miers. 
Pithecolobiuin lieyense Britton. 
Eugenia conftisa DC. 
Fagara fagara (L.) Small. 
Cohibrina colubrina (L. ) Millsp. 
Colubrina reclinaia (L'Her.) Brog. 
Mimusops sieberi A. DC. 
Conocarpiis erecta sericea Fors. 



268 VEGETATION 

From New Providence : 
Ilex hrugiana Loes. 
Ilex repanda Griseb. 
Swietenia mahogani L. 
Pera liumelice folia G-riseb. 
Icacoria paniculata (Nutt.) Sudw. 
Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Eadlk. 
Simaruha glauca Kth. 
Lysiloma paucifoliola (DC.) A. S. Hitch. 
Metopium metopium (L.) Small. 

From Abaco : 

Juniperus harhadensis L. 
Sideroxylon masticodendron Jacq. 

From Watlings Island : 

Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. 

EXPLANATION OP PLATES. 

Plate L 

Bougainvillea in a Nassau Garden. 

Plate XXXIH. 

Fig. 1. A lawn in Nassau, with Tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica) in center. 
Fig. 2. Pawpaw tree {Garica papaya) in fruit. In a door-yard, Nassau. 

Plate XXXIV. 

Fig. 1. A beach scene in Nassau, showing in center an "Almond" tree {Termi- 
nalia catappa) with upright shoots from a prostrate trunk. 

Fig. 2. Fig tree (Finis sapotifoUa) supported by large aerial roots: "Thomson's 
Folly," Nassau. 

Plate XXXV. 

Fig. 1. A Nassau scene, showing the Royal Palm (Roystonia regia) in center. 
Fig. 2. A Pine tree (Pinus bahamensis) , about 55 feet high, surrounded by Silver 
Palm {Thrinax iahamensis) : Blue Hill road. New Providence. 

Plate XXXVI. 

Fig. 1. Lignum Vitse trees (Guaiacuvi sanctum) on a hill near Clarence Harbor, 

Long Island; showing the effect of prevailing winds. 
Fig. 2. Sand-box tree (Hura crepitans) in a Nassau street. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XLVII 




Fig. 1. — ^VEGETATION ON SANDY BEACH, NEW PROVIDENCE 




FlG. 2. — VEGETATION ON SANDY BEACH, GKEEN CAY 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING VEGETATION 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 269 

Plate XXXVII. 

Fig. 1. Scene In a fresh-water marsh on the north side of New Providence to the 
west of Nassau, with Thatch Palm (Inodes palmetto) in center: Wax 
Myrtle (Myrica cerifera) , Custard Apple (Anona pahistris) and Cocoa 
Plum (Chrysobalanus icaco) in the undergrowth: (Salmea petrobi- 
oides) in patches on the hillside in foreground. 

Fig. 2. Forest scene on Which Point, Abaco, showing Pines with " May-pole " 
fern (Pteridhim caudatum) beneath. 

Plate XXXVIII. 

Fig. 1. A typical high coppice at junction of Blue Hill and Soldiers roads. New 

Providence. 
Fig. 2. Mixed growth of Pines, Silver Palms (Thrinax, liahamensis) and deciduous 

trees on Blue Hill road. New Providence. 

Plate XXXIX. 

Fig. 1. Logwood tree (Hwmatoxylon campecJiianum) in a clearing at Current 

Settlement, Eleuthera. 
Fig. 2. Fig trees in a clearing on Man'grove Cay, Andros. Ficus jacqumifoUa in 

center, Ficus sapotifolia to left. Small aerial roots are running down 

the stems. 

Plate XL. 

Fig. 1. "Bamboo tree" {Agave rigida) on a barren hillside: east shore, Gregory 
Town, Eleuthera. The flower stalk is about 30 feet high and 13 inches 
in diameter. 

Fig. 2. An epiphytic plant (Tillaiidsia recurvata) on {Strumpfia marittma) in an 
open brackish flat near Nassau. 

Plate XLI. 

Fig. 1. Pigeon Plum tree {Goccoloiis laurifolia) ; Clarence Harbor, Long Island. 
Fig. 2. Mangrove trees {Rhizopliora viavgle), about 3.5 feet high, on a small cay in 
the lake, Watlings Island. 

Plate XLI I. 

FiQ. 1. Rock coast on the north side of New Providence, west of Nassau, showing, 
in almost pure association, RhacicalUs maritima to right and Suriana 
marittma to left. 

Fig. 2. Sandy shore on north side of New Providence, west of Nassau: Tourne- 
fortia gnapJialodes and Vniola paniculata in foreground; behind these 
a fringe of Sea grape (GoccoloHs uvifera) ; with Cocoanut Palm 
{Cocos nucifera) in background. 

Plate XLIII. 

Fig. 1. Sandy and rocky shore on the west side of Watlings Island: Thatch Palms 
in background; Cocoa Plum (Chrysobalanus icaco) next; then an open 
growth of A7n.brosia hispida and DisticliUs maritima; and finally 
Suriana maritima on the rocky ledge at high-tide mark. 

Fig. 2. Scene on a rocky beach, west side of Watlings Island; showing Thatch 
Palms (Inodes palmetto) in background and "Spanish Cedar" {Casu- 
arina equisetifolia) to left. In foreground are natives washing clothes. 






370 VEGETATION 

Plate XLIV. 

Pig. 1. Tournefortia gnapUalodes on a sandy beach at Mangrove Cay, Andros. 
Many of the branches have recurved and taken root at their tips, 
forming new plants. 

Fig. 2. Outer limit of vegetation on a rocky coast, Water Cay, Long Island. In 
foreground is BymenocaUis arenicola with Silver Palm {Thrinax 
bahamensis) and Strong-back (Bourreria liavanensis) behind. Be- 
tween the palms the Strong-back has been worn away by the wind. 

Plate XLV. 

Pig. 1. Hymenocallis arenicola in flower with Thatch Palms (Inodes palmetto) in 
background; western shore of Eleuthera. opposite Current Town. 
Among the Hymenocallis is scattered Corchorus hirsutus. 

Fig. 2. Rocky shore on eastern coast of Long Island opposite Clarence Harbor. 
Rhacicallis maritima on rocks in foreground. With it is mixed a little 
Iva imbricata, Salmea petrobioides. Strumpfia maritima, Ernodea lit- 
toralis. Siiriana maritima and Vniola fasciculata. On the slope and 
top of the ridge behind this association is a low rock coppice of Silver 
Palms (Thrinax bahamensis) , Jacquinia keyensis, Genipa clusia-folia, 
etc. 

Plate XLVI. 

Fig. 1. Avicennia nitida on the border of a salt pan on Rum Cay: showing the 
upright aerial roots as tall as the leafy plant. 

Pig. 2. A meadow of Sporobolus virginiciis on Water Cay, Long Island: Avicennia 
nitida (to right) and Conocarpus erecta (to left) In background. The 
small scrubs to left in foreground are Borrichia arborescens. 

Plate XLVI I. 

Fig. 1. Sandy beach on south side of New Providence: Avicennia nitida in shallow 
sea water, and the typical beach plants, Tournefortia giiaphalodes, 
Scaevola plumieri, Strumpfia maritima. and the grasses, Paspaliim 
vaginatum and Sporobolus virginicus. In background is a fringe of 
Silver Palms (Thrinax bahamensis). 

Fig. 2. Sandy beach on Green Cay looking landward. Grasses mixed with Sesu- 
vium portulacastrum in foreground with a low coppice behind. 



MOSQUITOES OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



INTRODUCTION 

BY 
L. O. HOWARD, Ph. D., 

Cliief Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



Down to the time when the Geographical Society of Baltimore sent out its 
Expedition to the Bahamas not a single species of mosquito was known from 
these Islands, and in fact none have since been recorded; so that the informa- 
tion contained in the following paper by Mr. CofEin is entirely new and might 
■n'ell be expected to afford some facts of interest. In examining his material and 
in reading the report of his observations, I am at once struck by the fact of 
the absence of mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles or any of the mosquitoes of 
the tribe Anophelini. Wliile this by no means indicates that species of this 
group do not occur upon the Islands, it is significant and would seem to 
indicate that, from the standpoint of diseases of malarial origin, the Bahamas 
must rank as a health resort. With regard to the yellow fever mosquito, 
Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.), the case is quite different. This species seems to 
be found in most localities in which Mr. Coffin collected, and therefore quar- 
antine measures against yellow fever on the part of the Islands should be rigor- 
ous, and carefully screened detention hospital facilities should be provided for 
incomers to the Islands from vessels having the fever aboard. 

From the point of view of geographic distribution of species, mosquitoes 
have a smaller faunistic value than certain other groups of insects. Many 
forms have become widespread through commerce. On large continental 
areas they are readily carried by railway trains, and to islands it is well known 
that they are carried long distances upon ships and that in earlier times they 
were allowed to breed freely in the fresh-water supply of vessels. Therefore it 
must not be considered remarkable that of the fifteen species collected by Mr. 
Coffin none of them are distinctively Bahamian. It is rather curious though 
that without exception all have a North American distribution, although 
several of them have also a tropical range. Certain forms, like Culex pipians 
Linne, are cosmopolitan; Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.) is found all through the 
tropical life zone and in regions which correspond to the Lower Austral in 
18 



274 MOSQUITOES 

the United States fauna; Janthinosoma varvpes (Coq.) has previously been 
found only in Mexico and in Mississippi; Gulex confirmatus (Arrib.) is a West 
Indian form which is also found in the State of Louisiana, probably by 
accidental commercial introduction; Gulex cyancscens Coq., has previously been 
found only in south Texas, and Culex nanus Coq., originally described from 
Cuba, has for its United States locality only Key West, where it is probaljly 
also an accidental commercial importation. Other forms have a very wide dis- 
tribution, certain of them, like Culex sollicitans Walk., C. territans Walk., and 
C. trivittatus Coq., extending north to New England. 

It will thus appear that the report is of very considerable interest, and on 
belialf of the U. S. National Museum I wish to express to Mr. Coffin and to 
the Director of the Expedition, hearty thanks for the interesting series of 
specimens. 

The series of early stages of these mosquitoes collected by Mr. Coffin will 
be used in the preparation of a monograph of the mosquitoes of North and 
Central America and the West Indies upon which I am now at work, in 
collaboration with Mr. D. W. Coquillett and Dr. H. G. Dyar, under a grant 
from the Carnegie Institution. 



MOSQUITOES OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



BY 
T. HOMER COFFIN 



INTRODUCTION. 

These observations were made during June and Ji^ly, 1903, wliile the 

autlior was a member of the Bahama Expedition of the Geographical Society 

of Baltimore. Although they cover a period of only two months, the time 

chosen was probably as favorable for mosquito collecting as any, since the 

rainfall was abundant. Many of the islands contain inland marshes of 

brackish water, and everywhere the weathering of the coral rock, of which the 

islands are composed, produces pot-holes and shallow depressions which are 

I filled with fresh water during the rainy season. There are few streams of 

running water, and these are small, draining marshes and low ground. 

f The natives, who arc dependent on rain water for domestic purposes, use 

/ tubs, barrels, and cisterns for holding the supply, and all of these receptacles 

\ were found to contain vast numbers of mosquito larvaa. In some places the 

■ natives have dug down through the coral rock to water, but this well or 

" spring" water is always more or less brackish to the taste. In order to make 

the water fit for drinking the natives put it in barrels containing ashes, to 

soften it, .and these barrels were found to contain mosquito larvte also. 

The larvffi, which were collected by means of a small dipper, were placed 
in small specimen bottles and taken on board the ship, where a temporary labo- 
ratory had been fitted up. Here the larvaj were transferred to large breeding 
jars, and were studied through their life history. Cast skins were either 
mounted in balsam or preserved in alcohol or formalin. 

Adults were caught in test tubes while in the resting position, eacli 
specimen being carefully preserved between plugs of cotton wool. Powdered 
naphthalene in a small insect gun was used to kill and preserve the specimens. 
The species of mosquitoes found at the difl'erent localities are given below: 

DESCRIPTION OF STATIONS. 
The following is a description of the various stations at which mosquitoes 
were collected, with a list of the forms taken at each. 



376 mosquitoes 

Kassau, jSFew Providence. 

During the stay at Nassau specimens were obtained from the town and 

from the woods and thickets in the vicinity. Water barrels, tin cans, and 

roadside puddles were found full of larvae, and the adults were often obtained 

by entering houses and native huts and searching in dark rooms and corners. 

The following species were taken in the town : 

Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Oulex pipiens Linng. 

Gulex confirmatus (Arrib.). Culex twniorynchiis Wied. 

Gulex nanus Coq. Culex territans Walk. 

Specimens from the vicinity of Nassau on the island of New Providence 

were taken from Fort Charlotte, Mount Vernon, Mammfe Pool, and Farrington 

road, about three miles from the town. At Port Charlotte the specimens were 

taken, both as larvje and adults, from the rain barrels and darkened rooms of 

the fort and from the woods just south of the fort. They were : 

Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Culex nanus Coq. 

Janthinosoma varipes (Coq.). Culex pipiens Linne. 

Gulex confirmatiis (Arrib.). Gulex tceniorynchus Wied. 

At Mount Vernon the larvse were obtained from small pot-holes in the 

rock, and at Mammse Pool adults were taken flying near the pool, and some 

larvae from the water of the pool. They were : 

Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Gulex nanus Coq. 

Janthinosoma varipes (Coq.). Gulex pipiens Linne 

Gulex confirmatus (Arrib.). Culex serratus Theob. 

Culex jamaicensis Theob. Gulex twniorynchus Wied. 

From Farrington Road, about three miles from town, larvee and adults 

were obtained. These were : 

Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Gulex pipiens Linne 

Gulex confirmatus (Arrib.). Gulex serratus Tlieob. 

Gulex nanus Coq. Gulex twniorynchus Wied. 

Andros. 

Specimens were obtained here from Mangrove Cay and a small island 

near Eeids Cay in Middle Bight. At Mangrove Cay larvae were taken from 

pools in the rock, at some distance from any dwelling, and adults from the 

thickets some distance inland. The species were : 

stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Gulex pipiens Linne 

Gulex confirmatus (Arrib.). Gulex solUcitans Wall;. 

Culex jamaicensis Theob. Gulex twniorynchus Wied. 
Culex nanus Coq. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XLVIII 




W 
O 
H 

S 
& 

O 







<1 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 277 

The small island near Keids Cay is about fourteen miles from Mangrove 

Cay and uninhabited. The following species were obtained here : 

Culex confirmatus (Arrib.). Oulex solUcitans Walk. 

Culex nanus Coq. Culex twniorynchus Wied. 

Green Cay. 

At this place mosquitoes in innumerable swarms flew out to our vessel 
while at anchor near the shore, and the next morning specimens were collected 
on board. The species were : 

Culex jamaicensis Theob. Culex solUcitans Walk. 

Spanish Wells, George Island. 

All the specimens obtained here were either from houses or water barrels 
near them. The brackish water which these barrels contained is softened 
by adding ashes and used for drinking and cooking purposes by the natives. 
The following species were obtained here : 

Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Culex pipiens Linne 

Harbor Island, Eleuthera. 

The specimens obtained here were from water barrels, under the same 
conditions as those from Spanish Wells. They all belonged to the one species, 
Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). 

Current Settlement, Eleuthera. 

These specimens were obtained from houses and water barrels and from 

a small pool. The houses and water barrels furnished the following species: 

Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Culex nanus Coq. 

Culex confirmatus (Arrib.). Culex pipiens Llnne 

From the pool were taken : 

JantMnosoma varipes (Coq.). Culex twniorynchus Wied. 

Governors Harbor, Eleuthera. 

These specimens were all taken from a marsh near the seashore. 

Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Culex twniorynchus Wied. 

Culex restuans Theob. 



278 mosquitoes 

Taepum Bay, Eleuthera. 

The following spec-imens were obtained from this settlement. 
Stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Culex pipiens Linne 

From the woods inland also : 

Wyeomyia smithii (Coq.). Culex nanus Coq. 

Janthinosoma musica (Say.). Culex pipiens Linne. 

Culex confirmatus (Arrib.). Culex tceniorynchus Wied 

Culex cyanescens Coq. Culex trivitattus Coq. 

Powells Point, Eleuthera. 

These specimens were taken from the thicket near the shore. 

Culex confirmatus (Arrib.). Culex tceniorynchus Wied. 

Culex pipiens Linne. 

Arthurs Town, Cat Island. 

These specimens were all taken from the thicket some distance inland. 
Culex nanus Coq. Culex pipiens Linne. 

Port Nelson, Bum Cay. 

These were taken about a mile inland. 

Culex sollicitans "Walk. Culex twniorynchus Wied. 

Watlings Island. 

Specimens ^^•ero taken here from Cockbnrn Town and from the United 

Estate, on the opposite side of the island. At Cockbnrn Town some larvae and 

adults were taken from pools in the rock. From Cockbnrn Town : 

Stegomyia fasciata (Pabr. ). Culex sollicitans Walk. 

Wyeomyia smithii (Coq.). Culex tceniorynchus Wied. 

Culex confirmatus (Arrib.). 

From United Estate: 

Culex confirmatus (Arrib.). Culex tceniorynchus Wied. 

Culex sollicitans Walk. 

Clarence Harbor, Long Island. 

Specimens were obtained from houses in the settlement and from dense 
woods inland. From the settlement the following were taken: 

stegomyia fasciata (Fabr.). Culex confirmatus (Arrib.). 

From the woods inland : 

Wyeomyia smithii (Coq.). Culex tceniorynchus Wied. 



i 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



279 



DESCRIPTIONS OF IMPORTANT MOSQUITOES. 
In order to aid local physicians of the Bahama Islands in determining the 
various mosquitoes in the districts where they practice, descriptions of the 

/..-■-hedd ■-"■,'"■,. 
//',dritennde,\ \ 




dpicdl 5 eg ment. 



t arsal 
-tannl claws-- 

on s'*' tarlQl ioint. 

Fig. 7. — Diagram of Mosquito with Parts Named. 
Published here by courtesj' of Dr. J. It. Smith, State Entomologist of New Jersey. 

species mentioned above will now be given. In making these descriptions, the 
author has quoted from Coquillett's various publications, and for other species 



280 



MOSQUITOES 



has somewhat abbreviated the descriptions given by Theobald in his " Mono- 
graph of the Culicidae." Those who are not familiar with the anatomy of the 
mosquito will find Fig. 7 of great aid in following the descriptions. 

Stegomtia fasciata (Fabr.) 
Plate XLVIII, Fig. 1. 
Gulex fasciata Fabricius, 1805, Syst. Antl., p. 36. 

Description. Color. — To the naked eye the insect appears black and 
white, the pure white contrasting strongly with the Jet black. 

Size. — Ordinary length 3 to 5 mm. 

Head.- — Densely clothed with broad, flat scales, black and grey on each 
side, a white patch in the middle in front, a white patch on each side, a thin 
white border to the eye, forked, upright scales from nape; clypeus is scaly; 
antennae blackish, with narrow, pale bands ; proboscis black — no white bands. 

Thorax. — Dark brown, with reddish-brown, golden and creamy curved 
scales, ornamented as follows : a pure white, broad, curved band on each side, 
curved inward about the middle of the mesonotum, and continues back as a 
thinner pale line to the scutellum ; two thin, parallel, pale-scaled lines between, 
extending about half-way across the mesonotum, and more or less on the scu- 
tellum, a short white line in front between these two, a white spot on each side 
of the thorax in front near the neck; scutellum with a thick row of white, 
broad, flat scales, and three tufts of bristles ; metanotum brown ; pleura dark- 
brown, with patches of silvery scales. 

Abdomen. — Dark brownish-black, covered in places with black, white and 
grey scales, with basal band of white scales, first segment with creamy scales, 
sides with patches of white scales, forming more or less triangular patches. 

Legs. — Black, with basal white bands; tibia black; metatarsi with basal 
white bands; fore tarsi with first joint basally white, the rest black; mid tarsi 
the same; hind tarsi all basally white except the last joint, which is pure white. 

Breeding Places. — Still water, as in rain barrels, water tanks, pools. 

Remarks. — 136 specimens of this form were taken at the following places : 
Nassau, June 19, July 2; Current Settlement, July 5; Spanish Wells, July 4; 
Harbor Island, July 4; Governors Harbor, July 7; Tarpum Bay, July 7; 
Watlings Island, July 13 ; Long Island, July 15. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XLIX 







o 

H 

P 
& 




^ 

-< 



< 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 281 

Janthinosoma musica (Say). 
Culex musicus Say, 1829, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., vol. vi, p. 149. 

Description. Color. — Light yellow. 

Size. — 4.8 to 5 mm. 

Head. — Honey yellow, covered with orange-brown scales, and a few yellow 
hairs projecting on front; eyes black, with coppery reflections; antennaj dark- 
brown ; palpi dark-brown, or brilliant violet or purple in some lights ; proboscis 
dark-brown, covered with scales and with metallic purple reflections. 

Thorax. — Deep metallic brown with purplish reflections, with scattered 
yellow and orange, flat, spindle-shaped scales, dark bristles; scutellum ochra- 
eeous brown, dark-brown in the middle and sides; mesonotum shiny chestnut- 
brown; pleuree brown, with large patches of creamy white scales. 

Ahdomen. — Deep purplish-brown above when viewed pointing from the 
light; when pointing to the light very brilliant metallic violet and purple; 
laterally are patches of yellow scales, especially on the last four segments; a 
triangular patch of yellow scales on each segment; the flrst segment is entirely 
yellow, scaled beneath. 

Legs. — Metallic blue and purple, in some lights almost brown; the last 
two tarsi of the hind legs and apex of second pure white; ungues nearly the 
same size, but slightly different form, a tooth present on each. 

Wings. — Brownish tinge and brown scales, flrst submarginal cell slightly 
longer and narrower than second posterior cell; branches curved, stem about 
one-half less than its length. 

Remarks. — 13 specimens of this form were taken at Tarpum Bay, July 7. 

Janthinosoma VAEiPEs (Coq.). 
Concliyliastes varipes Coquillett, 1904, Can. Bnt., vol. xxxvi, p. 10. 

Description. — " Black ; the front and hind femora, except their broad 
apices, the posterior side of the middle femora except their apices, and the stems 
of the halteres, yellow, the fourth joint of the hind tarsi white; scales of palpi 
violaceous, those of the occiput yellowish-white and with a patch of violaceous 
ones on either side; (mesonotum abraded; what scales remain are yellowish- 
white and a few black ones along the middle) ; scales of abdomen violet blue, 
those on sides of flrst two segments, hind angles of the others except the last one, 
under surface of each segment except the last one and base of the preceding. 



383 MOSQUITOES 

whitish; scales on yellow portion of femora 3'ellowish white, those on the re- 
mainder and on tibise violet blue, those on the tarsi black except on the front 
joint of the hind tarsi, where they are white; claws of front tarsi toothed; 
wings grayish hyaline, veins and scales brown, petiole of j&rst submarginal cell 
from two-fifths to three-fifths as long as that cell, hind cross-vein less than 
its length from the small; length 4 mm." 

Remarhs. — 13 specimens of this form were taken at Nassau, June 33, 
and Current Settlement, July 5. 

Wyeomyia smithii (Coq.). 
Plate XLVIII, Fig. 3. 
Aedes smithii Coqulllett, 1901, Can. Ent., vol. xxxiii, p. 260. 

Desckiption. — " Black; the pleurse largely, venter, bases of halteres, coxre 
and bases of femora, yellow; scales of upper side of body dark-brown, some on 
the abdomen having a violaceous reflection ; scales of femora black, those on the 
under side light yellow ; scales of hind tibia; black, those on the inner side and 
on the front and middle tibise, and their tarsi, light yellow ; tarsal claws simple ; 
wings hyaline, first submarginal cell nearly twice as long as its petiole; length, 
3 mm." 

Remarhs. — 12 specimens of this form were taken at the following places : 
Tarpum Bay, Jiily 7; Long Island, July 15. 

CuLEX coNFiRMATus (Arrib.). 
Plate XLIX, Fig. 1. 
OcMerotatus confirmatus Arribalzoga, 1891, Rev. d. Mus. La Plata, vol. i, p. 4G. 

Description. Color. — Dark brown ; thorax silvery white. 

Size. — Ordinary; length 4.5 to 5 mm. 

Head. — Dark brown, clothed with pale creamy scales in the middle, ochra- 
ceous ones at the side and behind, and with upright, ochraceous, forked ones; 
sides with flat scales; eyes deep, purplish-black and silver; clypeus deep 
purplish-brown; antenna; dark brown; palpi black scaled, proboscis covered 
with shiny black scales. 

Thorax. — Clothed in front with pale, silky, yellowish, narrow, curved 
scales, which gradually become pure silky-white about half way across the 
mesonotum, the remaining parts of the mesonotum darker, covered with scat- 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 283 

tered brown scales, as also are the sides; scutellum brownish, with creamy 
scales, and a border of golden-brown bristles; pleurae chestnut-brown, with 
patches of white scales. 

Abdomen. — Dark brown, with violet reflections; median line of ochre 
scales, which are thickest at the bases of the segments; venter covered with 
creamy-yellow scales. 

Wings. — With submarginal cell longer and narrower than the second 
posterior, its stem equal to about two-thirds of the cell. 

Legs. — Covered with deep brown scales; femora whitish. 

RemarJcs. — 103 specimens of this form were taken at the following places : 
Nassau, June 32, July 3; Andros, June 26; Tarpum Baj^, July 2; Current 
Settlement, July 5; Powells Point, July 8; Long Island, July 15; Watlings 
Island, July 13. 

CULEX CYANESCENS Coq. 
Culex cyanescens Coquillett, 1902, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc, vol. x, p. 46. 

Description. — "Black; stems of halteres and femora, except their 
apices, yellow; occiput rather densely covered with broad, appressed, yellow 
scales, and narrow, upright, yellow ones changing to black at the sides and 
posterior edge, a spot of violet-blue appressed scales near middle of each outer 
edge of the occiput; palpi covered with broad, appressed, brassy-3'ellow scales, 
the spots at the posterior angles of the segments considerably produced forward 
at their inner ends; scales at apices of femora, on hind tibiae, and front side of 
the others; also on tarsi, violet-blue; tarsal claws large, one-toothed; wings 
greyish hyaline, veins chiefly blue: lateral scales narrow and elongate, petiole 
of first submarginal cell four-fifths as long as the cell; posterior cross-vein 
about its own length from, the small one. Length 4 to 5.5 mm." 

Remarks. — One specimen of this form was taken at Tarpum Bay, July 7. 

CuLES j.\MAiCENsis Theob. 
Plate XLIX, Fig. 2. 
Culex jamaicensis Theobald, 1901, Mon. Ciilic, vol. i, p. 345. 
Desckiption. Color. — Dark brown or black. 
Size. — Medium sized, 4.5 to 5.5 mm. 

Head. — Brown, with scattered, curved, cinereous scales, and black, up- 
right, forked ones, white and black, upright, forked ones at the sides of the 



384 MOSQUITOES 

head, and numerous black bristles ; e3'es silvery ; clypeus cliestnut-brown, nude ; 
antennae brown; palpi brown, with same yellow scales, white at the apex, with 
long, dark bristles; proboscis black at the tip and base, the middle with yel- 
lowish scales spread over the brown surface, giving the appearance of a broad, 
yellowish band. 

Thorax. — Dark brown, with four round patches of creamy scales and a 
few pale ones in front of the scutellum; pleurgg with patches of grey scales; 
scutellum with pale, curved scales and deep brown border bristles ; mesonotum 
deep brown, nude. 

Abdomen. — Dark brown or black, the various segments with distinct 
creamy patches of apical scales, last segment mostly black, ventrally with j)ale 
yellow and brown scales, with a few black marks. 

Wings. — Veins covered with black and white scales, with one small deep 
black spot at the base of the third longitudinal vein where it meets the cross 
veins. 

Legs. — Brown ; banded and speckled with yellowish scales, giving the legs a 
mottled appearance; fore femora black; knee white; tibiae black, spotted with 
yellow scales; metatarsus with a basal and median band of yellow, first two 
tarsi basally white, banded, remainder black; in the midlegs the markings are 
the same, but there is a trace of banding on the third tarsus, and the femora 
are whitish beneath, escept at the apex; in the hind legs all the tarsal joints 
are basally banded, ventrally are similar to midlegs. 

Remarks. — 11 specimens of this form were taken at the following places : 
Nassau, June 32; Andros, June 36; Green Ca_y, June 36. 

CULEX NANUS Coq. 
Culex nanus Coquillett, 1903, Can. Ent., vol. xxxv, p. 256. 

Description. — " ISTear jamaicensis, but much smaller, the light colored 
scales on the tibise not collected into spots; mesonotum without round spots 
of yellowish scales. Black, the base of antennas, except the first joint, a band 
at middle of proboscis, the halteres and bases of femora yellow, scales and hairs 
of palpi black, appressed scales of occiput golden-yellow, the upright ones 
black; scales of mesonotum golden-yellow, those of abdomen black and with 
a broad cross-band of whitish ones on the hind margin of each segment, the 
last two segments nearly wholly whitish scaled; scales of venter white, those 
of femora and tibiae mixed black and whitish, the latter forming a ring nearly 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE L 




O 
D 



« -s 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 385 

three-fourths the length of each femiir; scales of tarsi black, those at narrow- 
bases of joints whitish; tarsal claws simple; wings hyaline, the scales mixed 
black and white; the black ones not collected into spots; lateral scales of the 
anterior veins narrowl}' lanceolate, those of the other veins almost linear. 
Length, 4 to 5.5 mm." 

Remarks.- — 71 specimens of this form were taken at the following places : 
Fassaii, June 23 ; Andros, June 26 ; Tarpum Bay, July 7 ; Cat Island, July 9. 

CuLEX PiPiENS Linne. 
Gulex pipiens Linn6, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. x, p. 602. 

Description. Color. — Dark brown. 

Size. — 4.5 to 6 mm. 

Head. — With curved golden-brown scales in front, and in the middle 
numerous dark-brown, upright, forked ones; the sides covered with creamy- 
white flat scales; antennre dark brown, with pale pubescence; palpi thick, 
brown, with some greyish scales; proboscis ochraceous-brown in the middle, 
black towards apex and base, extreme tip ochraceous; eyes deep purplish-black, 
with a few silvery markings. 

Thorax. — Dark brown, -with golden-brown, curved scales, and three rows 
of black bristles; in some specimens dark, thoracic stripes show through the 
scales in front; scutellum with pale golden curved scales and golden-brown 
bristles; pleura chestnut-brown, with a few small patches of pale creamy 
scales; mesonotum pale chestnut-brown. 

Abdomen. — Covered with dusky-brown scales, and the bases of the seg- 
ments with distinct cross-bands of whitish or flaxen-yellow scales; venter with 
pale yellowish scales. 

Wings. — The veins covered with long brown scales, first submarginal cell 
long and narrow, its stem very short; base of the first submarginal cell beyond 
junction of subcostal and costal; fringe brown, with pale reflections. 

Legs. — Unhanded; brown, with an ochraceous luster; coxre yellowish- 
brown; femora pale beneath, knee spot white, tarsi dark brown. 

Remarks. — 71 specimens of this form were taken at the following places : 
>I"assau, June 9; Spanish Wells, July 4; Current Settlement, July 5; Tarpum 
Bay, July 7 ; Powells Point, July 8 ; Cat Island, July 9. 



386 MOSQUITOES 

CuLEX EESTUANs Theob. 
Plate L, Fig. 1. 
Culex restuans Theobald, 1901, Mon. Culic, vol. ii, p. 142. 

Description. Color. — C'liestnut-brown. 

Size. — 5 to 6 mm. 

Head. — Black, with numerous pale, creamy, curved scales, and black, 
ujDright, forked ones, flat white scales at sides of head; palpi black, gre3dsh at 
tip; antennas with basal joint and base of second joint testaceous, remainder 
blackish-brown. 

Thorax. — Bright, chestnut-brown, short, bright, golden-brown curved 
scales; scutellum pale; mesonotum ochraceous-brown ; pleura pale, testaceous, 
with four patches of white scales. 

Abdomen. — Ochraceous, covered with dusky-brown scales; first segment 
ochraceous, with two median tufts of blackish scales and long golden hairs. 

Legs. — With coxas, bases and under sides of femora almost wliite, remain- 
der deep, bronzy-brown to almost black ; claws equal and simple. 

Remarks. — 4 specimens of this form were taken at Governors Harbor, 
July 6. 

Culex sekratus Theob. 
Culex serratus Theobald, 1901, Mon. Culic, vol. ii, p. 45. 

Description. Color. — Dark brown. 

Size. — 5.0 to 6.5 mm. 

Head. — Brown, clothed with white scales in front and in the middle, 
brown above and white at the sides, with a few upright, yellow, forked scales ; 
eyes purple, bordered with a narrow edge of white; antenuEe brown; palpi 
black, with a few dark grey scales; proboscis black. 

Thorax. — Dark Jjrown, with a broad stripe of creamy grey scales in the 
middle; scutellum brown, with whitsh scales in the middle and black later- 
ally; mesonotum chestnut-brown, pleuraa testaceous, with patches of white 
scales. 

Abdomen. — Covered with dark, brownish-black scales, with purplisli re- 
flections; laterally there is a basal silver3'-white spot, which partially shows on 
the dorsum; flrst segment ochraceous with a patch of purple scales in the 
middle and very pilose; venter almost entirely clothed with white scales. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 287 

Legs. — Dark brown, ungues equal and unserratecl. 

\Yings. — With a dusky yellow tinge, testaceous at base; veins clothed with 
dark brown scales. 

Remarks. — 1 specimen of this form was taken at Nassau, June 24. 

CULEX SOLLICITANS Walk. 
Culex solHcitans Walker, 1S52, Ins. Saund. Dept., vol. i, p. 427. 

Description. Color. — Brownish. 

Size. — About 6 mm. 

Head. — Brown, with dense golden, curved, hair-like scales which project 
in front of the eyes as a dense tuft of hairs; antennse testaceous at the base, 
black for the remainder; palpi covered with dark brown scales, and with a 
white apex; proboscis black, with a distinct yellowish-white band in the mid- 
dle; eyes silvery. 

Tliorax. — Brown, covered witli golden-brown, thin, curved, scaled; scu- 
tellum similarly covered, and with bright, golden-brown bristles on the border ; 
mesonotum chestnut-brown; pleuraa dark brown, densely covored with white 
scales. 

Abdomen. — With creamy-white to yellow scales, forming a central broad 
line, and with basal white bands, with a dark brown to nearly black quad- 
rangular patch on each side of the central mass of pale scales; venter with 
pale creamy scales. 

Wings. — With testaceous veins and pale brown scales; first submarginal 
cell longer and narrower than the second posterior cell; posterior cross-vein 
about its own length distant from mid-cross-vein. 

Legs. — Ochraceous, mottled with black and white scales, knee spot white ; 
fore metatarsi without a basal white band. 

Remarks. — 41 specimens of this form were taken at the following places : 
Andros, June 26; Green Cay, June 29; Eum Cay, July 10; Watlings, July 13. 

Culex t^eniorynchus Wied. 
Plate L, Fig. 2. 
Culex tmnioryncJius ■Wiedemann, 1821, Dept. Exot., pt. 1, p. 43. 
Description. Color. — Brownish. 
Size. — 5 to 5.8 mm. 



288 ■ MOSQUITOES 

Head. — With golden and creamy scales, forming a groundwork, with 
numerous black, upright, forked scales all over the occiput; eyes silvery; 
clypeus bright brown ; antennae brown ; palpi yellowish, with black scales at 
base and towards apex; extreme apex with white scales; proboscis dark brown, 
with a creamy white band about its middle. 

Thorax. — Dark purplish-brown, covered with golden-brown, curved, hair- 
like scales, and some black bristles in three rows; scutellum deep purplish- 
brown, with testaceous patches and black bristles with golden hair-like scales; 
mesonotum chestnut-brown; pleurse deep brown, with patches of white scales. 

Abdomen. — Densely covered with deep purplish-black scales, each seg- 
ment with a narrow basal band of pale yellowish-white scales, and pure lateral 
spots; ventrally similarly covered as the dorsum. 

Legs. — Fore legs dark brown, bases of first and second tarsal joints white, 
last two joints black; midlegs, femora black above, creamy below, metatarsus 
basally white banded, also the first two tarsal joints; hind legs, the metatarsus 
and first three tarsal joints are basally white banded; the last joint pure white, 
otherwise like midlegs. 

Remarks. — 217 specimens of this form were taken at the following places : 
Nassau, June 22, July 2 ; Andros, June 26 ; Governors Harbor, July 6 ; Powells 
Point, July 8 ; Eum Cay, July 10 ; Watlings, July 13 ; Current Settle- 
ment, July 15; Long Island, July 15. 

CULES TEERITANS Walk. 

Plate LI, Fig. 1. 
Gulex territans Walker, Ins. Saund. Dept., vol. li, p. 428. 

Description. Color. — Brown. 

Size. — 6 mm. 

He-ad. — Brown, with narrow, curved, deep golden-brown scales and up- 
right, darker, forked ones; antenna dark-brown, testaceous at base; palpi 
brown; proboscis brown, black at the apex. 

Thorax. — Brown, with two dark lines, and covered with small curved, 
hair-like scales of rich golden-brown tint, and with dark brown bristles; 
scutellum brown, pleurse brown, with a few white scales. 

Abdo7nen.- — Covered with brown scales, some paler than others, and show- 
ing faint traces of apical bands. 

Legs. — Dark brown, ungues equal and simple. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LI 




O ° 

O" a 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 289 

Wings. — With narrow, long, lateral, brown scales, and with the first sub- 
marginal cell considerably longer and narrower than second posterior cell; 
stem very short, as in Oulex pipiens Linne ; halteres with pale brown stem and 
dark brown knob. 

Remarks. — 5 specimens of this form were taken at ISTassau, July 3. 

CULES TEIVITATTDS Coq. 

Plate LI, Fig. 2 
Gulex trivitattus Coquillett, 1902, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc, vol. x, p. 193. 

Description. — " Black. Near C'ulex triseriaius, but with three vittte 
of. blackish scales on the mesonotuni; the first joint of antennae and base of 
second, the coxse, and greater portion of femora, yellov/; scales of palpi black, 
those on the occiput light yellow, a large patch of dark grey ones on each side 
of the middle, the upright ones yellow ; scales of mesonotum brassy-yellow, and 
with three broad vittse of blackish ones, the median vittse not quite extending 
to either end of the mesonotum; scales of abdomen black, those at the front 
angles of the segments and on the venter, whitish; scales of the legs black, 
those on coxae and on the posterior side of the femora and tibiae, covering 
nearly the whole of the hind femora, yellowish-white; tarsal claws rather 
large, one-toothed; wings hyaline, lateral elongated scales of the veins narrow 
and almost linear, second basal cell shorter than the first, petiole of first sub- 
marginal cell nearly one-half as long as the cell. Length 4.5 to 5.5 mm." 

Remarks. — 31 specimens of this form were taken at Tarpum Bay, July 7. 



19 



FISHES OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



FISHES OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 

BARTON A. BEAN, 

Assistant Curator of the Division of Fishes, U. S. National Museum. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The Bahama Islands, lying" as they do between latitudes 21° and 28° 
north, have a tropical fish fauna, similar to other parts of the West Indies; 
ninety per cent of the list of one hundred and eighty-three Bahama species here 
enumerated as collections in the U. S. Jfational Museum and elsewhere, made 
largely by the Bahama Expedition in 1903, and by the Bureau of Fisheries 
steamer Albatross in 1886, are credited to the West Indian fauna. Forty per 
cent of this list have also been found in Bermuda, and seventy per cent along 
and close to the Florida coast. But eight and one-half per cent of this list 
have been recorded from the Pacific. 

A comparison with the Bermuda fauna shows an exceedingly close rela- 
tionship between it and the Bahama fauna. Almost all of the fishes known to 
the waters of Bermuda are found in the waters of the Bahamas. In fact, 
Bermuda is the northeast end of the West Indian region, which includes the 
Bahamas. 

The fish fauna of the Bahamas is varied, but not so rich as other similar 
faunas; certain forms are rare, comparatively speaking, and the hauls made 
with the twenty-fathom seine, twelve feet deep, and of fine mesh, were usually 
surprisingly light, both as to number of species and individuals taken. It was 
only possible to draw the seines on smooth shores, plenty of which were found, 
but the waters at the time of our visit seemed more or less barren. The fishes 
on the coral heads were fairly abundant, such forms as Chlorichthys, Iridio, 
Balistes, etc., being quite common, as were the yoimg tang. The Chatodonis 
were rare. Our observations led us to agree with Professor Mayer, who says : 
" The Bahama region is richer in corals, poorer in fishes and in invertebrates, 
and far poorer in pelagic life than that of the Tortugas." 



29-± FISHES 

It is quite impossible to give statistics as to the number and value of the 
fishes taken in the Bahamas. No record is kept of fishes sold in the markets. 
Low prices prevail and in the absence of the best grades of beef, mutton and 
the like, large quantities of fishes are annuall_y consumed. At the time of our 
visit, June 16 to July 20, 1903, the supply of fish in the wells of the boats in 
Kassau harbor seemed to be ample and in excess of the demand. The follow- 
ing kinds are esteemed as food : snapper, mutton-fish, groupers, pompano, 
grunts, jacks, runners, porgies, angel-fish, pork-fish, hog-fish, tangs, turbot 
and shell-fish. Those considered of fair quality are: bonito, king-fish, shad 
(Gerres), goat-fish, mullet, goggle-eye, squirrel-fish, hound-fish, fiying-fish, 
amber-fish or amber jack, etc. 

Of the one hundred and eighty-three species here enumerated fully forty- 
two are of primary importance as food-fishes, while twenty-four ma}' lie re- 
garded as of secondary importance. About ten- other species are sometimes 
eaten, biit little esteemed, and a few are often unfit for human consumption, be- 
ing poisonous. The Barracuda, though eaten at times, will often cause great 
discomfort to those partaking of its flesh. In speaking of the niorays Catesby 
says : ^ "The inhabitants of the Bahama Islands will eat only the green sort, 
rejecting those which are black as poisonous." He also refers to the unicorn- 
fish (Alutera scripta) as being poisonous, and of the rock-fish (Perca marbui 
venenosa pHuctnta) says:" " Tliis fish has a worst character for its poisonous 
quality of any other among the Bahama Islands." 

As will readily be seen by the illustrations (Plates IjII-LXI) from draw- 
ings by Mr. A. H. Baldwin, the fishes of the Bahamas are not only useful for 
food, but also as an attraction to the many visitors to the Islands. Their 
beauty in life, as they swim to and fro among the sea fans and corals, is 
indescribable, and one never tires looking through the water bucket with glass 
bottom, or better still, through the floor of a glass-bottom boat. The " Sea 
Gardens " of Nassau harbor are famous for their beauty, but they are meager 
in attraction to some of the bottoms observed farther south. The rock-beauties, 
angel-fishes, turl)ot, tang, parrot-fishes, pork-fish, hog-fish, cock-eye pilot, and 
many others are plainly seen in the clear water and as they fiash their beautiful 
colors fill the observer with wonder and admiration.' 

' The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, etc., 
Vol. II, 1743. 

- Loc. Cit. 

' Popular accounts of the fishes of the Bahamas are to he found in American 
Pishes, Goode, and in American Food and Game Fishes, Jordan and Evermann. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS ■ 395 

For collecting in the Bahamas seines are useful, but they should not be 
too long nor deep ; sevent3'-five feet long and eight feet deep, with a fine-mesh 
pocket, would probably prove of more service in the shallow waters than longer 
nets. The Bahama traps are useful, but should be specially constructed of 
closer woven wire than that used for commercial purposes. Dip-nets from 
four to six feet square, held out by spreaders and baited with conch meat, were 
found most successful in capturing beautiful fishes around the coral heads. 
These fishes will nibble longer at the bait offered them on hooks without being 
captured than any we have heretofore seen. The oyster dredge fitted with 
netting did quite well, but the tangle bars for deep water were lost on the 
several occasions used. This was much to be regretted, as many good things 
were expected from this sort of fishing. 

The meat of the conch is much used as bait. The groupers, grunts and 
the like are kno^\'n as bottom fish and are taken by hook and line, while the 
shad and jacks swim near the surface and are taken in nets. The so-called 
"passing jack" or "black jack" is said to be one of the best fishes running 
into Nassau harbor and other places among the Islands. They are taken in 
large numbers in August and September liy means of nets quickly drawn 
around the schools. 

I would express my thanks to Mr. Joseph S. Lewis, of the Johns Hopkins 
Medical School, and to Mr. J. B. G. Custis, both of whom were assigned to 
me as assistants in collecting, and to Mr. Randall, who had charge of the 
launch. To Messrs. Augustus Willige and C. A. McKnew, assistants in the 
Division of Fishes, thanks are due for help rendered in identifjdng the col- 
lections. 

ANNOTATED LIST OF BAHAMA FISHES. 

The Bahama Expedition of 1903 collected some highly interesting forms, 
Stathmonotus, Clvriodoriis and Terma havuig heretofore been recorded only 
from Florida, and the curious goby, Garmannia. indefinitely assigned to the 
West Indies. So far as the list here given is concerned, I need hardly say that 
it is very incomplete as a catalogue of the whole Bahama fish faima, but I 
have thought it best to confine myself at this time to the specimens at hand 
and not give a list from recorded species and supposition as to what may be 
found in the region under discussion. 

The ocean deepens rapidly at many places around the Islands and the 
deep-sea fauna must be rich. Such forms as Gonostoma, Stomias and Echio- 



296 FISHES 

stoma have been found in the Bahama Channel, also Pseudoscopelus in the 
Old Bahama Straits. 

Family BRANCHIOSTOMATID^ (Lancelets). 
AsYMMETRON LUCATANUM Andrews. 
This form has been fonnd at Bimini and Fassau. Adult and 5'oung were 
obtained by Dr. Andrews, found swimming at the surface in the evening in 
June and July, 1892. It was found also in calcareous sand. 

Family GINGLYMOSTOMID.E (Nurse Sharks). 

GiNGLYMOSTOMA ciEEATDM Gmelin (Nurse Shark). 

Large shark abundant about the coral reefs of the West Indies and on the 

west coast of Mexico. A female of this species was taken by the Expedition at 

Green Cay on June 29, 1903. It was 7 feet 9 inches long and contained 

seventeen egg capsules. jSTumerous specimens were seen. 

Family GALEIDJE; (Requiem Sharks). 
Hypoprion. BEEviEOSTEis Poey (Short-nosed Shark). 

This shark grows to a length of 7 feet; it ranges throughout the West In- 
dies and was taken by the steamer Albatross at Watlings Island, March 5, 1886. 

Carchaehinus obscueds Le Sueur (Dusky Shark). 
Middle Atlantic Ocean. Grows to a length of 9 or 10 feet. JSTumerous 
examples of what the writer took to be this shark were observed north of Abaco 
Island. They followed the wake of the vessel, often coming to the surface close 
by, affording a good target for the rifles aboard, but seemed to be little disturbed 
by the bullets shot at them. 

Family SPHYRNID/B (Hammer-headed Sharks). 
Sphykna tiburo Linnse.us (Shovel-head Shark). 
The maximum length of this shark is about 5 feet; it has an exceedingly 
wide range, occurring from the coast of Long Island, throughout the West In- 
dies, and across the Pacific to China. The steamer Albatross secured speci- 
mens north of Abaco in 1886. 

Family DASYATID.E (Sting Rays). 

Ueolophus jamaicensis 'Cuvier (Pound Sting Pay). 

This form occurs throughout the West Indies, and was obtained by the 
Expedition at Nassau, and at the eastern end of Hog Island. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE Lll 



/ 



Ifff" 





•e ft ^ 
% < "^ 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 297 

Family ALBULID/E (Lady Fishes). 
Albula vulpes Linnajus (Lady Fish). 
Tropical seas on botli coasts of North America, northward in the Atlantic 
to Cape Cod and in the Pacific to San Diego. 

Collected by the Expedition at Spanish Wells, July 4, 1903. 
Other common names for this fish are : " banana-fish," " bone-fish " and 
" macaibi." 

Family ELOPID/E (Tarpons). 
Elops saueus Linnaeus (Big-eyed Herring). 
This rather indifferent food-fish reaches a length of 3 feet or more; it is 
found in all tropical seas and strays northward to Massachusetts and Lower 
California. 

Collected by the Expedition at the east end of Hog Island, June 18, 1903. 
The young were abundant. 

Family CLUPEID^E (Herrings). 
Jeneinsia stolifeea Jordan and Gilbert. 
This interesting little fish, heretofore known from the Gulf of Mexico 
(Key West to Yucatan), was obtained by the Expedition at Spanish Wells, 
July 4, 1903. 

Saedinella saedina (Poey) (Sealed Sardine). 
West Indian fauna; abundant. Collected by the steamer Albatross at 
Nassau. 

Saedinella clupeola (Cuvier and Valenciennes). 
Green Turtle Cay, 1888. C. L. Edwards. 

Family SYNODONTIDiE (Lizard-Fishes). 
Stnodus inteemedius (Agassiz) (Lizard-fish). 
A very large specimen was observed by me in Nassau Harbor, but we 
failed to secure it. It refused all bait offered and the attempts to grapple it 
with large hooks were unsuccessful. Several small specimens were taken. 

The steamer Albatross collected S. intcrmedius at Watlings Island and 
Abaco. 

Tbachinocephalus mtops Forster (Ground Spearing; Lagarto). 
Abundantly distributed throughout the West Indies and occurring north- 
ward on Atlantic coast to the Carolinas. Collected by the Expedition at 
Clarence Harbor, July 15, and off an island near Nassau, July 20, 1903. 



298 FISHES 

Family MUR.ENESOCID.-E. 

Stilbiscus edwaedsi Jordan and Bollman. 

Collected at Green Turtle Cay in 1888, by Charles L. Edwards. Described 
in Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XI, 1888, p. 549. 

Family OPHICHTHYID.E (Snalve Eels).' 

Sphagebkanchus anguifobmis (Peters). 

Collected by Glover M. Allen and Thomas Barljour off Abaco, 1904, and 
referred to in their " Narrative of a trip to the Bahamas," Cambridge, Mass., 
Dec, 1904; privately printed. 

Veema kendalli Gilbert. 

A single species belonging to the family [ihicli-tliyida (snake eels), here- 
tofore known only on the coast of Florida, was obtained by the Expedition at 
Green Cay, June 30, 1903. 

Family MUR.i-:NID.E (Morays). 
Lycodontis moeikga Cuvier (Common Spotted iloray). 

This distinctly marked eel reaches a length of 3 feet. It has been found 
in the West Indies and about Florida, ranging as far southward as Bio Janeiro 
and St. Helena. In the middle of July, 1903, a specimen was taken by the 
Ex2>edition at Nassau. 

Lycodontis eunebkis Eanzani (Black Moray). 

This eel is the largest of our American spiecies, reaching a length of 6 
feet or more and being noted for its extreme ferocity. It is common on both 
of our coasts, from Florida Keys to Eio Janeiro and Gulf of California to 
Panama. A specimen was obtained by the steamer Albatross at Nassau during 
March, 1886. 

Echidna catenata Bloch. 

A form of the most highly specialized morays; small in size but generally 
common in the West Indies and from Bermuda to Surinam. Collected by the 
steamer Albatross at Abaco in March, 1886. 



THE BAItAMA ISLANDS 299 

Family MYRID.E (Worm Eels). 

Myeopiiis PUNCTATi's Liitkcn. 
This species of eel, resembling an earthwoi-m in appearance and size, is 
found in the West Indies and along the Gulf Coast southward to Surinam. Two 
specimens were collected l)y the Expedition off Governors Island, July 7, f 903. 
Taken by oyster dredge in 3 fathoms of water on a bottom ot coral sand. 

Family Pil'XILUD.l': (KilUfishes). 
CypraNODON VAPaEGATris Lacepede (Sheepshead Minnow). 
This little fish is widely distributed, being found in brackish waters from 
Cape Cod to the Eio Grande. Very abimdant in the lake near Coekburn Town, 
Watlings Island, where specimens were found by the Expedition, July 11, 1903. 
Cijprinoclon variegatus riverendi, described by Poey from Cuban speci- 
mens, has also been recorded from the Florida I\eys and obtained by the 
steamer Albatross at Green Cay, April 13, 1886. 

Gambusia affinis Baird and Girard (Top Minnow). 

This interesting little fish, known to the Cubans as " gnajacones," and 
named Gambusia by Poey after the Cuban word gamhusino, meaning nothing, 
reaches a length of but 2 inches. It is viviparous, the young coming forth in 
the summer when about one-third of an inch long. 

The top minnow is found in marshes and lagoons of the southern and Gulf 
coasts from Delaware to Mexico, often ascending rivers into fresh water. Col- 
lected by the Expedition in lake near Cockliurn Town, Watlings Island, July 
11, 1903. 

Family EXOCaOTID.li (Flying-fishes). 
ExoccETUS LiNEATUS .Cuvier and Valenciennes (Striped Flying-fish). 

Found in the warm seas of the Atlantic, but not abundantly. Specimens 
have been recorded as taken from Corea, the Madeiras, Canaries and Bermuda. 
The specimen secured by the Expedition flew aboard the ship at Cat Island 
during the night of July 8, 1903. 

Family HEMIRHAMPHID,10 (Half-beak Gars). 

Hemirhampiius brasiliensis LinnsEus (Half-beak). 

Grows to a length of 15 inches, is a good food-fish, and is found in more 

or less abundance from Key West, Florida, southward to Brazil. Obtained by 

the Expedition at Clarence Harbor, July 14, 1903. It seemed to be rare in 

the Bahamas at the time of our visit. 



300 FISHES 

Cheiodoeds atherinoides Goode and Bean (Hard Head). 
This interesting fish, heretofore recorded only from Key West, Florida, was 
obtained by the Expedition at Spanish Wells, July 4, 1903. A single example, 
45 inches long. 

Family ESOCID.E (Gars). 

Tylosueus notatus Poey (Silver Gar). 

This species, known also as " long jaws " and " needle-fish," is common 

at Key West and throughout the West Indies. It reaches a length of 20 

inches. Obtained by the Expedition at Nassau and Spanish Wells during June 

and July, 1903, being especially abundant at the latter place. 

Tylosueus CAEiBB^gsus Le Sueur (Silver Gar). 
This species inhabits the West Indies. One specimen was obtained by 
me at Nassau during June, 1903. - 

Tylosueus acus Lacepede (Hound Fish). 

Plate LIII. 

This iish grows to a length of 4 feet and has been recorded from the 

West Indies, the Bahamas and Bermuda. It occasionally strays northward to 

the coast of Massachusetts. Taken by the Expedition at Spanish Wells, July 4, 

and at Clarence Harbor, July 15, 1903. 

Family SPHYR.^NID.^ (Barracudas). 
Sphye^na picdda Bloch and Schneider (Barracuda). 
The great Barracuda, Picuda, or Becuna, grows to a length of 6 feet 
and may well be termed the wolf of the sea. It is eaten but not much esteemed. 
Very common in the tropics, ranging the high seas throughout the West Indies, 
from Brazil northward, including Bermuda, to the New England coast. Taken 
by the Expedition at Spanish Wells, Governors Harbor, Powells Point, Clar- 
ence Harbor and Nassau during June and July, 1903. 

Family ATHERINIDiE (Silversides). 

Atherina stipes Miiller and Troschel (Friars). 

This species includes the .4. laticeps of Poey. It is abundant throughout 

the West Indies, the Gulf of Mexico and the Bahamas. Of small size and, only 

food for other fishes. Taken by the Expedition near Nassau, Spanish Wells, 

the Current, and Clarence Harbor during June and Jul}^, 1903. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 301 

Atheeina AEiEA Jordan and Gilbert (Slender Friar). 
By no means rare, but occurring in less abundance than A. stipes. It is 
found in the Gulf of Mexico, at Key West and Cozumel ; specimens also having 
been collected by the steamer Albatross at Watlings Island, Eum Gay, Cat 
Island and Abaco during March, 1886. 

Family MUGILID.E (Mullets). 
MuGiL CUREMA Cuvicr and Valenciennes (White Mullet). 
An important food-fish, running in large schools and ranging on both 
our coasts from Cape Cod to Brazil and Magdalena Bay to Chili. It grows to 
a foot in length. Taken by the Expedition at Powells Point, July 8, 1903. 

"Blue-back mullet/' "Liza" and "Liza Blanca" are names also applied 
to this fish. 

MuGiL TEiCHODON Pocy (Fan-tailed Mullet). 
A deeper fish than the M. curema and having a less extensive range, occur- 
ring from Florida Keys to Brazil; abundant at Key West, but rare a1)0ut 
Cuba. One specimen was collected by the Expedition at Spanish Wells, July 
4, 1903. 

Family HOLOCENTRID.E (Squirrel-fishes). 
HoLOCENTRUS ASCENSiONis Osbcclv (Squirrcl-fish) . 
This is one of the most brilliantly colored of our tropical fishes. It attains 
a length of about 2 feet and may be found around the rocks and reefs of the 
West Indies; ranging from Florida to St. Helena; the Expedition secured a 
specimen in Nassau harbor, June 23, 1903. It is not very important as a 
food-fish, but is frequently seen in the tropical markets. Observed in Nassau 
market. 

HOLOCENTRUS VEXILLAEIUS Pocy. 

Taken by the steamer Albatross at Abaco, April, 1886. 

HoLOCENTRUS COEUSCUS Poey (Squirrcl-fish) . 

Eecorded from Green Turtle Cay, where it was taken by C. L. Edwards in 
1888. 

HOLOCENTEUS SICCIFER Cope. 

Described in 1866 from a specimen taken at New Providence. 



/ 



302 FISHES 

Family SC0MBRID.H3 (Mackerels). 

Gymnosakda ALLETERATA (Eafinesque) (Bonito). 

This fisli, known in the Mediterranean as " Tnnny," is common throughout 

the West Indies and ranges northward to Cape Cod. It is a good food-fish. 

An example was obtained by the Expedition on a trolling line, between Andros 

Island and Green Cay, on June 28, 1903. 

ScoMBEROMORUS CAVALLA Cuvier and Valenciennes (King-fish or Cero). 
This large fish is common in the West Indian region. It attains a length 
of 5 feet or more and is used as food. Observed in the Nassau market. 

Family CARANGID.E (Pompanos). 

Caranx bartholomet Cuvier and Valenciennes (Yellow Jack). 

An indifferent food-fish, occurring in the West Indies and frequently 
straying northwards as far as the Carolinas. It was taken in April, 1886, by 
the steamer Albatross at Nassau. 

Caranx crysos Mitchill (Jack). 
Unlike C hartholoinei Cuv. and Valen., this fish has gained rather a 
prominent name among the food-fishes, more especially in the West Indies, 
where it occurs in abundance. Its range is also greater, covering the western 
Atlantic from Cape Cod to Brazil. Its qualities as a game fish have made it a 
favorite with many sportsmen. " Crevalle," " runner," " jui'el " and " yellow 
mackerel " are other names applied to this fish. Several specimens were secured 
at Nassau by the steamer Alhah-oss in April, 1886. 

Caranx latus Agassiz (Horse-eye Jack). 
This species of Caranx is found on the west coast of Mexico, in the West 
Indies, and ofttimes as far north as Virginia. It is generally regarded as 
poisonous and causing the disease known as Ciguatera if eaten. A specimen 
was taken by the Expedition near Cape Hatteras in June, 1903, several more 
being secured at Spanish Wells and Clarence Harbor in July, 1903. 

Caranx ruber Bloch (Carbonero). 

Pound only in the West Indies heretofore; a single specimen was secured 
at Nassau in June, 1903, by the Expedition. It is much less abundant than 
the other Caranx mentioned above, and for this reason has no value as a food- 
fish. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE Llll 



^m 



1 1 



ll- \ 




i £ « 

I '■" i 

^ I-- =3 

t z t 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 303 

Tkachdrops crumenophthalmus Bloeh (Goggle-eye). 
Also known as "big-eyed scad," "goggle-eye Jack" and " ehicharro." 
It occui's thronghont the West Indies northward to Cape Cod, and in the 
Pacific on the west coast of Mexico. In the Hawaiian Islands it is esteemed 
as a food-fish, being found in great abundance and called " akule " by the 
natives. An abundant fish in the ISTassaii market at the time of out visits in 
June and Jnljf, 1903. A fairly good fish and one of the lowest priced. The 
usual length of market specimens was 8 or 9 inches. 

Tkachinotus falcatus Linnffius (Eound Pompano). 

This well-known food-fish exceeds a foot in length and is found in the 
West Indies; it ranges from Cape Cod to Brazil, being common southward 
and occasionally found northward in the Gulf Stream as far as Woods Holl. 
Collected by the Expedition at Tarpum Bay and east end of Hog Island in 
July, 1903. 

Trachixotus glaucus Bloch (Old Wife). 

A handsome fish, unimportant as food, found among the West Indies and 
along the coast from Virginia southward to the Caribbean Sea. In size it 
rarely exceeds a foot. Several specimens were obtained by the Expedition at 
Nassau, June 20, 1903. 

Trachinotds goodei Jordan and Evermann (Great Pompano). 
Also commonly called the " permit ; " a good food-fish, though not as 
highly valued as T. carolmus. It often grows to a length of 3 feet, speci- 
mens of this size weighing about thirty pounds, being the largest size attained 
by any of the pompanos. It occurs in the West Indies, northward to Florida. 
Collected by the Expedition at Hog Island, June 18, 1903. 

Decapterds MACAREtLus Cuvier and Valenciennes (Mackerel Scad). 
Found in the warmer parts of the Atlantic, straying northward to Cape 
Cod. Of no value as food. Two specimens were taken by the Expedition 
near the edge of the Gulf Stream off Cape Hatteras, June 6, 1903. 

Seriola rivoliana Cuvier and Valenciennes (Amber-fish). 
As a food-fish this species is unimportant, comparing unfavorably in tliis 
respect with the majority of the species in this genus. It is of wide distribu- 
tion, ranging from the Mediterranean to Brazil, throughout the West Indies 
and occasionally on the coasts of Florida and South Carolina. A specimen was 
obtained by the steamer Albatross, March 5, 1886. 



304 FISHES 

Large examples of S. rivoliana were observed in Nassau Harbor. Two 
brought to the schooner's side by hand-line fishermen weighed about 50 lbs. 
each. 

Nauceates duotor Linnseus (Pilot-fish). 
A fish of wide distribution, inhabiting the open seas, being found occasion- 
ally on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to the West Indies. Two specimens 
were taken by the Expedition, the one from the edge of Gulf Stream, the other 
at N. Lat. 31° 13', W. Long. 74° 41', in June, 1903. 

Alectis ciliaris (Bloch) (Thread-fish). 
Both coasts of tropical America; common around the Florida Keys. Ob- 
tained at Green Turtle Cay, 1888, by C. L. Edwards. 

Selene vomer Linnaeus (Horsehead). 
One of the handsomest and commonest of the Moon-fishes, deriving its 
name of Horsehead and also that of Lookdown from the peculiar shape of its 
head. Its flesh is excellent, being generally considered a great delicacy. Found 
on both coasts, from Cape Cod to Brazil, Lower California to Peru ; more com- 
mon about the sandy coasts of tropical America. A specimen was taken by 
the Expedition at Nassau, June 20, 1903. 

Family NOMEIDiE. 
PsENES ctanophrts Cuvier and Valenciennes. 
A small fish occurring in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, being 
widely distributed in the warm ocean currents. Secured by the Expedition at 
Green Cay, June 29, 1903. 

NoMEDS GEONOVii Gmeli'n (Portuguese Man-of-war Fish). 
This fish derives its name from its habit of seeking protection beneath the 
jelly-fish Imown as the Portuguese man-of-war, moving freely about its pois- 
oned tentacles. The single example obtained by the Expedition was taken 
with its host in the open ocean southeast of Cape Hatteras in June, 1903. 

Family BRAMID.13 (Pomfrets). 
Beama rah Bloch (Pomfret). 
Found in the open seas at considerable depths; rarely in the Atlantic, 
more frequently on the Pacific coast from California north to Puget Sound. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 305 

A young specimen was taken near Cape Hatteras, June 15, 1903, by the Expe- 
dition. This fish attains a length of 2 to 4 feet. On the Pacific coast it is 
highly valued as a food-fish. 

Family CHEILODIPTERIDiE (The King of the Mullets). 

Apogon PI6MENTARIUS (Poey). 

An interesting little fish heretofore recorded from Cuba. One specimen 

was obtained by the Expedition at Golding Key, Andres Island, June 26, 1903. 

Color in life red ; in alcohol whitish, profusely covered with small black spots. 

Apogonichthts stellatus Cope. 

Two specimens of this rare species were obtained by the Expedition at 
Golding Ke}', Andros Island, June 27, 1903. They were of a uniform black 
color when captured, but since being in alcohol have faded to a reddish-brown 
with more or less metallic luster, thickly dotted with small dark spots and 
numerous star-shaped blotches each with a silvery center. 

Professor Cope described the species from a specimen (the only one 
known) said to have come from Nassau. Our specimens are 2 and 2^ inches 
long. 

Family SERRANIDiB (The Sea Basses). 

Epinephelus maculosus Cuvier and Valenciennes (Red Hind). 

Plate LVII. 
This is one of the smallest of the Groupers. Like all the others it is highly 
esteemed as food and for its game qualities. It ranges from Carolina to Brazil, 
being rare on our coast but more frequent in the West Indies and the Ber- 
mudas. Several specimens were collected by the Expedition at Nassau during 
June and Jul}', 1903. It attains a length of about 2 feet. 

Epinephelus mystacinus Poey (Cherna de lo Alto). 
Found in the deeper waters of the West Indies, southward to Brazil; 
reaching an approximate length of 2 feet. A good food-fish, but not found 
in such quantities as to make it of commercial value. Collected by the Expe- 
dition at Nassau, June 22, 1903. 

Epinephelus striatus Bloch (Nassau Grouper). 
This is one of the best marked and most important food-fish of its kind. 
Found throughout the Bahamas and in the AVest Indies, northward to Florida. 
20 



306 FISHES 

It often reaches a length of three feet and a weight of about fifty pounds, this 
being the largest size attained by any of the species of this genus. A fifteen- 
pound specimen was taken by the Expedition in Clarence Harbor, and the 
fish was fairly common in the wells of the fishing boats in Kassau harbor in 
June, 1903. It is also one of the commonest of the food-fishes of Bermuda. 
The younger forms are known as " Hamlet grouper." 

Mycteropeeca venenosa apua (Bloch). 
West Indies; Florida Keys to Brazil. C. L. Edwards collection, Green 
Turtle Cay, 1888. 

Peteometopon cedentatds (Lacepede) (Coney or Eed Hind). 
This is a handsome fish, reaching a length of 1 foot and inhabiting the 
waters of the West Indian region generally. It is a fair food-fish. Specimens 
were obtained by the Expedition at Nassau and Rum Cay in June and July, 
1903. 

Bodianus fulvds (Linnaeus) (Yellow Fish). 
This species grows to a length of 1 foot, is a fairly good food-fish, and 
occurs from Bermuda to Florida and throughout the West Indies. " ISTigger- 
fish," " butter-fish," " guativere " and " guativere amarilla " are other names 
applied to the species. One example collected by the Expedition at Watlings 
Island, July 11, 1903. 

Bodianus fulvus eubee (Bloch and Schneider) (Red Guativere). 
A variety of the preceding, and like it variable in color. Of the same 
general range. Obtained by the Expedition in Nassau, July 20, 1903. 

Bodianus fulvus punctatus (Linnieus) (Negro Fish). 
Plate LVIII. 
An old and well-known but rather unimportant food-fish of the Bahamas, 
Bermuda and the West Indies generally. Dr. Goode in his list of fishes ob- 
served and collected in Bermuda during the months of February and March, 
1872," says: "The names 'butter-fish' and 'nigger-fish' are in use also at 
Barbados, St. Thomas and the Bahamas, as applied to this and an allied species. 
The first refers to the color and soft, oily feeling of the j'ellow variety; the 
latter probably also to color." 

" Bulletin V, of the U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C, 1876. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 307 

Specimens M'ere obtained by tlic Expedition at Nassau and Clarence 
Harbor in June and July, 1903. 

Family RHYPTICID^ (Soap Fishes). 
Rhypticus bistkispinosus (Mitchill) (Soap Fish). 
Plate LIl. 
A curious fish, named on account of the soapy or oily feeling of the smooth 
skin. Pound along the south Atlantic coast of the United States from Charles- 
ton to Pensacola, straying northward to coast of ISTew England. Obtained by 
the Expedition at Nassau and Green Cay in June and July, 1903. 

Family KYPHOSID.E (Sea Chubs). 
Kyphosus Sectatrix (Linnaeus) (Bermuda Chub). 
The " rudder-fish," " chub," or " chopa blanca," as it is variously called, 
occurs in the open ocean from the West Indies northward to Cape Cod, and 
eastward to the Canary Islands. It is observed following vessels, probably fo]' 
the food thrown overboard, and is often seen around the rudder, from which 
habit is derived one of its common names. 

Obtained by the Expedition at N. Lat. 31° 13', W. Lon. 74°, on June 
13, 1903. 

Family H.?I0MULONTD.a3 (Grunts). 
Bathtstoma AUROLINEATUM (Cuvierand Valenciennes) (Jeniguano). 
One of the smaller species of grunts, occurring throughout the West In- 
dies. Obtained by steamer Albatross at Abaco Island, April, 1886. 

Bathtstoma eimator (Jordan and Swain) (Tom Tate or Red-mouthed 

Grunt). 
This grunt occurs in the Atlantic from Cape Hatteras to Trinidad. It is 
one of the most abundant of the food-fishes about Charleston Harbor. Ob- 
tained by the Expedition at Clarence Harbor, July 14, 1903. 

H.a}MULON ALBOM Cuvier and Valenciennes (Margate Fish). 
This is one of the most important and highly esteemed food-fishes of the 
AVest Indies, the Florida Keys, the Bahamas and Bermuda. It grows to a 
length of 2 feet, and is more or less abundant. Numerous specimens were 
observed and captured by the Expedition in the various places visited, and the 
fish was always a welcome addition to the mess. 



308 FISHES 

HyEMULON CAEBONARIUM Poey (Eoiico Carboiiero). 
A smaller species than the H. album, seldom exceeding 10 inches in 
length, but having some value as a food-fish, especially around Cuba, vi^here it 
is found in abundance. It occurs in much smaller quantities in the rest of 
the West Indies, the Bermudas and Brazil. .Several specimens were secured 
at Nassau by the steamer Albatross in April, 1886. 

H^MULON FLAVOLINEATUM (Dcsmarest) (Open-mouthed Grunt). 
This is an exceedingly well-marked species, reaching a foot in length and 
being regarded as a good food-fish. It is common throughout the West Indies; 
ranges from Florida Keys south to Brazil, being found in greatest quantities 
about Porto Rico. Specimens were obtained at Nassau market and Abaco by 
the steamer Albatross in March, 1886. Other names by which this species is 
known are " French grunt " and " ronco condenado." 

H^MULON MELANURUM (Linnsetis) (Black-tail Grunt). 
This grunt is a good food-fish. It reaches a length of 1 foot and is com- 
mon to the West Indies. Collected by me in the Nassau market, June, 1903. 

H-i;MULpN PLUMIERI (Lacepede) (Common Grunt). 
This is one of the most abundant and highly prized of the smaller varieties 
of food-fishes found throughout the West Indies, Florida Keys, Bahama 
Islands and other nearby localities. It grows to a length of 1 foot or more, 
but the average size of those found in the markets is much less. Obtained by 
the Expedition at Nassau in June, 1903. 

H^MULON sciDRUS (Shaw) (Yellow Grunt). 
A handsome grunt, also known as " squirrel grunt." It grows to a length 
of 18 inches, but found in the markets much smaller. Found throughout the 
West Indies, Florida Keys, Bahamas and Bermuda. 

Brachygenys chrysargyreus (Giinther) (Small-mouthed Grunt). 
A little fish reaching but 6 inches in length. Common at Key West and 
Havana. The steamer Albatross obtained it at Abaco in 1886. 

Anisoteemus virginigus (Linnreus) (Pork-fish). 
Plate LIV. 
A very good food-fish, Icnown also as " sisi," reaching a length of 1 foot 
and ranging from Florida to Brazil ; found frequently in the West Indies. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 309 

Secured by the Expedition at ISTassau, July 2, 1903. Named for the Virgin 
Islands, where the fish is common, and not for Virginia, wliere it is seldom if 
ever found. 

Family LUT.IANlDa5 (Snappers). 

LuTJANUs ANALis (Ciuvier and Valenciennes) (Mutton Fish). 

A large, handsome food-fish, often sold as red snapper, occurring on the 

fishing banks of the West Indian waters, Florida and the Bahamas. Obtained 

at Nassau by the steamer Aliatross. Observed in the marlcets at the time of 

our visit. 

Catesby says : " For the excellence of its taste it is in greater esteem than 
any other at the Bahama Islands." 

Ldtjanus APODDS (Walbaum) (Schoolmaster). 
Grows to a weight of 8 pounds. An attractive fish, used for food. Com- 
mon to Bahama, Florida and the West Indies generally. 

LuTJANus BUCCANELLA (Cuvier and Valenciennes) (Black-finned Snapper). 

Occurring in the West Indies; taken in deep water. Obtained by the 
steamer Albatross at Nassau in 1886. 

LuTJANUs GRiSEUS (Linuceus) (Gray Snapper). 
This is one of the commonest and best food-fishes of the West Indian 
fauna. It is known as " mangrove snapper," attains a length of three feet 
(18 lbs.), and is found in the Bahamas, Bermuda, Florida and the West Indies. 

LuTJANUS MAHOGONi (Cuvicr and Valenciennes) (Mahogoni Snapper). 
One of the smaller species of snapper, found in the West Indies, etc. Ob- 
served and collected by the Expedition in Nassau market during June and 
July, 1903. 

LuTJANDS SYNAGRis (Linnsus) (Red-tailed Snapper). 
One of the most abundant of the snappers, rarely exceeding a foot in 
length, chiefly inhabiting shallow waters. A food-fish of importance about 
Havana, occurring there in great numbers, but a little less abundantly found 
from Tampa to Brazil. Specimens were obtained by the exposition at Nas 
sau, July 30, 1903. 



310 FISHES 

OcYUEUS CHRYSCKUS (Blocli) ( Yellow-tailed Snapper). 
A delicious and abundant food-fish ranging from southern Florida to 
Brazil, and throughout the West Indies. It grows to a length of 2 feet 
and possesses some merit as a game-fish. The steamer Albatross collected sev- 
eral specimens in April, 1886. Observed and collected by the Expedition in 
Nassau market during June and Jul)', 1903. 

Apsilus dentatus Guichenot (Arnillo). 
This is a handsome fish reaching a foot in length and having some value 
as food. It is found in the West Indies, being rather common about Cuba. 
A specimen was taken by the Expedition at Powells Point, Eleuthera, July 8, 
1903. 

Family SPARID^E (Porgies). 

DiPLODUS AEGENTEUS (Cuvier and Valenciennes) (Silvery Sargo). 

Found in the West Indies and along the coast from Florida and the Ber- 
mudas southward to Argentina. One specimen was secured by the Expedition 
at ISTassau, June 20, 1903. 

Calamus calamus (Cuvier and Valenciennes) (Saucer-eye Porgy). 
This fish reaches a length of 1 foot and besides being excellent eating, 
furnishes some sport in its capture, being considered a rather good game-fish 
by many. It is found throughout the West Indies and northward among the 
Florida Keys. The steamer Albatross collected several specimens at Nassau 
in April, 1886. 

Calamus leucosteus Jordan and Gilbert (White-boned Porgy). 
A good food-fish reaching a length of 1 foot and obtained heretofore 
only at the markets of Charleston, S. C. It was secured by the steamer Alba- 
tross at the Nassau market in April, 1886. 

Calamus penna (Cuvier and Valenciennes) (Sheepshead Porgy). 

Like the rest of the species this is valued as food. It is very common 
from southern Florida to Brazil and is known also in the West Indies. A 
specimen was obtained by the steamer Albatross at the Nassau market in 
April, 1886. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE LIV 




-J N 

'"' ,-1 " 

» W _, 

:t CO < 

J=c ►^ z 

P o 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 311 

Oalamus bajonado (Bloch and Schneider) (Jolt-head Porgy). 

This is the largest of the porgies, reaching a size of 3 feet and a weight 
of ten pounds. It is also the most abundant species of this genus and the most 
important as a food-fish. Found in abundance throughout the West Indies 
and north to the Florida Keys. Taken by the Expedition at Nassau, June 22, 
1903. 

Family GERRID^ (Silver Jennies). 

Gerees brasilianus (Cuvier and Valenciennes) (Patao). 

Found from Cuba to Brazil, and ranking as a good food-fish wherever it 
is abundant. It reaches a foot in length and is generally common. Collected 
by the Expedition at Nassau, June 18, 1903. 

Gerres cinereus (Walbaum) (Broad Shad). 
This is one of the largest members of the family Gerridce, reaching a 
length of more than a foot, and has considerable value as a food-fish. It is 
common to both coasts of tropical America, north to Florida and to Lower 
California. Obtained by seines and other nets. Common in the market at 
Nassau. Obtained by the Expedition at Spanish Wells and Clarence Harbor 
during July, 1903. 

EuciNOSTOMUs 6ULA (Cuvicr and Valenciennes) (Silver Jenny). 
This is a common species from the coasts of Carolina to Brazil. It 
grows to a length of six inches and is chiefly valuable as bait. .Obtained by the 
Expedition at Spanish Wells, Watlings Island and Clarence Harbor, during 
July, 1903. 

EuciNOSTOMUS lefroyi Goode (Long-boned Shad). 
A bait fish, reaching a length of 8 inches. Common from Bermuda west- 
ward to Florida, and southward throughout the West Indies. Taken by the ■ 
Expedition at Spanish Wells, the Current, and Clarence Harbor during 
July, 1903. 

Family PRIACANTHID/E (Catalufas). 

Priacanthus cruentatus (Lacepede) (Big-eye). 
This fish is known in Havana as the " catalufa," and is a common food-fisli 
in that market. It is found throughout the West Indies, ranging across the 
Atlantic to St. Helena and the Canaries. Obtained by the steamer Albatross 
at Eum Cay. 



312 PISHES 

Peiacanthus akenatus Cuvier and Valenciennes (Catalufa). 
Tropical Atlantic, straying northward in the Gulf Stream. Obtained by 
the steamer Albatross at Nassau. 

Family MULLlDJi] (Surmullets). 
Upesteus maoulatds (Bloch) (Goat Fish). 
A very handsome, strikingly colored fish, abundant and valued as food. 
It occurs in tlie West Indies, and probably in Bermuda. Common in the 
Nassau market. Obtained by the Expedition at East End of Hog Island 
(Nassau harbor), along Eleuthera Island and at Clarence Harbor, where 
many young were seined during July, 1903. 

Upeneds maetinicus Cuvier and Valenciennes (Yellow Goat Pish). 

This species grows to a length of one foot and is valued as food. It is 
found throughout the West Indies and north to Florida. The steamer Alba^' 
tross collected it at Nassau in 1886. 

Family CH.5':T0D0NTID.T] (Butterfly Fishes). 

HoLAOANTHUS TRICOLOR (Bloch) (Eock Beauty). 

Plate LXI. 

This striking fish inhabits the West Indies, and has been recorded from 

Bermuda. Numerous specimens were observed in the " Sea Gardens," near 

Nassau, during June, 1903, but none were taken. 

PoMACANTHUS AECUATUS (LiuufBus) (Black Angel Pish). 
Length one and one-half to two feet. A handsome fish, but little valued 
as food. West Indies generally, occasionally straying northward to the middle 
Atlantic coast. Obtained by the Expedition at Nassau and Andros Island 
during June, 1903. 

Ch^todon ocellatus Bloch (Spanish Angel Pish). 
West Indian fauna, straying northward. Observed among the coral heads 
in Nassau harbor. One of the beautiful fishes of the tropics. Obtained by 
the Expedition at Nassau during June, 1903. 

Ch.etodon capistratus Linnaeus (French Angel Pish). 
A beautiful tropical fish, of small size, abundant around the coral reefs 
of the West Indies. The Ghcetodonts are the butterflies of the warm seas. 
Obtained by the Expedition at Nassau, June 19, 1903. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 313 

Angelichthys ciliaris (Linnaeus) (Yellow Angel Fish). 
One of the most beautiful of fishes, growing to a length of 18 inches. 
In his catalogue of Bermuda fishes Dr. Goode sa3's : " The angel fish attains a 
weight of four pounds and as far surpasses all the other fishes of the region in 
its delicious flavor as in its lovel)- hues." It ranges through the West Indies. 
Common in the Xassau market and at other places in the Bahamas. 

Family TEUTHIDIDiE (Surgeon Fishes). 
Tedthis bahianus (Bloeh and Schneider) (Ocean Tang). 
This is the most important of the siirgeon fishes on account of its large 
size (reaching a length of 1 foot), and its value as a food-fish. It is found in 
the West Indies and along the Atlantic coast from Key West to Bahia. Col- 
lected by the Expedition at ISTassau during June and July, 1903. 

Teuthis c^ruleds (Bloch and Schneider) (Blue Surgeon or Tang). 

Plate LVI. 
One of the commonest of the tangs in the West Indies, reaching a length 
of eight or ten inches and being used as food. Found also in the Bermudas 
and ranging from Key West to Bahia. Specimens were obtained by the Ex- 
pedition at Nassau, Clarence Harbor and the east end of Hog Island during 
June and July, 1903. 

Teuthis hepatds Linnsus (Common Tang). 
This is the most abundant of the tangs, common in the West Indies and 
northward to Florida. Found occasionally as far north as Charleston and 
southward to Brazil. Several specimens collected by the Expedition at Clar- 
ence Harbor, July, 1903. 

Family POMACENTRIDJj] (Demoiselles). 

Eupomacentrus leucostictus (Miiller and Troschel) (Black Pilot). 

An extremely handsome fish, attaining an approximate length of four or 

five inches and found in large numbers throughout the West Indies north to 

the western coast of Florida. Collected in July, 1903, at Clarence Harbor, 

Powells Point and the east end of Hog Island by the Expedition. 

Eupomacentrus fusgus (Cuvier and Valenciennes) (Maria Molle). 

Found in the West Indies and among the coral reefs at Key West, ranging 
southward to the Brazilian coast, occurring in abundance almost throughout 
its entire range. Taken by the Expedition at Nassau, June 34, 1903. 



314 FISHES 

EuPOMACENTRUs ADUSTUS (Troschel). 
Attaining a length of three or four inches and occurring commonly about 
Cuba. Collected by the steamer Albatross at Nassau, April, 1886. 

Gltphisodon saxatilis (Linnasus) (Cow-pilot or Pintano). 
A widely-distributed fish, occurring on both coasts of tropical America, 
ranging from Florida to Uruguay and Guaymas to Peru. It reaches a length 
of six inches and is abundant about the rocks and coral reefs at every point. 
Specimens were obtained by the Expedition at Nassau and Green Cay, July, 
1903. 

Family L ABRIDGE (Wrasses). 
Lachnolaimus maximus (Walbaum) (Hog Fish). 
This is a common and attractive food-fish occurring throughout the West 
Indies and Bermudas, and ranging north to Key West. It attains a length of 
3 feet and a weight of twenty pounds and is generally found in abundance 
about the coral reefs. A specimen was taken by the Expedition at Nassau 
during June and July, 1903, where it was common in the market. 

Haepe eufa (LinnjBus) (Spanish Lady Fish). 
A very attractive fish reaching a length of 2 feet. Found abundantly 
in the West Indies and ranging from Key West to Eio Janeiro. Obtained by 
the steamer Albatross in the market at Nassau. 

NovACULiCHTHYS INFIRMUS (Bean) (Flexible Eazor Fish). 
Known heretofore only from Cozumel, Yucatan, but obtained by the 
steamer Albatross at Nassau, April, 1886. 

Xtrichthys psittacus (Linnaeus) (Razor Fish). 
A brilliantly colored fish found in the West Indies and from Charleston 
and Pensacola southward to Bahia. It reaches a length of 15 inches and 
is rather common. Obtained by the steamer Albatross at the Nassau market 
in April, 1886. 

Iridic bivittatus (Bloch) (Slippery Dick). 
This is the smallest species of this genus, the average length being about 
6 or 7 inches. It has an extensive range, occurring throughout the West 
Indies, and from North Carolina to Brazil, being exceedingly common every- 
where among the rocks and reefs. A number of specimens were obtained by 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 315 

the Expedition at Spanish Wells, Eleuthera Island, Clarence Harbor, and the 
east end of Hog Island during June and July, 1903. 

Iridio garnoti (Cuvier and Valenciennes). 
Eeaches a length of 8 or 9 inches and is found in the West Indies. 
Obtained by the Expedition at Clarence Harbor, July 17, 1903. 

Iridic maculipinna (Miiller and Troschel). 
Found in the West Indies and ranging northward as far as Beaufort, N. C. 
Taken by the steamer Albatross at Kassau, April, 1886. 

Iridic kadiatus (Linnaeus) (Pudding- wife). 
Attains a length of 18 inches and ranks as the largest of the Ameri- 
can species of Iridio. It is found abundantly in the West Indies and the 
Bermudas, ranging from Brazil to the Florida Keys. Several specimens wore 
secured in the market at Nassau by the steamer Alhatross, April 23, 1886. 

ClXLCRICHTHYS BIFASCIATUS (Bloch). 

A rather common fish found scattered throughout the West Indies. A 
number were collected by the Expedition at Clarence Harbor, July, 1903. 

Chlcrichthys nitidus (Giinther). 
A fish reaching a length of 3 inches and being found in the West Indies. 
Taken by the Expedition from the Current, Eleuthera Island, and at Nassau 
and Clarence Harbor, during June and July, 1903. 

Family SCARIDiE (Parrot Fishes). 
Spaeiscma aurcfrenatum (Cuv. and Val.) (Gold-bridled Parrot Fish). 

Plate LIX. 
This is one of the most attractive of the parrot fishes, being well marked 
and highly colored, but like the other species of this genus has no great value 
as food. It reaches a length of 8 or 10 inches and is rather common 
throughout the West Indies. Collected by the Expedition at Nassau, June 
2-i, 1903. 

Spariscma VIRIDE (Bonnateire) (Dark-green Parrot Fish). 
Found in the West Indies and is generally common. It is one of the 
largest of the species, attaining a length of 2 feet, and is considered a food- 
fish at Porto Eico. A specimen was secured by the steamer Albatross in the 
market at Nassau, March, 1886. 



316 FISHES 

SPAPasoMA DISTINCTUM (Poey) (Streaked Parrot Fish). 

This species ranges throughout the West Indies, and was obtained by the 
Expedition in the Bahamas during June and July, 1903. 

Sparisoma flavescens (Bloch and Schneider) (Mud Parrot). 

One of the smaller of the parrot fishes, rarely exceeding a foot in length; 
plain in color; common from Key West to Eio Janeiro. Obtained by the 
Expedition in the Nassau market, June, 1903. 

Spakisoma pioplomtstax (Cope). 

Occurs in the West Indies and from Key West to Bahia. It is very com- 
mon throughout its whole range, being seined in large quantities by the Expe- 
dition at Clarence Harbor. A number of specimens were also obtained at 
Spanish Wells and the east end of Hog Island during July, 1903. 

Sparisoma lokito Jordan and Swain (Loro). 

Found in the West Indies and used as food by the Porto Eicans. It was 
collected by the Expedition at ISTassau in June, 1903. 

ScAKUS c^RULEUS (Bloch) (Blue Parrot Fish). 

AVidely and abundantly distributed throughout the West Indies northward 
as far as Chesapeake Bay. It reaches a length of 3 or 3 feet and a weight of 
twenty pounds, its large size making it the most important of the parrot fishes, 
although it is not highly valued as food. A specimen was taken opposite Man- 
grove Cay by the Expedition, June 27, 1903. Common. 

SciVRDS CROiCENsis (Bloch) (Bullon). 

One of the smaller of the species, its length rarely exceeding 6 or 7 
inches. It is very common throughout the West Indies and ranges north to 
Key West. Large numbers were obtained at Spanish Wells, Powells Point 
and Clarence Harbor by the Expedition during July, 1903. 

SOARUS T.ENIOPTERUS Desmarest (Eibboii-finned Parrot Fish). 

Occurs in the West Indies and is rather numerous. It reaches a length of 
about 10 inches. Collected by the Expedition in the Bahamas during June 
and July, 1903. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE LV 



Jtmni^ 




V. w 

g cc 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 317 

Ceyptotomus ketractus (Poey). 
Found in the West Indies and north to Pensacola. Several specimens 
obtained bj' the Expedition from the Current, Elcuthera, and at Clarence 
Harbor during Jiil}', 1903. 

Family ZEID.E (John Dories). 
Zenion hololepis (Goode and Bean). 

Taken by tlie steamer Albatross off coast of Yucatan and on Little Bahama 
Bank. Described and figured by Goode and Bean in Oceanic Ichthvology, 1896. 

Family SCORP.ENID^ (Rock Fishes). 
Scokp^t?na plumiepvI Bloch (Eascacio). 
A handsome but valueless species, more or less common to the south 
Atlantic coast of the United States, the West Indies, and recorded from Ber- 
muda. The steamer Albatross obtained it at Nassau. At Key West this fish 
is called " poison toad." 

ScoRP^NA BRASiLiENSis Cuvier and Valenciennes (Scorpion Pish). 
Found from Charleston to Eio Janeiro. One specimen taken by the Expe- 
dition at the Current, July 5, 1903. 

ScOEP^NA GKANDicoRNis Cuvier and Valenciennes (Lion Fish). 
A strikingly handsome fish occurring around the Florida Keys and 
southward throughout the West Indies to Brazil. The steamer Albatross 0I5- 
tained it at Abaco, April, 1886. 

The fishes of this genus are known at Key West as " poison toads " on 
account of the painful wounds they inflict with their spines. 

Family CEPHALACANTHID.E (Flying Gurnards). 
Cephalacanthds VOLITANS (Linnffius) (Fhdng Gurnard). 
Plate LX. 
A beautifully colored species, of odd form, known in some of the West 
Indian islands as bat-fish. Found on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, rang- 
ing north to Newfoundland and south to Eio Janeiro. Eecorded from Woods 
Holl, Massachusetts, Bermuda, Key .West and various West Indian islands. 
Obtained by the Expedition at Nassau during June, 1903. The color sketch 
by Mr. Baldwin gives one a good idea of the appearance of the fish in life and 
especially of its handsome pectoral fins. To show this fin to advantage the 



318 FISHES 

artist took the liberty to draw it down in an unnatural position; the eye as 
shown in the picture is rather too small. 

Family MALACANTHID.i: (Blanquillos). 
Malacanthus plumiebi (Bloeh) (Sand Fish). 
This species grows to a length of 15 inches or more; it is rather common 
in the West Indies and used as food. Obtained by the Expedition at Green Cay 
and Clarence Harbor during July, 1903. 

Family DACTYLOSCOPIDa^ (Little Star-gazers). 
Dactyloscopus tkidigitatus Gill (Fingered Star-gazer). 
This interesting little fish is found in the West Indies and north to Key 
West and the Bahamas. Two specimens were obtained by the Expedition at 
the Current, July 5, 1903. 

Family GOBIID.E (Gobies). 
GoBiDS GLAUCOFRiENDM (Gill) (Bridled Goby). 
Heretofore recorded from the Florida Keys. Twenty-five specimens were 
obtained by the Expedition in the oyster dredge off Governors Harbor, Eleu- 
thera Island, July 7, 1903, in five fathoms of water. 

GoBirs SOPORATOR Cuvier and Valenciennes (Sleeper or Caiman Goby). 
This species is generally abundant in tropical seas of both Atlantic and 
Pacific oceans. Found in the shallow waters of shores and ditclies, hiding 
under stones. Specimens were obtained by the Expedition at Salt Key, near 
Nassau, and at Powells Point, Eleuthera, during .June and July, 1903. 

Gaemannia HEMiGYiiXA (Eigenmanu and Eigenmann) (Half-naked Goby). 
This highly interesting goby, heretofore indefinitely ascribed to the West 
Indies, was taken by the Expedition in an oyster dredge on the north side of 
Green Cay, in about five fathoms of water, June 30, 1903, five examples, 
measuring from five-eighths to seven-eighths of an inch in length, being cap- 
tured. 

Family GOBIESOCID.E (Clinging Gobies). 
GoBiEsox CEPHALus Lacepede (Cling Fish). 
Obtained by the Expedition at Green Ca}', in the oyster dredge, in five fath- 
oms of water. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 319 

GoBiESOX h-5:ees Jordan ami Bollman. 
Collection of C. L. Edwards, Green Turtle Cay, 1888. The single speci- 
men taken was described in Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, XI, 1888, p. 552. 

Family ECHENIIDvE (Remoras). 
EcHENEis NAUCRATEOiDES Zuiew (Suckiug Fisli). 
This interesting fish ranges from the coast of Massachusetts to the West 
Indies, being common southward. It is also found in the waters of Bermuda, 
usually attached to sharks. Obtained by the Expedition at Gregory Town, 
Bleuthera, Juty, 1903, where they were first noticed by the side of the vessel 
eating offal. ISTumerous examples, captured by hook and line. 

Family BLENNIID^'K (Blennies). 
Labrisomus nuchipinnis (Quoy and Gaimard) (Molly Miller). 
Common in rock pools of the West Indies. The steamer Albatross ob- 
tained this species at Abaco, New Providence and Watlings Island during 
March and April, 1886. Eecorded from Bermuda. 

Malacoctenus jxoorei Evermann and Marsh (Combed Blenny). 

This species was described in 1899 from a specimen obtained in Porto 

Eico. It has since been collected in the Tortugas Archipelago by Dr. J. C. 

Thoiupson, U. S. N., at Key West by Bean and King, and obtained by the 

Bahama Expedition at Powells Point and Clarence Harbor during Jul}', 1903. 

Malacoctenus varius (Poey) (Variegated Blenny). 
An interesting little fish recorded by Poey from Cuba, and obtained by 
the steamer Albatross at Nassau, March, 1886. 

Malacoctenus LUGUBRis (Poey) (Dismal Blenny). 
Described from Cuban specimens; obtained by the steamer Albatross at 
Nassau, March, 1886. 

Malacoctenus ocellatus (Steindachner) (Ocellated Blenny). 
Clinus ocellatus Steindachner. Ichth. Beitr., V, 1876, p. 182. Bahama 
Islands. Definite locality not given. 

Malacoctenus biguttatus (Cope). 
Described under the name of Labrisomus biguttatus in Trans. Amer. 
Philos. Soc, Phila., 1873, p. 473, fi'om a specimen taken along New Providence. 



330 FISHES 

AuCHENOPTERUS AFFiNis (Steindaclmer) (Nape-finned Bleuny). 
Heretofore recorded from St. Thomas and Key West; obtained by tlie 
Expedition at Governors Harbor, Eleuthera. 

Stathmonotus hemphillii Bean (Hemphill's Blenny). 
Heretofore known only from two specimens taken at Key West; one 
example of this interesting form was obtained by the Expedition on the shore of 
Hog Island, near Nassau, June 18, 1903. 

Family OPHIDIID^E (Cusk Eels). 
Ophidium sp. (Cusk Eel). 
The steamer Albatross obtained a specimen at Abaco. 

Family FIERASFERIDA<: (Pearl Fishes). 
EiERASFEE AFFiNis (Gunther) (Pearl Fish). 
This interesting species takes its common name from the habit of resorting 
to the shells of the pearl oyster. It has been recorded from Key Biscayne, 
Florida, the Tortugas, Cape Florida, New Providence, and on the west coast at 
Panama and Lower California. The Albatross collected it at Nassau, 1886, 
and the U. S. National Museum has recently received specimens collected by 
Dr. Hubert L. Clark at Jamaica. 

Family PLEURONECTID.E (Flounders). 
Platopheys maculifee (Poey) (Spotted Flounder). 
This little flounder was found by the Expedition in considerable numbers 
on the beach of east end of Hog Island, the Current, Eleuthera, and in Clar- 
ence Harbor, July, 1903. Taken in the seine. Poey described it from Cuba. 

Platopheys lunatus (Linnseus) (Peacock Floimder). 
A specimen 14 inches long of this beautiful flounder was taken by C. L. 
Edwards at Green Turtle Cay in 1888. 

Platopheys OCBLLATDS (Agassiz) (Ocellated Flounder). 
Sandy shores of the Atlantic coast from New England to Brazil. 

Platopheys sp. (Spotted Flounder). 
A handsome specimen, 5^ inches long, of a flounder referable to this 
genus was taken by the Expedition at Tarpum Bay, July 7, 1903. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 331 

CiTHAEiCTHYS spiLOPTERUs Gllnther (WhifE). 
A small fish abundant along the shores of the western Atlantic from South 
Carolina to Brazil. Obtained by the Expedition along Eleuthera, the Cur- 
rent, July 0, 1903. 

Syacium mickdrum Eanzani (Small Flounder). 
This species belongs to the West Indian fauna. It was obtained by the 
Expedition in Clarence Harbor, JiUy 15, 1903. 

Family SOLEID.E (Soles). 
AcHiEus iNscRiPTus Gosse. 
Taken by C. L. Edwards at Green Turtle Cay in 1888. 

Family AULOSTOMID.i: (Trumpet-fishes). 
AuLOSTOMUS maculatds Valencienues (Trumpet Pish). 
This interesting fish ranges from Bermuda and Florida southward. Sev- 
eral specimens were obtained by the Expedition at Clarence Harbor, July 14 
and 17, 1903. Called " stalk-fish " in the Bahamas. The life colors of this 
fish are very pretty, forming as they do lines of cream, chocolate and black 
horizontal stripes. There are also numerous pearl-colored spots on the body. 

Family SYNGNATHID.E' (Pipe-fishes). 
SiPHOSTOMA albirostee (Hcckcl) (Pipe Pish). 
This species has been recorded from the coral reefs of the West Indies, 
ranging from Florida to Bahia. Obtained by the steamer Albatross at Abaco, 
Watlings Island and New Providence. 

SiPHOSTOMA PELAGicuM (Osbcck) (Pipe-fish). 
Tropical parts of the Atlantic. Obtained by the Expedition at Clarence 
Harbor, July 14, 1903. 

SiPHOSTOMA ROUSSEAU (Kaup) (Pipe Pish). 
West Indies, known from St. Lucia and Martinique. Obtained l}y the 
Expedition between Nassau and Elbow Key, July, 1903, in seaweed taken by 
dip-net. 

CoRTTHEOiCHTHTS CATORUM Bveimann and Kendall (Pipe-fish). 
Described from Key West; taken by the Expedition at Powells Point and 
Clarence Harbor, July, 1903. 
21 



322 FISHES 

Family HIPPOCAMPID.E (Sea Horses). 
Hippocampus punctulatus Guichenot (Sea Horse). 
Tropical parts of the Atlantic, common in the West Indies. One speci- 
men collected by the Expedition at Governors Harbor, July 7, 1903. 

Family BALISTID.E (Trigger-tishes). 
Balistes vetula Linnsens (Old-wife). 
This important species is common in the tropical parts of the Atlantic, 
throughont the West Indies and north to Florida, Bahama and Bermuda. It 
is a showy fish in life and the young, which are quite numerous around the 
coral heads of the Bahamas, add much to the beauty of the fish life seen there. 
Collected and observed by the Expedition in considerable numbers at 
various points visited during June and July, 1903. Common in the Nassau 
market. 

Balistes caeolinensis Gmelin (Turbot). 
Found in the tropical parts of the Atlantic, ranging northward in the 
Gulf Stream to the Few England coast. Common in the Mediterranean. The 
flesh is eaten and the skin is used for polishing purposes. " Trigger-fish " and 
" leather-jacket " are other common names for this species. Several yoimg 
specimens were taken by the Expedition in the Gulf weed north of Abaco dur- 
ing July, 1903. 

Canthideemis iiACDLATUs (Bloch) (Rough-skinned Turbot) . 
So far as the records go this is a rare species. It inhabits the open ocean 
of the West Indies and has received the name of " ocean turbot." One speci- 
men was obtained by the Expedition in floating gulf weed about sixty miles 
north of Abaco during July, 1903. Young, If- inches long. 

Family MONACANTHID.E (File-flshes). 
MONACANTHDS SPILONOTDS Cope (Filc-fish). 

The habitat of this species is recorded as Gulf of Mexico. We obtained it 
on the edge of the Gulf Stream, June 6, 1903, not far from Cape Hatteras, 
and July 15 at Clarence Harbor, and east end of Hog Island, July 20, 1903. 
Common in the latter places. 

Cantheeines pullds (Ranzani) (Lija Colorada). 
West Indies and Brazil, north to southern Florida. Obtained by the 
steamer Albatross at Nassau, April 23, 1886. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE LVI 




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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 323 

Aldtera scripta (Osbeck) (Unicorn Pish). 
Tliis curious fish, also known as " file-fish," was observed by Catesby in 
the Bahamas, and by Goods in Bermuda, where it was so uncommon (1873) 
that it did not have a common name. It grows to a length of 2 or 3 feet. 
Observed by us at Nassau during June and July, 1903. 

Family OSTRACIONTID.E (Trunk-fishes). 
Lactophrys BiCAUDALis Linuffius (Shell-fish). 
This curious, showy fish is common to the West Indies. It was present 
in the Nassau market and is more or less esteemed as food. Like other mem- 
bers of the genus, it is sold to curiosity hunters. 

Lactophrys tricornis Linnseus (Ilorn-fish). 
This species is rather common from the coast of North Carolina to Brazil. 
It is the " cow-fish " of Bermuda, " cuckold " of Jamaica," and " toro " of the 
Cubans. The fish reaches a length of 18 inches and is much esteemed as food. 
Obtained by the Expedition in Nassau market, June 20, 1903. The steamer 
Albatross collected it at Nassau and Abaco in 1886. 

Lactophry'S trigonus Linnaeus (Trunk-fish). 
West Indies north to Key West, and straying to the coast of Massachusetts. 
Four specimens were collected by the Expedition at Clarence Harbor, July 14, 
1903. The steamer Albatrnss obtained a specimen at Rum Cay, July, 1903. 

Family TBTRODONTID,^ (Puffers). 
Spheroides spengleri (Bloch) (Swell-toad). 
This fish, known also as " puffer " and " tambor," is found from Florida 
and Texas throughout the West Indies to Rio Janeiro and eastward to the 
Canaries and Madeiras. Recorded by Mr. Goode from Bermuda. Obtained 
by the Expedition at the Current, Powells Point, Clarence Harbor and at east 
end of Hog Island, July, 1903. 

Family DIODONTID^ (Porcupine Fishes). 

DiODON HYSTRix Linnaeus (Porcupine Fish). 

This species is widely distributed, being found in tropical seas, everywhere 

more or less common. Its chief value is as a curiosity, and it is sold by dealers 

of marine curios. Many dried and inflated skins were seen in the shops at 

Nassau, ranging in length from 1 to 2 feet. In Bei-muda, Mr. Goode says. 



324 FISHES 

it is highly prized by curiosity liunters, but never eaten. He records the name 
" sea hedgehog," and if I remember correctly, the name " edgehog " is used in 
the Bahamas. 

DiODON HOLACANTHUS Linnasus (Smaller Porcupine Fisli). 
Found in fl^arm seas generally. Very similar to D. liystrix, and it seems 
to us probably the young of that species. jSTumerous specimens were obtained 
by the Expedition at Clarence Harbor and at the east end of Hog Island, Jul}', 
1903. 

Chilomtcteuus spinosus (Linnaeus) (Burr-fish). 
Under this we would place C. schccpfi of Walbaum and C. geometricus 
(Bloch and Schneider). Habitat Atlantic coast of America from. Cape Cod 
to Brazil; Gulf of Mexico to Bermuda. Taken by the steamer Albatross at 
Nassau, April 10, 188G. 

Family ANTENNARIID..E (Anglers). 
Antennarius prinoipis (Cuvier and Valenciennes) (Black Angler). 
West Indian fauna. jSTamed for Prince Maurice of TvTassau, its discoverer. 
A very small example of tliis interesting little fish was picked out of some 
grass on the beach at Golding Key, Andros Island, June 27, 1903, Ijy Mr. C. 
A. Shore, of the botanical party. Its general color is black ; spinous dorsals 
and tips of pectorals whitish ; a white blotch on back before rays of dorsal, and 
upper edge of caudal peduncle whitish. 

Antenn.arius nuttingi Garman. 
Great Bahama Banks. Expedition State University of Iowa, 1893. 

Pterophryne HiSTRio (LinuEeus) (Mouse Fish). 
Plate LV. 
This curiously sliaped fish, known also as " sargassum-fish," and " harle- 
quin-fish," was found by the Expedition in floating seaweed (sargassum) in 
and near the Gulf Stream from off Cape Hatteras south to Andros Island. 
Quite a number were taken in dip-nets as the vessel slowly sailed along; they 
ranged in length from one-half to three inches. Probably fifty examples, were 
captured' by different meml)ers of the party, who saved them as curiosities. 
Twenty were preserved by the writer for the National ]\Iuseuni. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 3? 5 

The colored sketch by Mr. Baklwin is a very good representation of tlio 
fish in life. The pectorals are not quite correctly drawn, the rays should be 
more slender and at least ten in number. One of the larger examples lias 
eleven rays in the pectoral. 

Family OGCOCEPHALID.T; (Bat-Fishes). 
Ogocephalus eadiatus (ilitchill). 
Great Bahama Banks, h'xpedition of State University of Iowa, 1803. 



BATRACHIANS AND LAND REPTILES OF THE 
BAHAMA ISLANDS 



BATRACHIANS AND LAND REPTILES OF THE 
BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 
LEONHARD STEJNEGER, 

Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batracliians, U. S. National Mnseiim.^ 



INTRODUCTION. 

The present account of the terrestrial herpetological fauna of the Baliama 
Islands is the result of a request by Dr. George B. Shattuck for a general 
herpetological sketch of the archipelago from a zoogeographical standpoint. 
Realizing the inadequacy of the material hitherto gathered for an attempt of 
this kind, I undertook the writing of this article with considerable reluctance. 
The batrachians and reptiles of the Bahamas are only very imperfectly known, 
as collections have been made in not more than fifteen of the numerous islands 
which compose the archipelago. Moreover, the islands from wliich re]3tilcs 
have been recorded are very unequally explored. Thus we know now fourteen 
species from the small island of New Providence, while from the big island of 
Inagua only five species are recorded. As a matter of fact, not a single island 
has been thoroughly explored, and the circumstance that New Providence stands 
out with such a preponderance of species is only due to the fact that practically 
everybody who has collected in the arcliipelago visited that island and spent 
' most of the time there. Under such circumstances generalizations must 1)0 
made and accepted with the utmost caution, and it should be distinctly under- 
stood that whatever of the kind may be submitted in the following account 
must be received as preliminary statements only, subject to later revision 
when we shall know the Bahama land fauna better. 

The Director of the Expedition of the Geographical Socicly of Baltinioi'c 
had hoped to remedy this unfortunate state of affairs, but owing to unfavor- 

' By permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 



330 BATRACHIANS AND LAND REPTILES 

able sailing conditions the exploration of the more southerly islands of the 
group, such as Inagiia, Caicos, and Turks Islands, which are so essential to 
a full understanding of the zoogeographical relations of the Bahamas, was not 
practicable. Mr. J. H. Eiley, the member of the Expedition whose duty it was 
to attend to the reptiles, was obliged to devote his energies to birds and mam- 
mals as well, and owing to the fact that his time on shore was frequently limited, 
the reptiles did not receive as much attention as was expected. Mr. Eiley, 
nevertheless, secured some very interesting specimens, such as the Cyclura 
haolopha Cope the new Cyclura rileyi Stejneger, of which he Ijrought home a 
fine series. 

During the summer of 190-1-, some months after this paper had been 
sent to the editor, Mr. Thomas Barbour, of the Museum of Comparative 
Zoology in Cambridge, Mass., together with several other gentlemen, made 
extensive collections on a number of the northern islands and keys, some of 
which had not been explored herpetologically before. His paper " contains 
many valuable additions to our knowledge, and it is extremely unfortunate 
that more extensive references to it could not be made in the following account. 

SYSTEMATIC AND NOMENCLATURAL NOTES. 

Before approaching the zoogeographical problems, it will be necessary to 
discuss the systematic as well as the nomenclatural status of a number of 
species occurring in or said to occur in the archipelago. 

BATRACHIANS. 
Hyla septenteionalis Boulenger. 
Hyla septentrionalis Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. SaL Brit. Mus., p. 368. 

This name must be dated from Boulenger, as both Schlegel's Hyla sep- 
tentrionalis of 1837, and Tschudi's Dcndrohyas septentrionalis of 1838, are 
absolute nomina mula. Should Cope's Tracliyceplialus insulsus ^ really be 
identical with the present species, which I greatly doubt, this name would 
take precedence, as Hyla marmorata, based upon Bibron's Tracliyceplialus mar- 
moratus* is antedated by Hyla marmorata Daudin, 1803. 

- Barbour, Thomas, Batrachia and Reptilia from the Bahamas, Bull. Mus. 
Comp. Zool, Cambridge, xlvi, No. 3, Dec, 1904, pp. 55-61. 
= Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1863, p. 43. 
' Hist. Fis. Pol. Nat. Cuba. Zool., iv. Kept, x, 1834, p. 138. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 331 

Eleutheeodactylus lUCOUDii (Dumei'il and Bibron). 
Hylodes ricordii Dumeril and Bibron, 1841, Erp6t. G^n., vol. viii, p. 623. 

This is commonly known as Hylodes ricordii. For the use of the generic 
term see my Herpetology of Porto Rico.° I have not been able to examine 
Bahama specimens of this species and am thus unable to express an opinion 
regarding their identity with specimen.^ from Cuba and Florida. I have com- 
pared specimens from the two latter localities and was unable to find any 
differences. 

EEPTILES. 

LIZARDS. 

Sph^eodacttlus notatus Baird. 
Sphcerodactylus notatus Baird, 1858, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 254. 

I have compared Bahama with Cuban, Santo Domingan and Florida 
examples and found no differences. 

Sph^rodactylus corticolus Garman. 
Sphcerodactylus corticolus Garman, 1888, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. xx, p. 11. 

Originally described from Rum Cay, but the U. S. National Museum has 
it also from Watlings Island. This species appears to have its nearest relative 
in Santo Domingo, as the specimens which Garman has recorded from Samana, 
Santo Domingo, as S. nigropunctatus " must be rather closely allied. Their 
dorsal scales may be smaller, but they are described as being keeled. 

SPH-iiRODACTYLUS ASPEE Garman. 
Sphwrodactylus asper Garman, 1888, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. xx, p. 13. 

Thus far only known from Andros. Garman in describing this species 
suggests relationship with his S. picturatus. This species is recorded from 
Haiti and also from Cuba. 

Sph^eodactylus decoratus Garman. 
SphcETOdactylus decoratus Garman, 1888, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. xx, p. 12. 

One of the species with granular dorsals and broad blackish bands across 
the back and tail. The related species occur both in Haiti and in Cuba, but 

°Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1902, publ. 1904, p. 582. 
"Bull. Essex Inst., xix, 1SS7, p. IS. 



332 BATKACHIAIs^S AND LAND REPTILES 

their exact systematic and geogra}3hical limits are as yet not very clearly made 
out. In the Bahamas the species thus far has been found only on Rum Cay. 

Mabdya SLOANii (Daudin) (?). 
Scincus sloanii Daudin, 1803, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. iv, p. 287. 

Cope is the only author to record a skink from the Bahamas. It was 
brought from Turks Islands by Professor Adrian J. Ebell and was first enu- 
merated by Cope as M. cepedei, but afterwards as M. agilis. This name be- 
longs to a South American species, however, and undoubtedly is inapplicable 
to the Turks Islands slippery-back. As I have not seen the specimen I can 
not be absolutely certain of its identity, but the chances are that it is 31. sloanii 
which occurs in Haiti and Porto Eico. 

Ameiva thoracica Cope. 
Avieiva thoracica Cope, 1862, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 64. 
Most nearly related to the Cul)an .1. auheri Cope. 

Ameiva maynardii Carman. 

Ameiva maynardii Garman, 1888, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. xx, p. 10. 

This, on the other hand, belongs to a different section of the genus which 
is only represented in Haiti and the island of St. Croi.x. 

Anolis porcatus Gray. 

AnoHs porcatus Gray, 1840. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., p. 112. 

As has been shown long ago Ijy Garman, there are very good reasons for 
separating the Cuban form under the above name from Anolis carolinensis 
Dumeril and Bibron of the southern United States. The Bahama specimens 
are very close to the Cuban ones, though I have a strong suspicion that even- 
tually they may be found to be separable. So much is certain, however, that 
the Bahama form is in no way directly connected with A. carolinensis, but 
that its relationship is with Gray's A. porcatus. Whether Cope's A. porcatus 
hrunneus, from Crooked Island, is a really distinguishable local form must 
remain undecided for the present because of lack of material. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE LVII 





J; p ui 

« ^ i 

MJ K < 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 33!] 

Anolis pulchellus Dumeril and Bil)ron (?). 
Anolis pxilchelJus Dumeril and Bibron, 1837, Erpet. Gen., vol. iv, p. 97. 

A single specimen in the U. S. National ]\Iusenm (No. 25051) seems to 
belong to this Porto Eican species. It was collected hy the naturalists of the 
U. S. Fish Commission steamer Fish-hairk. during the expedition to Porto 
Eico of 1899. and was found in a bottle labeled " Nassau, New Providence, 
Dec. 25, 1898," containing specimens of Anolis distichus Cope and A.sagrei 
Dumeril and Bibron. As no species of this group has been collected before in 
the Bahamas, and as the po'ssibilit}' of the accidental misplacement of a Porto 
Eican specimen is not excluded, no further I'eference to this species will be 
made at present. 

AxoLis SAGREi Dumeril and Bibron. 

Anolis sagrei Dumeril and Bibron, 1837, Erpet. Gen., vol. iv, p. 149. 
Anolis ordinaUis Cope, 1864, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 175. 

The relative status of these names is uncertain. The former was orig- 
inally described from Cuba by Dumeril and Bibron. The latter was described 
In- t'ope from specimens in British Museum having no other locality than 
"' West Indies," and Boulenger, with the types before him, regards them as 
identical.' Cope, in 1887, still inaintains their distinctness, referring the 
specimens from Turks Islands to A. ordinatus , and those from New Provi- 
dence and Abaco to A. sagrei^ Garman. in the same year, regards A. ordinatus 
as the Bahama variety of A. saf/rei,' recording specimens from New Providence 
and the Florida Keys." He has apparently not examined specimens from 
Turks Islands, and it is quite possible, not to say probable, that these may 
differ from those of the northern islands, but it is highly dubious if in that 
ease the name A. ordinatus is applicable to them. On the other hand, while 
I am at present unable to point out any structural characters separating .the 
Baliama and Cuban specimens, there seems to be a constant difference in the 
color of the naked skin of the dex^lap. In all the Culian examples, whether 
preserved in alcohol or formalin, tlicre is always a distinct trace of crimson, 
while in all the Baliama specimens l)efore me this skin is blackish, indicating 

■ Cat. Liz. Brit. Mus., ii, 1885, p. 40. 

''Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., x, 1887, p. 436. 

" Bull. Esse.x Inst., xix, 1887, p. 47, author's reprint, p. 23. 



334 BATRACHIANS AND LAND REPTILES 

a color in life different from red." Prom my own personal experience with 
the Anoles in Porto Eico I am inclined to attach great weight to the color of 
the dewlap, and I foimd it constant even in very closely allied species. I shall 
therefore follow Garman in calling the northern Bahama specimens A. ordina- 
tus, those from Cuba A. sagrei and those from Turks Islands Anolis sp. ? 

Anolis ledcoph^us Garman. 
Anolis leucoplimus Garman, 1888, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. xx, p. 9. 

Cope's A. cinnamomeus is six years younger than A. leucoplicBus of Gar- 
man, who informs me of their identity. He writes that he is in doubt whether 
A. moorei Cope is really distinct. 

Cyclura cyclura (Cuvier). 
Iguana cyclura Cuvier, Regne Anim., 2nd ed., ii, p. 45. (?). 

No uncertainty exists concerning the status and relationships of the spe- 
cies Cyclura hmolopha Cope, C. carinata Harlan, and C. rileyi Stejneger, re- 
spectively from Andros, Tiirks Islands and Watlings; they are easily distin- 
guished inter se and from the species inhabiting the adjoining larger Antilles 
Cope's reference of an iguana from Cat Island to the typical species Cyclura 
cyclura, or C. nubila as he calls it," is therefore highly dubious, but as the 
specimen upon which the record is made appears to be lest,'" I am at present 
unable to settle the question. 

Leiocephalus CARiNATus Gray. 
Leiocephalus carinatus Gray, 1827, Phil. Mag., p. 208. 

When describing L. virescens, the only other Bahama specimens of this 
group accessible to me were a few without definite locality collected by Brj'ant. 
Since then I have examined true L. carinatus from Andros, collected by 
Mr. Eiley during the Expedition of the Geographical (Society of Baltimore, and 
a specimen from Cat Island. It follows that L. virescens is a local form from 

" Mr. Riley in his field notes speaks of a " black " Anolis " with an orange- 
colored throat frequenting old fences and bushes along the road and the more 
open woods." This is probably A. ordinatus Cope. 

" Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., x, 1887, p. 437. 

" In the record book of the Division of Reptiles, U. S. Nat. Mus., a specimen 
from Cat Island is entered under No. 14576 as Cyclura nuMla. The specimen sa 
tagged is not a Cyclura, however, but Leiocephalus carinatus Gray. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 335 

Green Cay, characterized chiefly by the shortness of the fifth toe and the 
smallness of the interparietal. 

Leiocephalus loxogrammds Cope. 

LeiocepJialus loxogrammus Cope, 1S87, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. x, p. 437. 

Mr. Eiley during the last Expedition obtained a yoimg specimen from Wat- 
lings Island of this distinct species which hitherto was only known from Rum 
Cay, the type locality. It shows no tangible differences from the types. 

SNAKES. 
Leptotyphlops albifrons (Wagler). 
Stenostoma aliifrons "Wagler, 1824, Serp. Brasil., p. 68. 

Cope's identification of a blind snake from Watlings Island as Stenostoma 
melanot&rma, described by himself from Paraguay, appears less startling if 
we accept Boulenger's verdict that the latter is a synonym of L. alhifrons 
which is widely distributed over South America and Central America. The 
latter author also records specimens from Grenada and Antigua, among the 
Lesser Antilles. This species has not been found in Haiti as j'et, but as 
this island is very imperfectly explored, no importance attaches to this nega- 
tive evidence. 

Typhlops lumbricalis (Linne). 
Anguis lumhricalis Linne, 1758, Syst. Nat., 10th ed., i, p. 228. 

The only ■ specimen known from the Bahamas was taken on Abaco. It 
deviates slightly from the general type which is found in nearly all the West 
Indian islands, but whether it rej)resents a depauperate form of this species or 
only an individual aberration cannot be determined from a single specimen. 

Epicrates chrysogaster (Cope). 
Homalogaster chrysogaster Cope, 1871, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, vol. xi, p. 557. 

As I have already pointed out in my Herpetology of Porto Rico," E. chryso- 
gaster, from Turks Islands, appears to merit separation from E. fordii 
(Giinther), its near ally in Haiti. The latter has only 33 to 37 scale rows and 
69 to 78 dorsal spots, while E. chrysogaster is said to have 43 scale rows 
and 54 dorsal spots. 

"Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1902, p. 694. 



33{j BATEACHIANS AND LAND REPTILES 

Epicrates striatus (Fischer). 
Homalochilus striatus Fischer, 1856, Abhandl. Nat. ver. Hamburg, Bd. iii, p. 102. 

The big boa found on ISTew Providence was described by Cope as distinct 
from the Haitian species and named Homalochilus strigilatus. A careful com- 
parison of two specimens from the type locality, one of which was collected by 
Mr. Riley, with five specimens from Haiti and Santo Domingo, fails to discover 
any tangible differences in color or scutellation. It should be emphasized that 
the New Providence specimens show no approximation towards the Cuban 
E. angulifer Bibron, which there is no reason whatever for connecting trinomi- 
nally with the Haitian species. 

Tropidophis pardalis (Gundlach). 
Boa pardalis Gundlach, 1840, Arch. Naturg., 1, p. 359. 

The generic name Tropidophis based by Bibron, in 1840, upon Schlegel's 
Boa melanura, antedates Gray's Ungalia by two years. This species was origi- 
nally described from Cuba, but has hitherto been regarded as T. niaculata 
(Bibron), also from Cuba. Mr. Barbour has now shown that it is the species 
with fewer ventrals which occurs in the Bahamas, unless indeed both are found 
there. On these points I am unable to form an opinion, as I have no material. 
The following remarks were penned before the receipt of Mr. Barbour's paper. 

Cope " maintains the distinctness of his Tropidophis hcetiana, asserting 
that in the latter " the scale rows are 29 and no interparietal plates, while in 
Cuban T. maculata the scales never exceed 2-5 rows and are usually 23," while 
the interparietals " are always present." These characters are not so constant 
as he seems to think, for Boulenger records a Cuban specimen in the British 
museum as having 27 scale rows and the U. S. National Museum has another 
(27455). On the other hand, Boulenger quotes a Santo Domingan specimen 
having only 25. Yet it may probably be said that the majority of Haitian and 
Santo Domingan examples have 27 to 29 scale rows, and the majority of Cuban 
specimens 23 to 25. It is proliably also true that the majority of the latter 
have interparietals and that the former mostly lack them. None of our speci- 
mens show an exception from this rule. But if the specimen figured by Jan " 
is really from Santo Domingo, as stated in the text (p. 75), it is an instance 

" Proc, Phila. Acad.. 1894, p. 436. 

" Icon. Ophid., livr. 5, 1864, pi. ii, fig. 1. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 337 

from that island of a sjDeeimen possessing interparietals; That a certain 
amount of differentiation has taken place, there can be no doubt; how much, 
can only be settled b}' the accumulation of much more material. 

Tkopidophis cana (Cope). 
Ungalia cana Cope, 1868, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 129. 

The low numljcr of ventrals alone is sufficient to distingui.sh this species. 

Alsopiiis axgulifer vudii (Cope). 
Alsophis vudii Cope, 1862, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 74. 

Boulenger has denied this form recognition by placing it as a .synonym of 
the Cuban A. angulifer (Bibron). I find, however, that the Bahama speei- 
■mens, on the average, have fewer ventrals. Thus in ten specimens from New 
Providence, Eleuthera and Long Island, the ventrals vary between 158 and 171, 
averaging 164, while in twenty-one Cuban specimens the average is 171, the 
extremes being 164 and 180. There is also an average smaller number of sub- 
caudals in the Bahama form, viz., 110 as against 115 in the Culjan. Under 
these circumstances it seems best to recognize the Bahama form by name, and 
as the two forms intergrade, a trinominal appellation is here applied to it. 

A single specimen from Eleuthera, collected by 'Mr. Riley during the 
Baltimore Geograi^hic Society Expedition, has 19 scale rows, while all the other 
specimens examined have 17. I can discover no other differences, and with 
only one specimen it is impossible to say whether this deviation is individual 
or not. 

' LeIMADOPHIS (?) RUBESCENS (Copc). 

Diadophis rubescens Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc, xxii, 1885, p. 403. 

Boulenger refers Cope's Diadophis rubescens to Alsophis angulifer (vudii) 

as a synonym. Apparently he bases this indentification upon the complete 

agreement of the number of scales and scutes constituting the regular scale 

formula. I have not had an opportunity to examine the unique type specimen, 

but I would call attention to the fact that Cope describes his species as having 

only one pore to each scale. This, if correct, would preclude its being an 

Alsophis, while on the other hand I can see no good reason why it may not be 

a form of Leiinadophis more or less closely allied to L. andrea' (Eeinhardt and 

Luetken ) . 
22 



338 



BATRACIIIANS AND LAND REPTILES 



DISTRIBUTION OF BATRACHIANS AND REPTILES (EXCEPT MARINE TURTLES) 
OCCURRING IN THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. 

The distril)ution of batrachians and reptiles occurring in the Bahama Islands will now be given. 
In reading these tables it should be understood that M denotes that specimens are in the U. S. National 
Museum; C, that occurrence is recorded by Cope; G, that occurrence is recorded by Garman; B, that 
occurrence is recorded by Barbour; -|- that the identical Sf)ecies occurs outside the Bahamas; — that 
species is represented by a closely allied form; ? that the relationship of the Bahama species to the 
form inhabiting the island is doubtful. 





SPECIES. 


6 
o 

s 


o 
o 

2 


E 
C5 


CD 

c 
u 


2 


E3 

O 

■a 
> 

s 

ft 

!5 


to 
o 

'a 

a 
■< 


■♦J 


'6 
a 

1 

i 


o 


o 
o 

o 


be 
a 

(S 


a 


DO 

•a 

m 
u 


3 
C3 

a 

M 

£ 


03 
P 
u 
O 

S 


C3 
5 


w 


ADDITIONAL 
LOCALITIES. 


1 




B 










M 

CB 

M 


B 
B 
G 










M 


G 

G 
G 








+ 

+ 
+ 


+ 
+ 

+ 




2 


Hyla squirella Latreille 






+ 
+ 
+ 


S. E. North America. 


R 


EUutherodactylus ricordii (Dumeril & Bibron). 
Sph(Erodactylus noiatits Baird 




c 






4 




5 






fi 


Sphievodiictylus corticolus Garman 
















7 


iSph(erodacfylus decoratus Garman 












B 


B 
B 












H 














c 








9 


Mahuya sloanii (Daudin) (?) 














Porto Rico; Virgin IbIs. 


10 


Ameiva thoraelca Cope ... 




c 








M 


C 














CG 




- 


11 








12 






c 








M 


B 












M 




— 


+ 




1R 








14 


Anolis ordmatus Cope ... 




M 








M 


B 










1.5 


AiiolU (sp) 


c 


CG 

C 






Ifi 


Anolis leucophceus Garman 

Anolis ynoorei Cope 






























17 




18 














C 
M 


B 

M 










ji 




C 




+ ? 




19 


Anolis disiichns Cope . . . . 




C 










9.0 


Cyclura bceolopha Cope 






«1 


















9,?, 




















93 


CyclitTCi cari7iata Harlan 


























?,4 


Leioeephalus cariitaius Gray 




M 











M 






M 




M 


M 






+ 


+ 
+ 

+ 




9.5 








9fi 
























97 


Leiorcphaliis schreibersii (Gravenhorst) ..... 
Lt:pti>typhhjps alhifrons (Wagler) 
























C 


G 






98 




+ 


Caribbean Isls.; S.Amer. 


29 


Typhlopa iutnhricalU (Linne) 




M 




















British Guiana; Antilles 


SO 






generally. 


31 


Epicratcs striatus (Fischer) 












M 
CE 


G 














M 




+ 




R9 


Tropidophis pardalis (Gundlach) 














33 


Tropidophis cana (Cope) 












34 


Leimadophu (?) rubescens (Cope). . . 












c 




c 


M 






4 


5 






? 




3.5 


Alsophis angulifer vudii (Cope) 










M 


M .. 






Total 














3 


7 


1 


4 


5 


14 i: 


eji 


1 


2 


4 


5 


4 


18 


IS 


4 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 339 

RELATIONS AND ORIGIN OF THE BAHAMA HERPETOLOGICAL FAUNA. 

An inspection of the previous table shows that out of a total of thirty- 
five species anil subspecies (excluding the marine turtles) no less than twonty- 
tvvo are considered peculiar or restricted to the archipelago in exactly the 
form in which they occur there. 

On the other hand, there are thirteen species (one doubtful) which are 
regarded as specifically and snbspecifically identical with forms occurring 
elsewhere. 

Of the twenty-two forms restricted to the archipelago, tliree are mere local 
representatives on a single island of a species occurring typically over a greater 
area, viz. : Sphmrodactylus flavicaudus Barbour, Anolis hrunncus Cope, and 
Leioceph.alus virescens Stejneger. Fifteen are more or less closely related to 
species occurring in Cuba or Haiti, while the relationship of the remaining 4 is 
somewhat dubious on account of our deficient knowledge of their status, due 
to absence or insufficiency of nuiterial. But it is only fair to say that even 
in the case of these, the relationship is distinctly with the Greater Antilles. 
It will therefore be seen that while there is a certain amount of specialization 
due to isolation, the difference from the herpetological fauna of the Greater 
Antilles is one of degree only. 

The derivation of this fauna is consequently not difficult to trace. Situ- 
ated as the Bahamas are to the southeast of Florida, to the northeast of Cuba 
and to the north of Haiti, it is to these localities we will have to look for the 
origin of the Bahama batrachians and reptiles. 

Eelations to Florida. 

Only four species identical with or closely related to species occurring 
in Florida have hitherto been recorded from the Bahamas, viz. : 

Hyla squirella- Latreille. 

Ehuthcrodactijhis ricordii (Dumeril and Ril)ron). 

Sphcerodactylus notatus Baird. 

Anolis porcatus Gray. 

Of these, one, Hyla squirella (which is strictly North American), is con- 
fined to a small key north of Grand Bahama, and it is quite probable that it 
has been accidentally introduced by man as suggested by Mr. Barbour, who 
discovered it there. 

The three other species occur in Cuba as well as in the Bahamas, and one 
even in Haiti. On the other hand, two of these, Eleutherodactylus ricordii 



340 BATEACHIANS AND LAKD EEPTILES 

and Sphwrodactylus notatus are in Florida confined to the extreme southern 
portion of the peninsula. The third species, Anolis porcaius, which is identi- 
cal in the Bahamas and in Cuba, is represented in Florida b}^ A. caroJinensis 
Dumeril and Bibron, the so-called Florida " chameleon." These forms differ 
more than the}- are usually given credit for, though of course there can be no 
doubt that the A. carolinensis is a direct descendant of ..1. porcaius. The 
former is not restricted to the peninsula of Florida, but extends on the North 
American mainland along the Atlantic coast into North Carolina, and along 
the Gulf coast to the Mexican boundar)'. 

From these facts it seems perfectly safe to draw the conclusions : ( 1 ) that 
all these species came to the Bahamas from Cul)a ; (2) that they also reached 
Florida from Cuba; (3) that the arrival of the Anolis to the North American 
mainland took place siifficiently long ago to allow it to become specifically 
differentiated and to spread all over the southern coast region, while the 
tree-toad and the gecko only very recently found their way into Florida. 

It follows that there is no indication of any direct relation between the 
herpetological faunas of the Bahamas and Florida. 

Kelations to Cuba. 

The table showing the disti-ibution of the Bahama species indicates that 
at least seven ( plus one doubtful ) are identical with Cuban species. Three of 
these have already been dealt with. Of the remaining, one is of wide distribu- 
tion in the Antilles and northern .South America, viz., the blind snake, 
TypMops lumbricalis (Linne), while another, Hyla septentnonalis Boulen- 
ger, is also common both in Haiti and Jamaica. 

Eight other species (with two local suljspecies) are closely related to 
Cuban species, of which only two are also represented equally close by Haitian 
forms. Altogether eighteen forms point directly to Cuba as their original 
home. 

An inspection of the taljle alluded to will reveal the striking circumstance 
that all the species related to Cuba are found only on the islands situated upon 
the great Bahama l)ank defined by the 500-fathom line or at least northwest of 
a line through the Slariguana Passage, and that con^^ersely, though with one 
notable exception, all the forms occupying islands situated on the great bank 
are more nearly related to Cuban forms than to any other (except of course 
when the Cuban form also occurs in Haiti). 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE LVIII 




c« 


'Ji 


Hi 


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N 


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E 


M 


[3 




_l 


P. 


o 



< 

IT 

f- 
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Z 



THE BAHAMA ISLiXDS 341 

The exception alhuled to is that of the great t>oi(l snake E/jicndcs fttrialiis 
(Fischer), which, though ocenrring in the Bahamas, so far as known, only on 
New Providence and Andi'os, is indistingnisliable I'l'oni tlie Haitian specimens 
and clearly distinct from E. angulifer (Bibron), which represents tlie latter in 
Cuba. This case is apparently so abnormal that the only reasonable explana- 
tion seems to be the suggestion that this snake has been accidentally introduced 
by the agency of man at a comparatively recent date. 

Another circumstance is obvious from a glance at the table, viz. : that the 
two northernmost of the large islands, from which we have collections, Abaco 
and Eleuthera, have thus far yielded no species not found on the islands nearer 
Cuba, with one exception. The exception is the blind snake, Typhlops luin- 
bricalis (Linne), which has only been recorded from Abaco. From the fact 
that this species is generally distributed over the entire Antillean region, it 
appears highly probable that it also occurs in the intervening Bahama Islands, 
and that its retired habits and the insufficiency of our explorations are respon- 
sible for this apparent exception. The inference based on the above observa- 
tion is that the islands which are peripheral from a geographic standpoint also 
from a distributional standpoint present themselves as peripheral relative to 
Cuba. 

Eelations to Haiti. 

Six species are identical with forms inhabiting Haiti, several of which 
have been mentioned above, viz. : Hyla septcntrionalis Boulenger, Spluerodac- 
ti/Ius notatus Baird, Typltlops lumhricalis (Linne), and Epicrates striaius 
(Fischer). The first three are of comparatively wider distribution and occur 
also in Cuba, and the abnormal case of the latter has been discussed above. 
None of these are thought to possess any special significance. 

In addition to the two other Haitian species occurring in the Bahamas, 
Mabuya sloanii (Daudin) and Leiocepludus schreihcrsii (Gravenhorst), there 
are seven forms " more or less intimately related to the Haitian species, two of 
which are about equally related to Cuban forms, and hence of less interest. The 
seven species to which we then direct our attention are as follows : 

Mabuya sloanii (Daudin) (?). 

Ameiva niaynardii Garman. 

Anolis leucophams Garman. 

Anolis moorei Cope. 

'"Eight, if we include the somewhat problematical Anolis from Turks Islands 
called A. ordinatus by Cope. 



342 BATRACHIANS AND LAND KEPTILES 

Leiocephalus schreibersii (Gravenhorst). 

Epicrates chrysogaster (Cope). 

Tropidophis cana (Cope). 

Of these Mabuya sloanii lias a distribution extending bej^ond Haiti, bnt 
the significant fact about it is that it does not occur in Cuba, and as not even 
the genus is represented in the latter island, it matters comparativelj'' little 
that the specific identity of the Turks Islands skink is not settled beyond a 
shadow of a doubt. 

It will be seen that all the above seven species so closely related to the 
exclusively Haitian fauna are confined to Turks Islands and Great Inagua. 
These islands are separated from the islands on the great bank not only 
by deeper water (1000 to 1500 fathoms), but by wider channels less obstructed 
by small islands or keys. To the south of them Haiti is the nearest land though 
separated by a very deep channel more than 2000 fathoms deep. Great Inagua, 
moreover, is nearly as close to the east end of Cuba as to Haiti. 

Opposing the fact that the islands situated on the same bank and nearest 
to Cuba have a fauna most closely allied to that of Cuba, we have the corres- 
ponding fact that the islands nearest to Haiti, though not on the same bank as 
the latter, have a fauna most closely allied to Haiti. 

Relations of Eum Cay and Watlings Island. 

The herpetological relations of these islands to the rest of the archipelago 
as well as to Cuba and Haiti are not quite clear. This unfortunate state of 
affairs is due not only to our defective knowledge of their own fauna in par- 
ticular but of that of the other islands both east and west of them. In a meas- 
ure their situation is intermediate between the two groups of islands treated of 
above. On the other hand, they are quite peripheral and their isolated location 
in deep water outside of the great bank gives them a certain independent status. 
Scanty as our knowledge of their reptiles is, these points are also indicated in 
their fauna, though possibly somewhat obscurely. 

The following species have been recorded from IJum Cay and Watlings: 

Watlings Island. Hum Cay. 

Hyla septenirionalis Boulenger. 
SpJiwrodactylus corticolus Garman. 
Cyclura rileyi Stejneger. Splicvrodactylus decoratus Garman. 

Leioccphahis lo.rogrammus Cope. 
Lcptotyphlops alhifrons (Wagler). Anolis ordinatus Cope. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 343 

Of these Tlijla septcnirionalis and Spliarodactylus decoratus seem equally 
close to Cuba and Haiti. S. corticoliis appears to lean more to Haiti. Leio- 
cepliahiS loxogrammus and Anolis ordinatus are of decidedly Cuban relation- 
ship. Cyclura rUeyi is uncertain, but probably closer to Cul)a than to Haiti. 
Finally Leptotyphlops albifrons is a South American species which has not 
hitherto been found in the Greater Antilles, the Virgin Islands or any other 
island in the Bahamas. There would be nothing surprising, however, if it 
were found later in all these islands, especially in Haiti. 

As will be seen, nothing definite can be concluded from the above. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The first and most obvious result of the above attempt to analyze the 
herpetological faima of the Bahamas is the conviction that the archipelago is 
as yet far too imperfectly explored, and that exhaustive collections from many 
islands which have not yet been visited as well as from those already super- 
ficially examined, are necessary before a correct picture of their reptile world 
can be drawn. 

It may be well to summarize, however, the preliminary conclusions at 
which we have arrived : 

1. The herpetological fauna of the Bahamas is derived directly from the 
nearest islands of the Greater Antilles. 

2. The islands situated on the great bank which is connected with Cuba 
by the 500-fathom line are directly and closely allied herpetologically to the 
latter island. 

3. Great Inagua and Turks Islands show similarly strong relationships to 
the island of Haiti. 

4. There is no direct connection between the herpetological fauna of the 
Bahamas and Florida. 

5. The isolation of the various species on the separate islands has been 
sufficiently complete and protracted to have resulted in a considerable amount 
of specialization. 



BIRDS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



BIRDS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 

JOSEPH H. RILEY, 

Aid, Division of Bir(h, U. S. National Museum. 



INTRODUCTION. 



During the months of June and July, 1903, the writer was granted leave 
of absence from the U. S. National Museum in order to join the Expedition 
sent out to the Bahama Islands by the Geograi:>hical Society of Baltimore. 
While a member of this Expedition, he was in charge of the Division of Land 
Zoology and was ably assisted in his collecting by Mr. Samuel H. Dorickson, 
a student at the Johns Hgpkins University. On the return of the party, 
Messrs. Leonhard Stejneger and Gerrit S. Miller worked up the batrachians, 
reptiles and mammals taken on the Expedition and have published on them 
elsewhere in this volume, and Dr. George B. Shattuck, the Director of the 
Expedition, has requested me to discuss the Bahama birds. 

Although much still remains to be learned regarding the birds of the 
Bahamas, nevertheless they have received more study than any other group of 
land animals, and the present paper is written to review our present knowledge 
in regard to the Ornithology of the Bahamas rather than in the hope of adding 
much new material to that already in our possession. 

ORNITHOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS. 

The first naturalist to visit the Baliama Islands for the purpose of seri- 
ously studying the natural history was Mark Catesby, who published the 
results of his travels in America in two large folio volumes entitled The Na.l- 
vral History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, 1731-1748. They 
contained 220 colored plates with an appendix of 20 plates and a map, the 
text printed in both English and Prencli in parellel columns. Catesby tells us 
that he visited New Providence, Eleuthera, Andros, Abaco, and the neighbor- 
ing islands. His plates and descriptions served Linnreus and others as the 
basis for many of their species. Only a few Bahama birds were indicated, 



348 BIRDS 

however, as Catesb_y saj-s that liis time was occupied principallj-, while on tlie 
Islands, with studying the fishes. 

After Catesby's visit, the Islands seem to have been almost neglected by 
naturalists until Dr. Henry Bryant in 1859 made a trip to them, visiting 
New Providence, Berry Islands, Biminis, east side of Andros and neighboring 
keys, Exunia, and the Bagged Island chain of keys. The ornithological results 
of this trip were published the same year in Tl\e Proceedings of tlie Boston 
Society of Natural History, and one or two subsequent short articles in the 
same journal, being the first connected account of the Bahama avifauna. Dr. 
Bryant made a second visit to the Islands in 1866 for the purpose of visiting 
Great Inagua, but touched on liis way thither some islands that he had not 
previously visited, such as Watlings Island, Rum Cay, Long Island, ,-Vcklin 
Island and Fortune Island. He published a paper during the same year in 
the same journal as his previous papers.- Though Dr. Bryant described most 
of his discoveries himself, one of them, Doricha lyrura. was named l)y 
Gould from his specimens after his death, but owing to the removal of the 
original label the exact locality could not be given and Gould made an unfor- 
tunate guess. 

Mr. C. B. Cory has personally made several trips to the Islands and has 
employed collectors who have visited nearly every island of the group, except 
some of the smaller cays, and it is largely to him that we owe our present 
knowledge of the distribution of the Bahama birds. The results of his studies 
have been published in his several works on West Indian liirds, the various 
volumes of The Auk, and in his quarto work entitled The Birds of the Ba- 
hamas, etc., of which two editions, almost identical in apjicarance, have been 
issued. 

Mr. C. J. Maynard has also made a number of excursions to the Bahamas, 
visiting New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Seal Cay, tlie Washerwomen 
Cays, the Ship Channel Cays, Rum Cay, Long Island, and Great Inagua," and 
on subsequent trips some of the other islands. The ornithological results of 
his visits have been either published by himself in his Birds of Eastern North 
America, second edition, 1896, or in his various other publications, and by 
Mr. Outran! Bangs." While Mr. Maynard first discriminated several of the 
races that have since been recognized as valid, his choice of names in several 
instances was most unfortunate. 

' Contributions to Sciejjce, Vol. I, 1S89, 106. 
■ The Auk, 1900, pp. 283-293. 



THE BAI-IAMA ISLANDS ^UO 

In 18SG the naturalists of the U. S. Fisli Commission Steamer Albaiross. 
whicli stopped at Abaco, New Providence, Eleiithera, Cat Island, Watlings 
Island, Rum Cay, Green Cay, Concepeion Island, and Booby Eock, succeeded 
in making a large collection of birds which have formed the l)asis foi' 
several papers by Mr. RidgM'ay and others. In one of these contributions ' 
Mr. Ridgway gave a complete list of this collection. 

Andros was visited in 1890 by Mr. and Mrs. John I. Xortlirop, mainly 
with a view of studying the botany, but making at the same time a good collec- 
tion of l:)irds. One of the results of tlieir trip was the discovery of the beautiful ' 
species of oriole named by Dr. J. A. Allen after its discoverer. Mr. ISTorthrop's 
published observations * is one of the few papers dealing with the habits of 
the Bahama birds and characteristics of their environment. 

]\Ir. J. Lewis Bonhote has spent considerable time in the -Islands, residing 
mostly at Nassau, Init making one or two excursions to the northern islands 
and Andros." His various papers on the migration of birds, as their ilights 
have been noted from the various Bahama lighthouses, are full of interest, and 
are the first instances of anything of the kind being attempted in the islands." 
Mr. Bonhote was accompanied on one of his trips to Andros in search of flamin- 
goes by Messrs. F. M. Chapman and L. A. Fuertes, who have published tlie 
accounts of their experiences elsewhere. 

Capt. D. P. Ingraham has done extensive collecting upon the Bahamas but 
has published nothing upon the birds, that I am aware of. 

While from the aljove it will be noticed that considerable attention has 
been paid to the Bahamas in recent years, our knowledge of the avifauna is 
far from complete. Great Bahama Island has been visited but once by a 
naturalist, to my knowledge, and then only for a short while, though from its 
proximity to Florida some interesting facts should Ije Ijrought to light. Great 
Abaco also has never been thoroughly explored, though it is one of tbe wildest 
ishmds of the group and is covered with a pine forest of large trees with a 
heavy undergrowth of a large Pte'ris fern. Scarcely anything is known of 
the life-histories of the endemic species or of their ecology, and the relation- 
ships of the various species of Gcotlilijpis arc yet to be worked out. \\'hy 

' The Auk, 1S89, pp. 333-339. 
* The Auk. 1891, pp. 64-80. 

= The Ibis. 1889, pp. 5O6-.520: and 1903, pp. 273-315. The Avictntural Magazine. 
Vol. VIII and IX. 

« The Auk. 1901-1903. 



350 BIRDS 

should a small island about twenty miles long by eight miles broad with abso- 
lutely no physiographic features produce three species of Geothlypis? Do they 
differ in habits, song, or character of country they inhabit? That is a prob- 
lem to tax the energies of an active field naturalist. 

NOTES ON THE ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. 

The AVest Indies north of the island of Tobago, including the Bahama 
Islands, comprise a region of the Neotropical Realm, that from an 
ornithological point of view may be considered, from the peculiarities of the 
birds, of equal rank to the North American Eegion of Dr. Allen. The islands 
may be, using the nomenclature proposed by Dr. Allen in his papers on Zoo- 
geography, divided into three provinces, as follows: (1) a Lesser Antillean 
Province, consisting of the islands from and including Grenada, north to the 
Anegada Channel, known collectively as the Windward and Leeward Islands; 
(2) a Greater Antillean Province, consisting of Cuba, the Caymans, Jamaica, 
Porto Rico, and the islands east to the Anegada Channel; (3) a Bahaman 
Province, comprising the group of islands of that name. Tlie last must not 
be considered faunally of equal rank to either of the other two, as it possesses 
only one peculiar genus of birds, and only one indigenous land mammal, but 
from geographic considerations this is the best arrangement that can be made 
at present and all the provinces as herein defined present more or less striking 
peculiarities. The Greater Antilles from their greater age and longer isolation 
from the mainland, if they ever were connected, possess the most peculiar 
endemic fauna; the Bahamas, from tlieir recent oceanic origin, contain the 
least. In the present connection we are only concerned with the Bahaman 
Province. 

Mr. F. M. Chapman in an able paper ^ on the origin of tlie Bahama 
avifauna has covered the ground very thoroughly, showing that while on 
account of their oceanic origin a considerable portion of the fauna is fortuitous, 
as in all true oceanic islands, yet from their proximity to Florida on the one 
hand, and Cuba and Haiti on tlie otlicr, t)ie majority of the resident land 
birds have been derived from those respective areas, of which Cuba has fur- 
nished the most. Though a considerable number of birds have been des- 
cribed or added to the Bahama list since Mr. Chapman's paper was published, 
they have been of such a nature as not to materially affect his conclusions, 

'American Naturalist, 1S91, pp. 528-539. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE LIX 




X' 




— 72 

> Ea 

S <) ti 

g a 2 



C I 

S IS 



THE BAIIAJCA ISLANDS 351 

but owing to these additions and to increase tlie value oi' the clieek-list, it has 
been deemed best to give a brief outline of the peculiarities of the avifauna. 

Of the two hundred and four species and subspecies of birds that have 
been recorded from the Bahamas, only one himdred are summer residents; 
the rest have an accidental occurrence, or are migrants, mainly from the 
eastern United States. Of the summer and permanent residents, fort3'-four 
are endemic and fifty-six non-endemic. Taking up the latter first, we find 
that thirty-two are of more or less wide distribution, mainly water birds, leav- 
ing twenty-four for consideration, of which six are found in the West Indies 
proper, namely: Colymhus dominicus Linne (West Indies generally), Puffinus 
Iherminieri Lesson (West Indies generally and Bermuda), Dendrocygna ar- 
borea (Linne) (West Indies generally), Tyranniis cubensis Richmond (Cuba), 
Mimus polyglottus orpheus (Linne) (Cireater Antilles), Margarops fuscatus 
(Yieillot) (Greater and northern Lesser Antilles and Bonaire) ; and thirteen, 
as follows, in the eastern United States, mainly Florida : Oxyechus vociferus 
(Linne), Ochthodromus wilsomns (Ord), Zenaidura macroura (Linne), 
Buteo borcalis {umbrinus Bangs?), Strix pratincola Bonaparte, Coccyzus 
minor maynardi (Ridgway), Coccyzus americanus (Linne), Sitta pusilla 
Latham," Dendroica dominica (Linne), Dendroica discolor (Vieillot), Seiurus 
aurocapillus (Linne), Agclaius phainiceus bryanti Ridgway. The following 
are found in the Greater Antilles, the Bahamas and Florida, and have probably 
reached the latter locality by way of the Bahamas: Zenaida zenaida (Bona- 
parte), Geotrygon chrysia Salvadori, and Vireosylvia calidris barbatulus (Ca- 
banis). All three may be regarded, comparatively speaking, as quite recent 
additions to the Florida avifauna. To these three might be added Tyran- 
nus dominicensis (Gmelin) of a rather wide tropical range. 

The fort3'-four endemic species, from their importance as bearing upon 
the derivation of the Bahama avifauna, will be taken up in order and the 
nearest relative given when it is possible to do so. 

1. Butorides virescens bahamensis (Brewster). — Bulorides virescens 
(Linne) is said to visit the Islands as a migrant in winter and this light-colored 
form has jjrobably been derived from some that failed to leave on the return 
migration; finding the conditions suitable for existence they have become per- 
manent residents. Closely related forms occur in the West Indies and on the 
American continent. 

" Recorded only from Great Bahama Island. 



352 BIRDS 

2. Eallus crepitans coryi (Maynard). — More closely related to Ballus 
crepUwns "of northeastern United States than to any of the West Indian forms 
of clapper rail or to R. c. tvaynei Brewster of southern Georgia and northern 
Florida. 

3. Golumbigallina passerina baliamensis (Maynard). — Lighter in color 
even than C. p. pallescens (Baird) of Mexico and the western United States, biit 
probably derived from one of the West Indian forms which have not been thor- 
oughly worked out as yet. 

4. Pandion haUwtus ridgwayi (Maynard). — Donlitfidly distinct from P. Jt. 
carolinensis (Gmelin). 

5. Speotyto cunicidaria cavicola Bangs. 

6. Speotyto cunicularia bahamensis Cory. — The Florida Burrowing Owl 
has possibly reached the peninsula by way of the West Indies and the Bahamas. 
Tlie Bahama form seems to be more nearly related to S. c. dominicensis 
Miiller of Haiti. 

7. Amazona leucocephcda hahamensis (Bryant). — Doubtfully distinct 
from A. leucocephcda of Cuba. 

8. Saurothera bahamensis Bryant. 

9. Saurothera andria Miller. — A genus confined to the Great Antilles ajid 
the Bahamas. The Bahama species are closely related to Saurotliem merlini 
D'Orbigny of Cuba, from which they differ principally in their lighter colors. 

10. Dryobates villosus maynardi Eidgway. — Closely related to D. v. auclu- 
boni (Swainson) of Florida. 

11. Centurus superciliaris nyeanus (Eidgway). — (Watlings Island.) 
13. Centurus superciliaris blahci (Eidgway). — (Great Abaco.) 

13. Centurus superciliaris bcdiamensis (Cory). — (Great Bahama. ) Closely 
related to Centurus superciliaris (Temminck) of Cuba. A species closely re- 
lated to the Cuban bird inhabits Grand Cayman. These l)irds have developed 
a well-marked form, apparently, in every ishuid in which they have become 
established in the Bahamas. 

14. Chordeiles virginianus vicinus Riley. — Intermediate between C. v. 
clnipoiuni Coues of Florida and ('. v. minor (Cabanis) of Cuba, Jamaica and 
Porto l^ico, but on the whole more nearly related to tlie Florida form. 

15. Doriclia lyrura Gould. — (Great Inagua only.) 

16. Doricha evelyme (Bourcier). — Bahamas generally except Great Ina- 
gua. Doriclia is a genus occurring from southern Mexico to the Isthmus of 
Panama. l)ut not in any of the West Indies proper. Strange to say, the nearest 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 353 

relative of the Bahama species is Doricha brijanti Ijawrence of Costa Eica, 
which would indicate that their origin in the Bahama Islands is fortuitous. 

17. Riccordia ricordii ceneoviridis (Palmer & Eiley). — A closely related 
form of the Cuban Riccordia ricordii (Gervais) that has only established itself 
apparently in Great Bahama, Abaco and Andros. 

18. Pitangus talmmensis (Bryant). — Closely related to P . candifasciatus 
D'Orbigny of Cuba. 

19. Myiarchus lucaysiensis (Bryant). — Closely related to M. sagrce (Gund- 
lach) of Cuba. 

30. Blacicus ialiamensis Bryant. — Blacicus is a genus occurring almost 
throughout the West Indies, each of the larger islands or group of islands hav- 
ing a distinct species, and on the mainland from southern Mexico to southern 
Brazil. The Bahama bird finds its nearest relative possibly in Blacicus cari- 
bcBus (D'Orbigny) of Cuba. 

21. Mimus gundlachi Cabanis. 

23. Mimus gundlachi bahamensis (Bryant) . — Though the type of M. gund- 
lachi Cabanis came from the Cayo Santa Maria, off the Cuban coast, it has not 
been taken, to my knowledge, on the mainland of Cuba, and if really an inhab- 
itant of the island is apparently confined to the cays of the northern coast, 
where the conditions are somewhat similar to the Bahamas. Mimus gundlachi 
hilli (March) is confined to Jamaica and these three forms find their nearest 
relative in Mimus saturninus (Lichtenstein) of southeastern Brazil, so their 
occurrence in Jamaica and the Bahamas must be fortuitous. 

23. Mimocichla plumbea (Linne). — Miinocichla is a genus confined to 
the Greater Antilles (except Jamaica, St. Croix and the small islands to the 
eastward of Porto Bico), Swan Island, Dominica and the Bahamas; each 
island (in the case of tlie Bahamas, group of islands) on wliich the genus occurs 
having a more or less well-marked species or form; Cuba with two. The near- 
est relative of the Bahama bird is probably Mimociclila rubripes schistacea 
(Baird) of eastern Cuba. 

24. Polioptila ccerulea ccesiogaster Eidgway. — A well-marked form of /''. 
ccerulea (Linne) of the United States. Also occurs on Cozumel Island, Y\i- 
catan. 

35. Vireo crassirostris (Bryant). 

26. Vireo crassirostris flavescens (Eidgway). — Both belong to a small 
group of brown-eyed vireos inhabiting Cuba. Porto Rico, Jamaica," Grand Cay- 

"> Vireo modestus Sclater of Jamaica has the irides whitish, I am informed. 
23 



354 BIRDS 

man, and the mainland from southern Mexico to Costa Eica. The nearest rela- 
tive is V. crassirostris alleni Cory of Grand Cayman. They are probably of 
fortuitous origin in the Bahamas. It seems jjarticularly strange that no vireo 
of this section has ever been found in Plaiti. 

27. Callichelidon cyaneoviridis (Bryant). — The only peculiar genus devel- 
oped amongst the Bahama birds. It finds its nearest ally probably in Lampro- 
chelidon of Haiti and Jamaica, though it must be admitted that the immature 
Bahama Swallow closely resembles Iridiprocne hicolor (Vieillot). 

38. Dendroica petecliia flaviceps Chapman. — C!losely related to D. p. gund- 
laclii (Baird) of Cuba. Forms of Dendroka petechia (Gmelin) are found in 
the Greater Antilles, the northern Lesser Antilles, and the Galapagos Islands. 

29. Dendroica pityopMla baliamensis Cory. — Closely related to Dendroka 
pityophila (Gundlach) of western Cuba, where it lives exclusively in the pines 
of the mountains, so far as known. D. pityophila (Gundlach) has never been 
taken even in the Isle of Pines, an island so recently, geologically speaking, con- 
nected with Cuba as not to have developed a j)eculiar fauna, except in tlie case 
of sheets, a few birds closely related to Cuban species, and a peculiar rat, 
Cap-omys prehensilis gundlachi Chapman. 

30. Dendroica vigorsii achrustera Bangs. 

31. Dendroica vigorsii aliacoensis Eidgway. — Closely related to Dendroka 
vigorsii (Auduljou) of the eastern United States, probably reaching the Baha- 
mas by way of Florida. 

32. Geotlilypis rostrata Bryant. 

33. Geoihlypis maynardi Bangs. 

34. Geothlypis tanneri Eidgway. 

35. Geothlypis incompta Eidgway. 

36. Geothlypis exigua Eidgway. 

37. Geothlypis coryi Eidgway. 

38. Geothlypis flavida Eidgway. — These puzzling birds have been, prob- 
ably along with Geothlypis heldingi Eidgway of lower California, derived from 
the same "original stock" as the forms of G.trichas (Linne), which came 
originally from the south by way of Mexico, producing a form in lower Cali- 
fornia and sending another by way of Florida to the Bahamas. G. heldingi 
Eidgway, from the island nature of its habitat, being surrounded on the nortli 
by deserts and on the soutli by the sea, lias resulted in producing the same 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 355 

characters or iu retaining the characteristics of tlic " original stock " in the 
same manner as an island habitat has acted for the Baliama species, so that 
to-da}' we find the apparent anomaly of a species in lower California finding its 
nearest relative in the Bahama Islands. 

39. Careha hahamensis (Iicichenbach). — One of a group of four closely- 
related species: Careha caholi (Baird) of Cozuniel Island, Yucatan, Cmreha 
sharpei (Cory) of the Caymanr;. and Ca'rcha iricolor (Kidgway) of Old Provi- 
dence, an island situated about one hundred and fifty miles oft' the coast of 
Nicaragua. Strange to say, although this genus is found throughout the West 
Indies and on the American continent from Mexico to Peru, it is not found in 
Cuba. C. hahamensis (Eeichenbach) finds its nearest relative in C. cahoti 
(Baird). 

40. Icterus northropi Allen. — One of a small group of orioles inhabiting 
Mexico, Central America, the Greater and Lesser Antilles. In color it more 
closely resembles Icterus wagleri Sclater of Mexico, Icterus oheri Lawrence 
of Montserrat, and Icterus lauclabilis Sclater of St. Lucia than it does Icterus 
hypomelas (Bonaparte) of Cuba, Icterus portoricensis (Bryant) of Porto Rico, 
and Icterus dominicensis (Linne) of Haiti. Icterus prothemelas (Strickland) 
of Central America is very much like the Bahama species in color and the 
" original stock " of all these species probably came from there, making 
I. nortlir'opi Allen of fortuitous origin in the Islands. 

41. Spindalis zena (Liime). 

42. Bpinclalis zena toirnsendi (Ridgway). — Belong to a genus peculiar to 
the Greater Antilles with tlie single exception of Spindalis benedicti of Cozu- 
mel Island, Yucatan, to wliich the Bahama forms are more closely related 
than to those of the West Indies. 

43. Pyrrhulagra violacea (Linne). — Closely related forms occur in both 
Jamaica and Haiti. The genus does not occur in Cul)a or Grand Cayman, 
where its place is taken in Cuba by Melopyrrha nigra (Linne), and in Grand 
Cayman by Melopj/rrJia laijlori Hartert, but nearly all of the other AVest India 
Islands have more or less closely related forms, and one form even reaches the 
mainland of South America, indicating the probable derivation of the " original 
stock." The Bahama species belongs to a section of the genus confined to the 
islands of Jamaica, Haiti, Porto Eico and St. Kitts, and has probably reached 
the Bahamas by way of Haiti. 



356' 



BIRDS 



44. Tiaris bicolor (Linne). — Forms of this species occur throughout the 
West Indies, even reaching the coast of South America and the islands of Cura- 
qoa, Aruba and Bonaire. The Bahama bird has 23robably reached the Islands 
by way of Haiti, as it appears to be of only accidental occurrence in Cuba and 
Florida. 

Arranging the birds according to their probable derivation we have the 
following groups : 

Pandion haliaetus ridgwayi (Maynard). 
Amazona leucoccphala bahamensis (Bryant). 



Of doubtful standing. 



Doriclia lyrura Gould. 

Doricha evelynce (Bourcier). 

Mimus gundlachi Cabanis. 

Minnis gundlaclii baJiamensis (Bryant). 

Vireo crassirostris (Bryant). 

Viveo crassirostris flavescens Ridgway. 

Callich&Udon cyaneoviridis (Bryant). 

Icterus nortliropi Allen. 

Ccereba baJiainensis (Eeichenbach). 
Spindalis zena (Linne). 
Spindalis zena townsendi Eidgway. 



Of doubtful or fortuitous 



-Cozumel Island, Yucatan. 



Butorides virescens bahamensis (Brewster). 
Rallus crepitans coryi (Maynard). 
Dryobates villosus maynardi Eidgway. 
Chordeiles virginianus vicinus Riley. 
Polioptila ccenilea ctesiogaster Eidgway. 
Dciidroica vigorsii abacocnsis Eidgway. 
Dendroica vigorsii achrustera Bangs. 
Geothlypis rostrata Bryant. 
Geothlypis maynardi Bangs. 
Geotlilypis tanneri Eidgway. 
Geothlypis incompta Eidgway. 
Geotlilypis exigua Eidgway. 
Geothlypis coryi Eidgway. 
Geothlypis favida Eidgway. 



From the eastern United 
States by way of Florida, 
with the possible excep- 
tion of It. c. coryi (Maj'- 
nard). 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE LX 










av CO 

i^ r^ < 

■*-- Ph Qc 

— -f"' ^ 

> '^ 5 

^ ^ CM 

jH O I- 

IS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



357 



Golumhigallina jmsserina bahamensis (Maynard) . [Gi-eater Antilles. 



-Haiti. 



■Cuba. 



CO 

H 

m 

EH 

<1 
w 
« 

d3 



Speotyto cunicularia cavicola Bangs. 
Speotyto cunicularia bahamensis Qoiy. 
Pyrrliulagra violacea (Linne). 

Saurothera bahamensis Bryant. 

Sawothera andria Miller. 

Centurus superciliaris nyeamis (Eidgway). 

Centurus superciliaris blakei (Eidgway). 

Centurus superciliaris bahamensis (Cory). 

Biccordia ricordii wneoviridis (Palmer & Eiley). 

Pitangus bahamensis Bryant. 

Myiarchus lucaysiensis (Bryant). 

Blacicus baliamensis (Bryant). 

Mimocichla phimbea (Linne). 

Dendroica petechia flaviceps Chapman. 

Dendroica pityophila baliamensis Cory. 



Leaving out of consideration two forms of doubtful standing, eight of 
doubtful or fortuitous origin, and three possibly derived from Cozumel Island, 
Yucatan, or of fortuitous origin, we have fourteen forms that have reached 
the Islands from the eastern United States by way of Florida and seventeen 
that have reached them from the Greater Antilles, the majority by way of 
Ciiba. The seven species of Geothlypis have very probably been derived from 
one " original stock " form, as stated above, which lessens the value of Florida 
as a derivative center and increases that of Cuba. Now reducing the forms 
that have probably been derived from a single stock-form would give Florida 
seven and Cuba nine, but the forms derived from Cuba have gone further in 
specialization than the Florida forms, which would seem to indicate that the 
Greater Antillean forms were the first to colonize and that the Florida ele- 
ment is, comparatively speaking, of recent introduction. This would seem, 
it appears to me, to indicate that the Greater Antilles are of a much more 
ancient formation than southern Florida. The fact must not be lost sight of 
that several birds of extreme southern Florida, where the same conditions 
are said to prevail as in the Bahamas, have reached there probably Ijy 
way of the Bahamas and not vice versa, namely: Columba lexicocephala 



358 BIRDS 

Linne, Zenaida zenaida (Bonajoarte), Geotrijgon chrysia Salvador!^ Speotyto 
cunicularia floridana Eidgway, Grotopliaga ani Linne, Coccyzus minor may- 
nardi (Eidgway). and Tijranmts dominiccnsis (Gmelin). 

From the alwve revie\\' of the Bahama a\-i fauna we may derive the follow- 
ing propositions: 

First. — That the Bahamas are oceanic and of comparatively recent origin. 

Second. — That the resident avifauna, while it contains a considerable 
fortuitous element, has lieon derived largely from the Greater Antilles by way 
of Cuba. 

Third. — That the Florida element is of a more recent origin than that 
of the Greater Antillean. 

Fourth. — That when a species is represented by closely related forms in 
the Greater Antilles and the United States, the Bahama bird will niore 
closely resemble that of the United States, generally tlio form found in 
Florida, or in other words, the Bahamas are " arid tropical," which seems to 
check the deepening of color appearing in forms in the Greater x^ntilles and 
southward, as for example, Ochthodromus ivilsonius (Ord), Ealhis crepitans 
coryi (Maynard). Zenaidura macroura (Linne) and Cliordelles virginianus 
vicinus Riley. 

Fifth. — That there is a minor faunal region of the rank of a fauna or 
district, embracing Watlings Island, Eum Cay, Concepcion Island, Long 
Island, and the islands to the southward. This is the region of least rainfall 
for the group and consequently less heavy vegetation. 

LIST OP BAHAMA BIRDS. 

The sequence of families in the following list is mainly that elaborated 
by Mr. Eidgway for his Birds of North and Middle America. Mr. C. B. Cory's 
Catalogue of West Indian Birds has been my chief source of information, and 
to his list of Bahama birds given therein, I have added such records as have 
been published since his book was issued or made such changes as the present 
state of our knowledge of the subject seemed to warrant. 

N. B. — Birds known to breed are marked thusj; those peculiar to the Islands 
thus f . 

Order Colymbiformes (Diving Birds). 

Golymtus clominicus Linne $ (West Indian Grebe). Eleuthera, Andros, Rum Cay, 

Watlings Island. Long Island. 
Podilymbns podiceps (Linne) (Pied-billed Grebe). New Providence. 



THE BAIIAJIA ISLANDS 359 

Order Pkocellakiiformes (Tiibe-nosed Swimmers). 

Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl) ("Wilson's Petrel). New Providence. 

Pufflnus Iherminieri Lesson J (Antillean Shearwater). Abaco, New Providence, 

Andros, Green Cay (near New Providence), Washerwomen Cays, Ship Channel 

Cays. 
Pufflnus gravis (O'Reilly) (Greater Shearwater). New Providence. 

Order CicoNiiFOKitES (Stork-like Birds, Herons, etc.). 

Phaeihon americanu.s Grant J (American Tropic Bird). Abaco, New Providence. 
Great Inagua, Cay Lobos, Long Rock (Exuma), Water Cay (Ragged Island), 
Cay Verde (30 miles east of Great Ragged Island). 

Sula cyanops Sundevall if (Blue-faced Booby). San Domingo Cay. 

Sula leucogastra Boddcert $ (Booby). Miraporvos, Great Ragged Island, San Do- 
mingo Cay, Cay Lobos (?), at Sea. 

Phalacrocorax dilophus fioridanus (Audubon)t (Florida Cormorant). Great Ba- 
hama, Biminis, Andros, Abaco, New Providence, Watlings Island (?)," Cay 
Lobos. 

Phalacrocorax mexicanus (Brandt):!: (Mexican Cormorant). Watlings Island. 

Pelecanus occidentalis (Linne) t (Brown Pelican). Abaco. Biminis. Berry Islands, 
Andros. 

Fregata aquila Linne $ (Man-o'-War Bird). Great Bahama, Biminis, Berry Islands, 
Abaco, New Providence, Andros, Eleuthera, Cat Island, Rum Cay, Watlings 
Island, Great Inagua, Cay Lobos, Washerwomen Cays. 

Phoenicopterus n/fter Linne} (American Flamingo). Abaco, Andros, Little Inagua, 
Great Inagua, Long Island, Mariguana. 

Botaurus lentiginosus (Montagu) (American Bittern). New Providence. 

Ardetta exilis (Gmelin) | (Least Bittern). Great Bahama, New Providence. 

Ardea herodias Linne} (Great Blue Heron). Biminis. Berry Islands. New Provi- 
dence, Andros, Great Inagua. 

Herodias egretta (Gmelin) } (American Egret). New Providence, Andros, Eleuth- 
era, Watlings Island. Long Island. 

Egretta candidissima (Gmelin) } (Snowy Heron). Great Bahama, Great Inagua. 

Dichromanassa riifescens (Gmelin) t (Reddish Egret). Great Bahama, Abaco, New 
Providence, Andros. North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos. 

Hydranassa tricolor rvflcollis (Gosse) % (Louisiana Heron). Berry Islands, New 
Providence, Andros, Watlings Island, Mariguana, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, 
East Caicos, Fortune Island. 

Florida cwrulea (Linne) :!: (Little Blue Heron). New Providence, Andros. 

Butorides virescens (Linne) (Green Heron). Winter migrant to the Bahamas. 

Biitorides virescens baliamensis (Brewster) ft (Bahama Heron). Abaco, Little 
Abaco, Biminis, New Providence. Andros, Eleuthera. Rum Cay, Watlings Island. 
Long Island. 

Nycticorax nycticorax nrrvius (Boddsert) (Black-crowned Night Heron). Abaco. 
Andros. 

Nyctanassa violacea (Linne) :!: (Yellow-crowned Night Heron). Abaco. Hog Cay 
(off Great Abaco), Little Abaco, Biminis, Berry Islands. Eleuthera. New Provi- 
dence, Andros, Green Cay, Little Exuma, Mariguana, Great Inagua. Watlings 
Island, Long Island, Cay Lobos. 

Plegadis autumnalis (Linne) (Glossy Ibis). Cay Lobos. 

Ajaia ajaja (Linne) } (Roseate Spoonbill). Great Inagua, Biminis. 



" We only found P. mexicanus on Watlings, but Cory records this form. 



360 BIRDS 

Order Anseeiformes (Geese, Ducks, etc.). 

Erismatura jamaicensis (Gmelin) (Ruddy Duck). New Providence. 

Aythya americana (Eyton) (Redhead). New Providence. 

FuUgula marila (Linne) (Scaup Duck). Watlings Island, Rum Cay. 

Fuligula affinis (Eyton) (Lesser Scaup Duck). New Providence, Andres, North 

Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos. 
Fuligula collaris (Donovan) (Ring-necked Duclc). New Providence. 
Glangula clangula americana (Bonaparte) (American Golden-eye). Bahamas (at 

sea). 
Anas loschas Linne (Mallard). New Providence. 
Mareca americana Gmelin (Baldpate). Andros. 

Nettion carolinensis (Gmelin) (Green-winged Teal). New Providence. 
Querquedula discors (Linne) (Blue-winged Teal). New Providence, Andros. 
Pwcilonetta bahamensis (Linne) j (Bahama Duck). Abaco, Andros, Long Island, 

North Caicos. Grand Caicos, Bast Caicos, Little Inagua, Great Inagua. 
IDendrocygim arborea (Linne) i (Antillean Tree Duck). Andros, Great Inagua. 
Chen hyperborea nivalis (Forster) (Greater Snow Goose). New Providence, Great 

Inagua. 

Order Galliformes (Gallinaceous Birds). 

Golinus virginianus fiaTiamewsts (Maynard) ff" (Bahama Bob-white). New Provi- 
dence. 

Order Gruiformes (Rails, Cranes, etc.). 

Rallus crepitans coryi (Maynard) fj (Bahama Clapper Rail). Abaco, Berry 

Islands, New Providence, Rose Island, Andros, Eleuthera, Highborn Cay. 
Porzana Carolina (Linne) (Sora). New Providence, Little Abaco, Andros, Cay 

Lobos, Cay Sal, Bird Rock. 
Ionor?iis martinica (Linne) (Purple Gallinule). New Providence, Andros, Cay 

Lobos, Cay Sal. 
Gallinula galeata (Lichtenstein) :i: (Florida Gallinule). New Providence, Great 

Inagua. 
FuUca americana Gmelin | (American Coot). Abaco, New Providence, Rum Cay. 
Aramus giganteus (Bonaparte) (Limkin). Accidental on Cay Lobos. 

Order Charadeiiformes (Gulls, Shore Birds, Pigeons, etc.). 

Larus argentatus Briinnich (Herring Gull). New Providence. 

Lams atricilla Linnet (Laughing Gull). Abaco, New Providence, Andros, Eleuth- 
era, Rum Cay, Watlings Island, Mariguana, Long Island, Great Inagua. 

Oelochelidon nilotica (Linne) t (Gull-billed Tern). New Providence, Eleuthera, 
Andros, Rum Cay, Long Island, Miraporvos, Great Inagua. 

Sterna maxima Boddeert J (Royal Tern). Great Bahama. Biminis, Berry Islands, 
New Providence, Eleuthera, Andros, Washerwomen Cays, Rum Cay, Long 
Island, Miraporvos, Great Inagua. 

Sterna sandvicensis acuflavida (Cabot) :i: (Cabot's Tern). New Providence, Andros, 
Washerwomen Cays, Cay Lobos, Acklin Island, Great Inagua. 

Sterna hirundo Linne (Common Tern). Abaco, New Providence. 

'■- Said to have been introduced, which would seem to invalidate the recogni- 
tion of this form. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 361 

Sterna dougaUi Montagu J (Roseate Tern). New Providence, Cay Lobos, North 

Cay, Great Inagua. 
Sterna antillarum Lesson J (Least Tern). Abaco, New Providence, Eleuthera, An- 
dres, Washerwomen Cays, Cay Sal, Cay Lobos, Rum Cay, Watlings Island, 
Great Inagua. 
Sterna fuUginosa Gmelin :|: (Sooty Tern). Abaco, New Providence, Andros. Washer- 
women Cays, Cay Sal, Cay Lobos, Long Island, Anguilla. 
Sterna anathetus Scopoli :i: (Bridled Tern). Abaco, New Providence, Eleuthera, 

Andros, Washerwomen Cays, Long Island, Miraporvos, Booby Rocks. 
Anoiis stoHdus Linne :1: (Noddy). New Providence, Andros, Washerwomen Cays, 

Long Island. 
Himantopus mexicanus (Miiller) J (Black-necked Stilt). New Providence, Andros, 
Green Cay, Eleuthera, Rum Cay. Watlings Island, Long Island, Mariguana, 
Great Inagua. 
GalHnago delicata (Ord) (Wilson's Snipe). New Providence. 
Macrorhamphus griseus (Gmelin) (Dowitcher). New Providence, Andros. 
Mic.ropalama himantopus (Bonaparte) (Stilt Sandpiper). Fortune Island. 
Actodromas maculata (Vieillot) (Pectoral Sandpiper). New Providence, Mari- 
guana, Great Inagua, Fortune Island. 
Actodromas fuscicollis (Vieillot) (White-rumped Sandpiper). New Providence, 

Fortune Island. 
Actodromas minutilla (Vieillot) (Least Sandpiper). New Providence, Andros, Cay 

Sal, Long Island, Mariguana, Great Inagua. 
Ereunetes pusillus (Linne) (Semipalmated Sandpiper). New Providence, Cay Sal, 

Great Inagua. 
Calidris alba (Pallas) (Sanderling). New Providence Andros, Miraporvos. 
Totanus melanoleucus (Gmelin) (Greater Yellow-legs). New Providence, Andros, 

Great Inagua. 
Totanus flavipes (Gmelin) (Yellow-Iegs). New Providence, Andros, Eleuthera, 

Rum Cay, Watlings Island, Mariguana, Great Inagua, Fortune Island. 
Helodromas solitarius (Wilson) (Solitary Sandpiper). New Providence, Fortune 

Island. 
Gatoptrophorus semipalmatus (Gmelin) J (Willet). Abaco, New Providence, Andros, 
Current Island, Rum Cay, Long Island, Mariguana, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, 
East Caicos, Great Inagua. 
Bartramia longicanda (Bechstein) (Bartramian Sandpiper). Mariguana. 
Actitis macularia (Linne) (Spotted Sandpiper). Great Bahama, Little Abaco, 

Biminis, New Providence, Andros, Cay Lobos, Miraporvos. 
'Numenius Uiidsonicus Latham (Hudsonian Curlew). Bahamas (at sea). 
Vanellus vanellus (Linne) (Lapwing). Accidental on Hog Island. 
Squatarola squatarola (Linne) (Black-bellied Plover), New Providence, Eleuthera, 

Andros. 
Charadrius dominicus Miiller (American Golden Plover). New Providence, Cay 

Lobos,'^ Long Island. 
Oxyechus vociferus (Linne) J (Killdeer). Little Abaco, Biminis, New Providence. 
Andros, Cat Island, Watlings Island, Acklin Island, Mariguana, Great Inagua. 
Migratory and resident. 
^gialitis semipalmata (Bonaparte) (Semipalmated Plover). Abaco, Biminis, New 
Providence, Andros, Long Island, Great Inagua. 



"Recorded from Cay Lobos as C. fulvus. 



362 BIRDS 

JEgialitis meloda (Ord) " (Piping Plover). New Providence, Current Island, Great 
Inagua. 

JEgialitis nivosa Cassln •■'"' (Snowy Plover). Long Island. 

Ochtliodromus loUsonius (Ord) t (Wilson's Plover). Great Bahama, Biminis, 
Little Abaco, New Providence, Andros, Concepcion Island, Acklin Island, Mari- 
guana, Miraporvos, Rum Cay, Long Island, Little Pimlico, Great Inagua. 

Arenaria morineUa (Linne) (Eastern Turnstone). Great Bahama, Little Abaco, 
New Providence. Eleuthera, Andros, Green Cay, Cay Lobos, Watlings Island, 
Mariguana, Great Inagua. 

Hwviatopus paUiatus Temminck J (American Oyster-catcher). Abaco, New Provi- 
dence, Andros, Flemings Key, Long Island, Mariguana, North Caicos, Grand 
Caicos, Bast Caicos, Great Inagua. 

Columba leucocephalia Linnet (White-crowned Pigeon). Abaco, Biminis. Berry 
Islands, New Providence, Andros, Grassy Cays (Andros), Green Cay, Cay 
Lobos, Eleuthera, Cat Island, Buenavista Cay (Ragged Island), Long Rock 
(Exuma), Watlings Island, Long Island, Mariguana, North Caicos, Grand 
Caicos, East Caicos. 

Zenaidura macroura (Linne) X (Mourning Dove). Abaco, Eleuthera, New Provi- 
dence, Bird Rock, Long Island. 

Zenaida zenaida (Bonaparte) j: (Zenaida Dove.) Great Bahama, Abaco, New Provi- 
dence, Andros, Eleuthera, Cat Island, Rum Cay, Watlings Island, Concepcion 
Island, Long Island, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Great Inagua. 

Melopelia leucopter'a (Linne) (White-winged Dove). Great Inagua. 

GolumhigaUina passerina bahamensis (Maynard) ft (Bahama Ground Dove). 
Great Bahama, Abaco, Little Abaco, Biminis, Berry Islands, New Providence, 
Andros, Green Cay, Eleuthera, Current Island, Cat Island, Concepcion Island, 
Rum Cay, Watlings Island, Long Island, Acklin Island, Plana Cays, Bird Rock. 

Geotrygon chrysia Salvador! .-f (Key West Quail-Dove). Great Bahama, New Provi- 
dence, Eleuthera. 

Order Falconifokmes (Diurnal Birds of Prey). 

Cathartes aura (Linne) ± (Turkey Vulture). Great Bahama, Abaco, Little Abaco, 
Andros. 

Buteo 6oreaH« (Gmelin) "J (Red-tailed Hawk). Abaco, Little Abaco, New Provi- 
dence, Andros, Great Inagua. 

Pandion haliaetus ridgwayi (Maynard) fj (Bahama Osprey). New Providence, 
Andros, Water Cay (Ragged Islands), Long Island, Acklin Island, North 
Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Great Inagua. 

Falco'peregrinus anatum (Bonaparte) (Duck Hawk). New Providence, Watlings 
Island, Great Inagua. 

Falco columbarius Linne (Pigeon Hawk). Abaco. New Providence, Andros, Wat- 
lings Island. 

Cerchneis sparveria (Linne). New Providence, Great Stirrup Cay. 

Accipiter velox (Wilson) (Sharp-shinned Hawk). New Providence. 

Circus hudsonius (Linne) (Marsh Hawk), New Providence, Great Inagua. 



" Dr. Bryant says it is resident. 
'^ Possibly breeds. ' « 

•"This probably belongs to the form described by Mr. 0. Bangs as Buteo bore- 
alts umbrinus from southern Florida. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. PLATE LXI 




■y 



^J vi 



O -3 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 3G3 

Order 8 TRIG I FORMES (Xoetiinuil Ilii-ds ol' I'lV}-). 

Speotyto cunicularia cavicola Bangs f if (Nassau Burrowing Owl). New Providence, 
Eleuthera (?), Andres (?), Cay Sal (?). 

(Speotyto cunicularia bahamensis Cory|-;i; (Inagua Burrowing Owl). Great Inagua, 
Great Exuma (?). Samana Cay (?). 

Strix pratiitcola Bonaparte:!: (American Barn Owl). Abaco, New Providence, And- 
res. Great Inagua. 

Order Cuculiformes (Parrots and Cuckocs). 

Amazona leucocephala bahamensis (Bryant) •}•+ (Bahama Parrot). Abaco. Fortune 
Island, Acklin Island, Great Inagua. 

Crotophaga ani Linne :!: (Ani). Great Bahama, Abaco, Biminis, Berry Islands, 
New Providence, Eleuthera, Current Island, Andros, Cay Lobos, Rum Cay, 
Watlings Island, Long Island, Fortune Island, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, 
East Caicos. 

Saicrothera bahamensis Bryant f:i: (Nassau Lizard Cuckoo). New Providence, Eleu- 
thera. 

Saurothera andria Miller f:l: (Andros Lizard Cuckoo). Andros. 

Coccyziis americanus (Linne) { (Yellow-billed Cuckoo). New Providence, Cay Sal, 
Bird Rock, Watlings Island. Anguilla, Great Ina,gua. 

Coccyzus minor maynardi (Ridgway) t (Maynard's Cuckoo). Berry Islands, Eleu- 
thera, New Providence, Andros, Cay Lobos, Watlings Island, Rum Cay, Long 
Island, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Great Inagua. 

Order Coraciifoemes (Kingfishers, Woodpeckers, etc.). 

Ceryle alcyon (Linne)" (Belted Kingfisher). Abaco, Biminis, Berry Islands, Eleu- 
thera, New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Mariguana. 

Dryobates villosus maynardi Ridgway f:}: (Bahaman Hairy Woodpecker). Great 
Bahama, Abaco, Little Abaco, New Providence, Andros. 

Sphyrapicus varius (Linne) (Yellow-bellied Sapsucker). Great Bahama. Abaco, 
Little Abaco, Biminis, Eleuthera. New Providence, Cay Lobos, Andros, Rum 
Cay, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Great Inagua. 

Centurus superciliaris nyeanus (Ridgway) f J (Nye's Woodpecker). Watlings 
Island. 

Centurus superciliaris blakei (Ridgway) ft (Abaco Woodpecker). Abaco. 

Centurus superciliaris bahamensis (Cory) f:!: (Great Bahama Woodpecker). Great 
Bahama. 

Antrostom us carolinensis (Gmelin) (Chuck-will's Widow). New Providence, And- 
ros, Great Inagua. 

Chordeiles virginianus vicinus Riley f:!: (Bahama Nighthawk). Great Bahama, 
Abaco, New Providence, Eleuthera, Andros, Watlings Island, Long Island, 
Fortune Island, Acklin Island, Great Inagua. 

Trochilus colubris Linne (Ruby-throated Hummingbird). New Providence. 

Doricha evelyno' (Bourcier) fj (Bahama Wood-star). Abaco, Biminis, Berry 
Islands, Eleuthera, Current Island, New Providence. Andros, Green Cay, Cay 
Sal, Cay Lobos, Cat Island, Concepcion Island, Rum Cay, Watlings Island, Long 
Island, Acklin Island, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, At Sea. 

" I was told upon reliable authority that this species is resident. 



364 BIRDS 

Doricha lyriira GouldfJ'' (Inagua Wood-star). Great Inagua. 

Riccordia ricordii bracei (Lawrence) fj; (Brace's Hummingbird). New Providence. 

Known only from the type. 
Riccordia ricordii wneoviridis (Palmer & Riley) fj (Abaco Hummingbird). Abaco, 

Little Abaco, Andros (?), Great Bahama (?). 

Order Passerifokme.s (Perching Birds). 

Tyrannus dominicensis Gmelin t (Gray Kingbird). Great Bahama, Abaco, Biminis, 
Berry Islands, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Green Gay, Cay Sal, Cay 
Lobos, Bxuma Cays, Concepcion Island, Long Island, Watlings Island, Cat 
Island, Rum Cay, Acklin Island, Mariguana. Great Inagua. 

Tyraninis cubensis Richmond:]: (Cuban Kingbird). North Caicos, Grand Caicos, 
East Caicos, Great Inagua. 

Pitangus hahamensis Bryant fj: (Bahama Flycatcher). Great Bahama, Abaco, 
Little Abaco, New Providence, Andros. 

Myiarchus lucaysiensis (Bryant) fr (Bahama Crested Flycatcher). Great Bahama, 
Abaco, Little Abaco, Berry Islands, Eleuthera. New Providence, Andros, Green 
Cay, Crooked Island, Ackliu Island, Great Inagua. 

Blaciciis hahamensis (Bryant) f:!: (Bahama Pewee). Great Bahama, Abaco. Little 
Abaco, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros. 

Empidonax virescens Vieillot (Green-crested Flycatcher). Accidental on Cay Lobos. 

Mimus polyglottos orpheus (Linne) f. (Antillean Mockingbird). Great Bahama, 
Abaco, Little Abaco, Biminis, Berry Islands, New Providence. Andros, Con- 
cepcion Island, Great Inagua." 

Mimtis gundlachi Cabanis f:]: (Gundlach's Mockingbird). Rum Cay, Watlings 
Island, Long Island, Exuma Cays, Concepcion Island, Mariguana, North Caicos, 
Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Great Inagua. Apparently only accidental on the 
Cuban Cays. 

Mimus gundlaclii bnhamensis (Bryant) f :!: ■" (Bryant's Mockingbird). Berry Islands. 
Eleuthera, Hog Island (off Great Abaco), New Providence, Andros, Ship Chan- 
nel Cays, Green Cay, Cat Island, Highborn Cay. 

Galeoscoptes carolinensis (Linne) (Catbird). Great Bahama, Abaco, Little Abaco, 
Biminis, Berry Islands, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Rum 
Cay, Watlings Island, Great Inagua. 

Margarops fuscatus (Vieillot) J (Pearly-eyed Thrush). Rum Cay, Watlings Island, 
Long Island, Mariguana, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Bird Rock, 
Great Inagua. 

Hylocichla fuscescens Stephens (Wilson's Thrush). Accidental on Cay Lobos. 

Hylocichla alicia- bioknelH (Ridgway) (Bicknell's Thrush). Cay Sal. 

Hylocichla musteUna (Gmelin) (Wood Thrush). New Providence, Cay Lobos. 

Mimocichla plumbea (Linne) f J (Plumbeous Thrush). Great Bahama, Abaco, 
Little Abaco, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Cat Island. 

PoUoptila cwntlea (Linne) (Blue-gray Gnatcatcher). Bahamas in winter. 



'' Gould says that he supposed his type came from Long Island from Dr. Bry- 
ant having visited that island and having received the type from the Bryant collec- 
tion. Dr. Bryant also spent considerable time on Great Inagua. the only island 
where apparently the species has been taken subsequently. 

"Birds from this island have been named M.elegans by Dr. Sharpe. 

=° Mr. Ridgway has discriminated this form. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS • 365 

PoUoptila cmrutea cwsiogaster Ridgwayj: (Bahama Gnatcatcher). Abaco, New Provi- 
dence. 

Sitta pusilla Latham:]: (Brown-headed Nuthatch). Great Bahama. 

Corvus nasicus Temminck (Cuban Crow). Grand Caicos. 

Ampelis cedrorum (Vieillot) (Cedar Waxwing). Berry Islands, New Providence. 

Vireosylva calidris harbatula (Cabanis) :l: (Black-whislcered Vireo). Abaco, Biminis, 
New Providence, Bleuthera, Current Island, Andros, Green Cay, Cay Lobos, 
Bird Rock, Long Island, Samana. 

Vireosylva oHvacea (Linne) (Red-eyed Vireo). New Providence, Cay Lobos, Wat- 
lings Island, Great Inagua. 

Lanivireo flavifrons (Vieillot) (Yellow-throated Vireo). New Providence, Cay 
Lobos, Andros. 

Vireo crassirostris (Bryant) f:i: •' (Thick-billed Vireo). Abaco, Eleuthera, New 
Providence, Highborn Cay, Andros, Green Cay, Pimlico Cay, Cat Island, Great 
Inagua. 

Vireo crassirosiris fiavescens Ridgway f;]: (Concepcion Vireo). Eleuthera, Green 
Cay, Long Island, Cat Island, Concepcion Island, Rum Cay, Great Inagua. 

Lanitts hidovicianus Linng (Loggerhead Shrike). Accidental on Andros. 

Hiriindo erythrogaster Boddoert (Barn Swallow). Green Cay, Cay Sal, Mariguana, 
Little Inagua, Great Inagua, Anguilla. 

Callichelidon cyaneoinridis (Bryant) fl (Bahama Swallow). Great Bahama, Abaco, 
Berry Islands, New Providence. Andros. Cay Sal, Current Island, Anguilla. 

Mniotilta varia (Linne) (Black and White Warbler). Great Bahama, Abaco, Bi- 
minis, Berry Islands. Eleuthera, New Providence. Andros, Cay Lobos, Cay Sal, 
Green Cay, Watlings Island. Rum Cay. 

Protonotaria citrea (Boddaert) (Prothonotary Warbler). New Providence. 

HeUnaia sioainsoni (Audubon) (Swainson's Warbler). Cay Lobos. 

Helmitheros vermivorns (Gmelin) (Worm-eating Warbler). New Providence, Cay 
Lobos, Great Inagua. 

Helminlhopliila piiivs (Linne) (Blue-winged Warbler). Abaco. 

Helmiiitliopfiila haehmani (Audubon) (Bachman's Warbler). Cay Sal. 

Compsothlypis americana (Linne) -- (Parula Warbler). Great Bahama, Biminis, 
Berry Islands, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Cay Lobos, Cay 
Sal, Watlings Island, Rum Cay, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Great 
Inagua. 

Dendroica tiyrina (Gmelin) (Cape May Warbler). Abaco, Little Abaco, Biminis, 
Berry Islands. Eleuthera. Current Island. New Providence. Andros. Green Cay. 
Cay Lobos. Watlings Island. Rum Cay. Great Inagua. 

Dendroica petechia flaviceps Chapman •{•::: (Bahama Yellow Warbler). Great Ba- 
hama. Abaco, Little Abaco, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Exuma Cays, 
Concepcion Island. Watlings Island, Rum Cay, Long Island, Acklin Island, 
Mariguana, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Great Inagua. 

Dendroica ctvrulescens (Gmelin) (Black-throated Blue Warbler). New Providence. 
Andros, Cay Lobos, Concepcion Island, Watlings Island. Anguilla, Great Inagua. 

Dendroica coronata (Linne) (Myrtle Warbler). Great Bahama. Abaco, Little 
Abaco, Biminis. Berry Islands, Eleuthera, New Providence. Andros, Cay Sal, 
Cay Lobos, Rum Cay, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Great Inagua. 

-■^ Intermediate between V. crassirostris and V. c. fiavescens. have been taken 
on New Providence, Eleuthera. Andros, Cat Island, Rum Cay, Long Island. 

- It is quite probable that C. a. usnea' also winters in the Bahamas, but speci- 
mens in winter plumage are difficult to distinguish. 



366 BIRDS 

Dendroica maculosa (Gmelin) (Magnolia Warbler). Eleuthera, New Providence, 
Watlings Island. 

Dendroica pennsylvanica (Linne) (Chestnut-sided Warbler). New Providence. 

Dendroica cwrulea (Wilson) (Cerulean Warbler). Cay Lobes. 

Dendroica striata (Forster) (Black-poll Warbler). New Providence, Cay Lobos, 
Bird Rook, Anguilla, Watlings Island, Great Inagua. 

Dendroica bJackburniw (Gmelin) (Blackburnian Warbler). New Providence, Wat- 
lings Island. 

Dendroica dominica (Linne) % (Yellow-throated Warbler). Great Bahama, Abaco, 
Biminis. Berry Islands, New Providence, Andros, Cay Lobos, Watlings Island, 
Mariguana, Great Inagua. (Resident and migratory.) 

Dendroica virens (Gmelin) (Black-throated Green Warbler). Watlings Island. 

Dendroica kirtlandi Baird (Kirtland's Warbler). Abaco, Little Abaco, Berry 
Islands, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Watlings Island, North 
Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Athels Island. 

Dendroica pityophila hahamensis Cory -j-;;; (Bahama Warbler). Abaco, Great Ba- 
hama. 

Dendroica vigorsii achrustera (Bangs) fj-" (Nassau Pine Warbler). New Provi- 
dence. 

Dendroica vigorsii abacoensis Ridgway ft (Abaco Pine Warbler). Abaco. 

Dendroica pahnarum (Gmelin) (Palm Warbler). Great Bahama, Abaco, Biminis, 
Berry Islands, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Cay Lobos, Cay 
Sal, Exuma Cays, Cat Island, Concepcion Island, Watlings Island, Rum Cay, 
Fortune Island, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, East Caicos, Great Inagua. 

Dendroica discolor (Vieillot) t (Prairie Warbler). Great Bahama, Abaco, Little 
Abaco, Biminis, Berry Islands, Eleuthera, Current Island, New Providence. 
Andros, Green Cay, Sandy Cay, Cay Lobos, Exuma Cays, Cat Island, Concep- 
cion Island, Watlings Island, Rum Cay, Mariguana, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, 
East Caicos, Great Inagua. (Migratory and resident.) 

Seiurus aurocapillus (Linne) J (Ovenbird). Great Bahama, Abaco, Biminis, Berry 
Islands, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Cay Lobos, Cat 
Island, Watlings Island, Rum Cay, Long Island, North Caicos, Grand Caicos, 
East Caicos, Great Inagua. (Migratory; a few only remaining to breed.) 

Seiurus noveboracensis (Gmelin) (Water-thrush). Great Bahama. Abaco, Little 
Abaco, Biminis, Eleuthera, New Providence, Cay Sal, Cay Lobos, Watlings 
Island, Great Inagua. 

Seiurus noveboracensis notabilis (Ridgway) ( Grinnel's Water-thrush). New Provi- 
dence. 

Seiurus motacilla (Vieillot) (Louisiana Water-thrush). Biminis, Berry Islands, 
Cay Lobos. 

Oporornis agilis (Wilson) (Connecticut Warbler). New Providence, Cay Sal, Cay 
Lobos. 

Geothlypis trichas (Linne)-' (Maryland Yellow-throat). Eleuthera. Abaco, New- 
Providence, Green Cay, Watlings Island, Concepcion Island, Rum Cay, Cat 
Island. 

^ Some undetermined form of Dendroica vigorsii has been recorded also from 
Great Bahama, Andros, and Cay Sal. 

-' Undetermined forms of G. trichas have been recorded from Great Bahama, 
Biminis, Berry Islands, Andros, Cay Sal, Cay Lobos, Anguilla, Great Inagua. 



THE BAHAJI.V ISLANDS 367 

Geotniypis trichas brachidactyla (Swainson) (Northern Yellow-throat). Abaco, 

Eleuthera, New Providence, Hog Island, Cay Sal, Rum Cay. 
Oeothlypis rostrata Bryant fj; (Bryant's Yellow-throat). New Providence. 
Geothhjpis inaynardi Bangs fi (Maynard's Yellow-throat). New Providence. 
Geotlilypis tanneri Ridgway ft (Tanner's Yellow-throat). Abaco, Little Abaco (?), 

Great Bahama ( ?). 
Geotlilypis incompta Ridgway fl (Lesser Abaco Yellow-throat). Abaco. 
Geothlypis exigua Ridgv/cLj fi; (Andros Yellow-throat). Andros. 
Geothlypis coryi Ridgway f J (Cory's Yellow-throat). Eleuthera. 
Geotlilypis flavicla RidgwayfJ (Luteus Yellow-throat). New Providence, Andros.== 
Wilsonia mitrata (Gmelin) (Hooded Warbler). Cay Lobos. 
Setophaga ruticiUa (Linne) (American Redstart). Great Bahama, Biminis, Berry 

Islands, New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Cay Lobos, Concepcion Island. 

Long Island, Anguilla, Great Inagua, Turks Island. 
Cwreba bahamensis (Reichenbach) fj: (Bahama Bananaquit). Great Bahama, 

Abaco, Little Abaco, Biminis, Berry Islands, Eleuthera, Current Island, New 

Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Cay Lobos, Exuma Cays, Great Exuma. Cat 

Island, Concepcion Island, Watlings Island, Rum Cay, Long Island, Mariguana, 

North Caicos, Grand Caicos. East Caicos, Little Inagua, Great Inagua, High- 
born Cay. 
Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linne) (Bobolink). New Providence, Cay Lobos. Cay 

Sal, Watlings Island, Anguilla, Great Inagua. 
Agelaius phccniceus iryanti Ridgway J (Bahama Redwing). Great Bahama, Abaco, 

Little Abaco, Biminis, Berry Islands, New Providence, Andros, Cay Sal. 
Icterus northropi Allen f:i; (Northrop's Oriole). Abaco, Andros. 
Piranga rubra (Linne) (Summer Tanager). New Providence, Andros. 
Piranga erytliromelas (Vieillot) (Scarlet Tanager). New Providence, Andros, Cay 

Lobos. 
Spindalis zena (Linne) f J (Black-backed Spindalis). Berry Islands, Eleuthera, 

New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Cat Island, Long Island, Mariguana. 
Spindalis zena. toivnsendi Ridgwayft (Abaco Spindalis). Abaco, Little Abaco. 
Zamalodia ludoviciana (Linne) (Rose-breasted Grosbeak). Watlings Island. 
Cyanospiza ciris (Linne) (Painted Bunting). Great Bahama, Berry Islands, New 

Providence. 
Cyanospiza cyanea (Linne) (Indigo Bunting). New Providence, Cat Island, Cay 

Lobos. 
PyrrUulagra violacea (Linne) jt (Bahama Bullfinch). Great Bahama. Abaco, Little 

Abaco, Berry Islands, Eleuthera, Current Island, New Providence, Andros. 

Highborn Cay, Cat Island, Long Island, Acklin Island, North Caicos, Grand 

Caicos, East Caicos, Great Inagua. 
Tiaris bicolor (Linne) fJ (Bahama Grassquit). Great Bahama. Abaco, Biminis, 
Berry Islands, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Cat Island, 
Great Exuma, Concepcion Island, Watlings Island, Rum Cay, Long Island. 

Crooked Island, Fortune Island, Acklin Island, Mariguana, North Caicos, Grand 

Caicos, East Caicos, Little Inagua, Great Inagua. 
Passerculus sandwlchensis savanna (Wilson) (Savannah Sparrow). Great Bahama. 
Abaco, Little Abaco, New Providence, Andros, Green Cay, Rum Cay. 

-'"Specimen in collection of G. S. Miller, Jr., from Andros (flde Mr. Ridgway). 



S68 BIRDS 

Ammodramus savannarum passerinus Wilson (Grasshopper Sparrow). Biminis, 

New Providence, Andros, Cay Lobos, Cay Sal. 
Passer domesticus (Linne) (House Sparrow). New Providence. (Introduced.) 

Notes. 

Catesby records Guara niT)ra from the Bahamas; there are apparently no 
later records. 

Iridiprocne hicolor has been recorded from New Providence, but as the imma- 
ture CalHchelidon cyaneoviridis so closely resembles it, the record is open to doubt. 



MAMMALS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



24 



MAMMALS OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 

GERRIT S. MILLER, Jr., 

Assistant Curator, Division of Mammals, U. S. National Museum. 



INTRODUCTION. 

On Wednesday, October 17, 14.98, some of Columbus's men arc reported 
to have seen " dogs, mastiffs, and hounds," wliicli lielonged to the inhabitants 
of Long Island, then Fernandina, Baliamas.' Fernaudina was the third island 
visited by the exjDlorers, and these dogs, the first animals other than fish and 
birds mentioned in the journal of the voyage, are the first American mammals 
recorded by Europeans. No strictly wild mammals were seen by Columlius in 
this group of islands, as he did not become acquainted with hutias until after 
he arrived in Cuba. Even at this time, therefore, the Bahamas seem to have 
been almost destitute of conspicuous mammalian life, while now, after the 
lapse of four centuries, we know only eight mammals whose presence on the 
Islands is not certainly due to man. This paucity of information is partly due 
to the iin.doubted absence of many species that occur in the Greater Antilles, 
but it is due even more to the fact that the collectors who have visited the 
Islands have given very little attention to the mammals.' Under these circum- 
stances a list of the mammals of the Bahamas must be more a record of ignor- 
ance than a record of facts; ignoi^mce which is surprising when we recall that 
on these same Islands Columbus saw the first mammals of the New World. 

The most important collection of Bahama mammals is that made by 
Mr. J. H. Riley and Mr. S. H. Derickson, while accompanying the Expedition 
of the Geographical Society of Baltimore in the summer of 1903. This 
contains over two hundred specimens, one hundred and eiglity-five of which 
are now in the LT. S. National Museum, representing six of the ten species known 

'The Journal of Christopher Columbus (during his first voyage, 1492-1493), 
p. 50. Halcluyt Society. London, 1893. 

-Mammals have been collected on about one-fourth of the islands of the group: 
Andros, Eleuthera, Little Abaco. Long Island. New Providence, Plana Keys, and 
Watlings Island. 



373 MAMMALS 

to occur fl'ilcl oil the Islands. The present paper is based chiefly on tliis ma- 
terial, but I have made use of all other specimens axid records which I have 
fonud available.' As alread}' intimated, this list must be regarded as a mere 
fragment, too imperfect to form the Ijasis of any generalizing as to the origin 
and exact affinities of the mammal fauna as a wliole. It has been prepared 
chiefl}' with the hope that it may stimulate and aid further work. 

ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES. 
A discussion of the mammals which have thus far been discovered in 
the Bahama Islands will now be given. 

RATS. 
Mus ALEXANDKiNUS Geoffroy. 
Mus alexandrinus Geoffrey, 1818, Description de I'Bgypt, Mammiferes, p. 733. 

An Old Work! rat now alnindantly introduced and established in the 
warmer parts of America. 

The roof rat probably occurs on all of the inhabited islands. The only 
specimen that I have seen was taken on New Providence by C. J. Maynard 
(Miller collection), who writes: "This is the common liou.^e rat of Nassau, 
and I have always found them common in the city houses. 1 was once bitten 
on the finger by one wdien I was asleep." 

A rat that may have been this species or the next, is mentioned by Mr. 
Kiley : " Mr. Derickson shot a young specimen of a long-tailed rat, \Yhich I 
supposed to lie the roof rat, in the pines near Lake Killarne3^ New Providence. 
It was in the woods, a mile or more away from any dw-ellings.'' 

Mus HATTUS Linne. 
Mus rattus Linne, 1758, Syst. Nat., i, 10th ed., p. 61. 

The black rat is also an introduced species, now common in the warmer 
parts of America. 

Of its occurrence in the Bahamas, I have no information other than tliat 
contained in the following note by j\Ir. Maynard : " Common in the scrub (m 
New Providence. I obtained two that were living in holes of ro<-ks about a 
mile back of the city of Nassau. I often saw them running about. In 1S9T, 
when on a trip among the keys, I noticed signs of rats on Flemings Key, and 
my boatmen told me that rats, presumal)ly of this species, were very alnmdant 

" I am particularly indebted to Mr. C. J. Maynard for elaborate notes on the 
species that have come under his observation. 



THE BATIAJr.V ISLANDS 373 

on this island. It is an uninhabited key lying about twenty miles northeast 
from New Providence. They told me the following story about this key and 
its rats: 'A pilot wlio was taking a vessel out from Harbor Island, a ])oi-t to 
the northward, was iIi-o|)|)imI on this key where he expected his friends to call 
for liiiii. But they ilid not do so that day and he passed the night on tlie 
island. At nightfall he was surrounded by rats that gathered from all sides 
and attacked him. It was only by keeping on his feet all night and using a 
club vigorously that lie managed to escape' the bites of the fierce little rodents.' 
I did not find a single living mollusk on this key, nor did I see any land crabs 
there, and in confirmation of the story, did see quite a number of rats in the 
thick scrub." 

Mus MUSCULUS Linne. 
Mus m.uscnlKS Linne. 175S, Syst. Nat. i, 10th ed., p. 62. 

The house mouse is an Old World animal now introduced throughout the 
greater part of America. 

I have seen no Bahama specimens, but Mr. C. J. Maynard writes: 
" Common everywhere in Nassau and about the settlements on New Providence. 
I once obtained a specimen that had nested in the hollow of a dead mangrove 
on Andros Island." 

CAPROMYS. 
Capromys ingrahami Allen. 
Caprom.ys ingrahami Allen, 1891, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. iii, p. 329. 

Eastern island of the Plana Keys. Belated species occur in the Greater 
Antilles on Swan Island and in Venezuela. 

The Bahama hutia, though probably known to the earlier explorers of 
the West Indies, was not technically described until 400 years after the Islands 
were discovered. Whether Caproniys ingrahami has always been confined to 
the limited area that it now occupies is pui-ely a matter of conjecture. There 
is good reason to doubt its supposed occurrence on Mariguana, and Mr. Kiley 
found no traditions of its presence on other islands. 

Dr. Allen's account of the animal is so interesting that much of it may 
be (pioted. After describing the species,' he introduces Dr. Ingraham's field 
notes : 

" On the morning of February 11, 1891, we anchored under the lee of 
the easternmost of the Plana Keys, in latitude about 22° 33' north, longitude 

* Loc cit., pp. 331-332. 



374 MAMMALS 

73° 30' west, and about half-way between the northeast point of Acklin Island 
and Mariguana of the Bahamas; and on going on shore we saw unmistakable 
signs of the little rodent known among the natives as the ' Hootie ' [= Hutia]. 

'■ The key is a small rocky islet, the highest point of which is probably 
not more than fifty feet above the surrounding ocean, with crevices and eaves 
worn in the rocks by the action of water, and in many places broken strata of 
rocks piled upon each other, leaving cracks and crevices between and beneath 
them. The islet may be slightly more than half a mile wide and four or five 
miles long, entirely without fresh water except in the rainy season, when piools 
of fresh water may be found in the holes in the rocks. There is a small 
growth of shrubby bushes in the rocky crevices, and in some parts of the lower 
ground a growth of black buttonwood, and on the western end of the islet a 
light growth of the silver-leaved palm, with here and there different forms of 
cacti scattered over the island. A few paw-paw trees were also found where 
the seeds had evidently been dropped. About a mile and a half west of the 
key is another small key, of about the same size and of the same geological 
formation, but separated from it by a deep passage. This is the only land 
within twenty miles or more, and my sailing charts indicate a depth of water of 
several thousand feet. 

" Although these islands are only about a mile and a half apart, their 
fauna is very distinct outside of a small lizard common to all of the rocky 
islands of that part of the Bahamas. 

" The ' Hootie ' [Hutia] occupies only the eastern island, which, with the 
lizard and a few varieties of birds, constitutes its entire [vertebrate] fauna. 
Neither am I able to learn of its being found in any other portion of the 
Bahamas. 

'' During my stay of two weeks, weathei- bound, under the lee of the 
island, I secured about twenty specimens of this animal, which at first I 
thought was gregarious in its habits, or inclined to live in colonies, but the 
occurrence of so many individuals at this point may have been due to the 
favorable conditions of the locality for affording it hiding places. I once saw 
quite a number together away from the rocks, among the palmettos, but on a 
subsequent visit to the island I came to the conclusion that the gathering was 
on account of its being about the rutting season. Its food was the leaves, 
twigs and bark of the Inishes, especially the black buttonwood, and the succulent 
growth of the cactus plants. It seemed very fond of the fruit of the paw-paw, 
and even of the l)odv of the tree itself, as I have seen the trunks of this tree, 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXII 




Fig. 1. — SKXiLL or procyon lotoe elucus bakgs, seen from above 




Fig. 2. — skull of procyon lotor elucus bangs, seen from below 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING MAMMALS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS • 375 

nearly as large as mj bodj', eaten so neai-ly ofl: that they would not sustain their 
own weight. A sweet potato left on the shore was eaten up, while the body of 
a bird, left to tempt them, was untouched. 

"When wounded it seldom made any attempt to defend itself, although in 
one instance, when I put my foot on a wounded one, it tried to bite me. It 
feeds mostly by night, although found occasionally foi-aging during the day. 
I saw no indications of its burrowing, the numerous holes and crevices in the 
rocks perhaps rendering this unnecessary. In its movements and shape when 
running it reminded me very much of the Muslvrat. It would run nearly as 
fast as I could. I had to shoot most of the specimens I obtained, but I secured 
a few, down in the palmettos, Ijy chasing them and stamping on them, as they 
ran under the palmetto leaves. It was not shy, as when it was away from the 
roclvs I could approacli within twenty-five or thirty- feet of it by moving 
cautiously when it would take to the rocks. 

"I opened a number of the animals during my stay for the purpose of 
securing a fcetus for an alcoholic specimen, but failed to obtain any." 

After discussing the animal's affinities. Dr. Allen continues: ° 

''' The present is by no means the first record of Capromys from the 
Bahamas. Catesby's Cunicitlus baJiaviensis is evidently one of the larger 
species of the genus, but which one, or whether really from the Bahamas, is at 
present beyond determination. Columbus, however, on his first voyage to the 
West Indies, evidently found some form of the genus abundant at nearly all of 
the several Bahama Islands he visited ; and Mr. C. B. Cory informs me that '' a 
peculiar large rat, probably a Capromys' is said to occin- abundantly on tlie 
island of ilariguana, a few miles to the eastward of Plana Keys. Mi'. Ingra- 
ham, however, replying to my inquiries on this point, Writes me that he spent 
from the 23d of February to the .30th of jMarch, 1891, at the island of Mari- 
guana. He says : " The island lias a coast line of about seventy-five or eighty 
miles, and I have walked nearly or quite half of this distance. I have been four 
or five miles into the interior, and indeed there is not a part fifteen miles in 
extent that I have not visited. I saw no signs of Capromys anywhere on the 
island, nor did I hear of any such animal from the inhabitants, who, however, 
repeatedly told me of the " Hootie " on the Plana Keys. Hence I may say 
unhesitatingly that it is not found on the island of Mariguana. 

" Mr. Ingraham, who has visited a large number of the keys and islands of 
the Bahama group, further informs me that he has never heard of the existence 

»Loc cit. pp. 335-336. 



376 ■ MAMMALS 

of any similar animal elsewhere in the Bahamas. An animal so helpless and 
easily destroyed as the Hutia raaj', however, have foimerly existed at many 
points in the Bahamas and Antilles, where it is now extinct. 

'' The first European explorers of the "West Indies found these peculiar rat- 
like animals abundant in various parts of the Antilles, and vague descrij^tions 
of them were given under their various native names by the writers of the 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, notably lay Oviedo in his ' Historia general 
de las Indias,' published in 1547, and later by Eochefort, Duturtre, and 
Browne. As these little beasts were in great quest as food, from the delicacy 
of their flesh, by both the natives and the Spanish colonists, they quickly began 
to become scarce, a fact noted even by Oviedo, who says they were hunted by 
dogs brought from Spain. They were so common in Jamaica at the time of 
Columbus's visit that he is said to have ' victualled the famous canoe expedi- 
tion of Diego Mendez with them." ° The narrators of his voyage make fre- 
quent mention of their abundance not only in the Bahamas and at Jamaica, 
but also in Cuba and Hispaniola. Oviedo speaks of three kinds, and later 
writers mentioned others, without, however, describing them so as to give a 
very clear conception of their characters. They have been referred to as oc- 
curring throughout the Greater Antilles, except in Porto Eico, and in the 
Bahamas. The earlier natural history compilers introduced them into their 
works, greatly to the distraction of later systematic writers. 

"Although these animals are apparently still not uncommon at certain lo- 
calities on the larger islands, they have doubtless everywhere greatly decreased 
in numbers, and probably at many points have been wholly extirpated. Though 
said to be still common in Hayti and San Domingo, and in portions of Cuba, 
they have been practically exterminated in Jamaica. Specimens, however, are 
very rare in collections, and even at this late day our Ivnowledge of the group 
is very inexact, while some of the forms have doubtless already become extinct." 

RACCOONS. 
PiiocYON MATNAEDi Bangs. 
Procyon maynardi Bangs, 189S, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., vol. xii, p. 92. 

An animal of ISTorth American affinities. It was unquestionably intro- 
duced from the mainland, but it is now known from N"ew Providence only. 

An adult male of the Bahama raccoon was brought to ]Mr. Rile}' on June 
23, 1903, at Nassau. The animal is fully adult, though not aged. (Plate 

" Zool. Journ., Vol. IV, 1829, p. 277. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS :],7 

LXIIl, Figs. 1-3.) Its measurements are: Total length, 713; tail vertebra-, 
340; hind foot, 100 (95) ; sknll, greatest length, 107; basal length, 99; basilai' 
length, 94; length of palate (median), 61; width of palate l)et\veeii middle nl' 
carnassials, 18.6 ; length of palatine extension l)ehind molars (to tip of ham- 
iilar). 36; least width of palatine extension, 12.6; z^-gomatic breadth, 69; 
least interorbital breadth, 33 ; breadth of braincase above roots of zygomata, 
44.6 ; mastoid Ijreadth, 54 ; mandible, 75 ; maxillarjf tootlu'ow to front of 
canine (alveoli), 38. G; ei'own of first upper molar, 7.8 x 8.8; iiiaudibular tooth- 
row to front of canine (alveoli), 45.3; crown of first lower molar, 9x6. 
(Specimen number 131,905.) 

Though undoubtedly introduced from the mainland this animal is unlike 
any raccoon with which I have been able to compare it. In general it resemliles 
Procijon pijf/iiut'its Jlerriam (Plate LXIY, Figs. 1-3), but it is not as dijiiin- 
utive; its teeth, particularly the posterior lower molar, are not as small, and its 
color differs from that of the Cozumel animal in the conspicuously whitish 
muzzle, less gray occiput, and less dark gular area back of the whitish chin. 
The audital bulUT? are much larger than in P. pygnuevH Merriam, and their 
outer ventral surface is nearly fiat instead of deeply concave. The comparative 
size of Procyon maynardi, from Nassau, P. pygmceus Merriam, from Cozumel, 
and P. lotor elucus Bangs, from Florida is shown by the photographs of 
skulls reproduced on Plates LXII-LXIV. 

]\Ir. ilaynard gives the following account of his experience with this 
animal : '' As early as 1884, I was aware that there was a Eaccoon on ISTew Prov- 
idence, and that year obtained a flat skin of the species; but it was not until 
1897, that I succeeded in obtaining an entire specimen. About June 1, of this 
year, a living female Eaccoon was brought to rae by a man who had captured 
her in the pine ■\\'oods on the south shore of Xew Providence. The animal 
had been injured on the head, having evidently been stunned by a l:ilow, and 
probably as a consequence of this blow did not eat anything for a week. After 
this she slowly recovered and soon ate readily. She appeared uneasy in cap- 
tivity and was always trying to climb to some elevated place, and at lengtli 
escaped. She was recaptured, however, by some one, and I recovered her in 
about a week. On June 16, she appeared even more uneasy, Init was rather less 
wild, even permitting me to handle her. The next morning I found a single 
young one with her in her box. This was a female entirely naked, with the 
exception of a little fine hair on the back, which was of a reddish color. Al- 
though of course of a different form, the little animal was about the size of a 



378 MAMMALS 

half-grown Norwa}- rat. Its e3'es were closed. The mother liandled her off- 
spring with her paws and month. From the first the mother \A-onld permit me 
to take the little one in my hands without showing the slightest objection. I 
brought both of the Raccoons in safetj' to my home in Newtonville, Massachu- 
setts, early in July. The young one did -not open its eyes until the middle of 
this month, almost exactly thirty days from its birth, and continued very 
helpless up to that time. The hair had gradually grown, and when it liegan 
to see it was so well covered that it began to show some of the characteristic 
markings of the adult, but it was much darker in color. From the first the 
Raccoons occupied a good sized room where they could climb about, and the 
young one, ^^'hieh we named "June,'' soon became very expert; even more so 
than the mother, for she could wal]< up the side of a wall, some eight feet high, 
which was, however, made of unplaned boards. June was at this time very 
playful and delighted in romping with a young kitten of about her size. She 
was also fond of playing with two skunks that were kept in the same room with 
the Raccoons. This sporti^^eness was not always fully appreciated by the more 
sedate skunks. They especially objected to having their long, bushy tails pulled 
by their agile young friend, and two or three times, when so treated, so far 
forgot their usual good behavior as to remonstrate in a manner that must have 
completely astonished the little " coon." I think, however, she was always 
quick enough to escape the fetid discharge, for I could never perceive any of 
the skunky odor on her. I may say in passing that either owing to the 
food with which these skunks were fed, or possibly due to the fact that they 
were both females, or to some other cause, the odor of the discharges was not as 
strong as that usuall}' emitted by wild skunks. The room in which the animals 
were kept ^vas in a barn, and the floor was covered with straw, 3'et all traces of 
the odor disappeared in two or three days. During the winter of 1897-98, 
the Raccoons were kept in a room in which there was a fire night and day. 
The next summer they were permitted complete freedom of the l)arn, out of 
M-hich they soon found a ^\ay to the open air. They never went far from 
the buildings. The next A\^inter, as they could not be caught, they were without 
a fire, and sometime that season the old one disappeared. Presumably she 
died from cold. June, however, developed a thick coat of hair and fur and is 
now (April, 1904), ali\e and well, liaving passed through even the extreme cold 
last winter without any fire in the building in which she lives. She is now 
nearly eight years old. She attained her present size when she was two years 
of age, but she is not as large as her mother and has always been consider- 
ably darker in color." 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXII 




Fig. 1.— skull of procyox mayxardi bakgs, seen from above 




Fig. 2. — skull of procvox maynardi bangs, seen frobc below 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING MAMMALS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 379 

^Ir. Eiley's notes on this raccoon are' as follows: '■'Baccoons were said to 
be abundant on Xew Providence and we saw a number of tracks in a mangrove 
swamp al30ut twelve miles west of Nassau. They are said to be very destructive 
to sweet potatoes and otlier crops, in fact a nuisance. Tliough I oU'ered to buy 
a series and ])av a good price, only one poor sjjecimen was brouglit olf to the 
slii]i. The natives said they needed good dogs to tree them and there seemed to 
be on!}- one man who possessed this desideratum. The chase must be attended 
with considerable danger, as the going is bad enougli in the da3'-time over rotten 
coral rock or ground full of pot-holes, and I shu(lder to think what it must be 
at night. I Avas informed by everyone tliat I conversed with on the subject, 
that there is a tradition that this animal had been introduced by one of the 
large plantation owners many, many years ago, but from where there seemed 
to be complete uncertainty. I was told Florida, but this seemed to Ije only a 
conjecture." 

BATS. 

Vespeeugo fuscus bahamensis, ]\lilk'i-. 

Tesperugo fuscus Allen, 1890, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. ill. p. 169. Not 

Tespertilio fuscus Beauvois. 
Vespertilio fuscus baliainensis Miller. 1897, North American Fauna. No. 12, p. 101. 

Known from New Providence only. The group to wliieli the species 
belongs is almost cosmopolitan. 

The series of twelve skins procured by Mr. Bile}', makes possible a com- 
parison of the color of this bat with that of V. fuscus Allen. While some 
individuals are scarcely distinguishable, the Bahama animal averages notice- 
ably more yellow, and the fur is more clouded by the dark bases of the hairs. 
There is no approach to the dark, rich color of the Cuban species. 

Of the Bahama Vespertilio, Mr. Maynard writes : " On March 22, 1893, 
when in company with my friend, the late Geo. L: Curtiss, I visited the 
so-called dungeons of old Fort Charlotte, just to the westward of Nassau, we 
found a hole in the roof of one of them absolutely filled with bats. There 
were several hundred gathered there, clinging one to the other, much like 
swarming bees, occupying a space about the size of a bushel basket. J\Ir. 
Curtiss caught over seventy-five with one swoo].) of liis insect net. We were 
told l)v the keeper of the fort that the bats were always in that sauie place in 
winter. On April 2, of the same year, T found a number of the same species 
in some caves near where I saw the leaf-nosed Bat, but did not find any of this 
latter-named species, either there or in the old locality at that time." 



380 MAMMALS 

Mr. Riley seems to have found the animal in the exaet locality where Jlr. 
Maynard discovered it. He says : " This bat was Ojuite common in one or two 
of the dark inner underground chambers, where the light never penetrated, 
of the old Spanish fort at Nassau. They had young at the time of our first 
visit (June 21), that were nearly as large as the adults. Though able to fly, 
the yoimg seemed loath to do so, as when disturbed they tried to escape by 
scrambling away on all fours. We only found this species in the old fort." 

Sixty-eight specimens (12 skins) were collected by ^Ir. Riley. 

Lasiubus bokealis (Miller). 
Vespertilio borealis Miiller, 1776, Natursyst. Suppl., p. 21. 
Atalapha noveboracensis H. Allen, 1894, Monagr. Bats. N. Am. 
Lasiurus borealis (Miller), 1897, North American Fauna, No. 13, p. 105. 

Bats of this group are found almost throughout America, including the 
Greater Antilles. 

A red bat taken on New Providence, February 2, 1884, by Mr. C. J. 
Maynard, has been recorded by Harrison Allen. As the specimen consisted of 
a skull only, no exact determination was possible. 

Nyctinomus bahamensis Eehn. 
Nyctinomiis bahamensis Relin, 1902, Proo. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 641. 

Peculiar to the Bahamas. A member of a tropical group ranging from the 
southern United States to Paraguay, and throughout the West Indies. 

This bat was originally described from a specimen taken at Governors 
Harbor, Eleuthera, by Dr. J. Percy Moore, and six collected on Little Abaco b)' 
Mr. J. Lewis Bonhote. Mr. Riley procured sixty-one (61 skins) near Clarence 
Harbor, Long Island. His field notes are as follows : " This species was 
found in a ratJicr light cave about a mile and a half Jiack of Clarence Harl)or. 
Long Island, and in the Hamilton cave, about five miles from the same town. 
They occupied the rounded holes in the roof that sometimes run up for 
unknown distances. The fact that on first entering a cave one sees no bats 
is therefore no indication that none are there, as these holes are so dark that 
even when a light is held near the opening it is often impossible to see the 
bats. This species could hardly be overlooked, as- the caves it inhabited have 
a strong, disagreeable odor, peculiar to this genus, I am told. In the first 
try with a small dip net over seventy specimens were captured, all that we 
deemed the net could hold without tearing. In the Hamilton cave, the shot 
from a .32 collecting pistol into one of the holes, that on account of the 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXIV 







— V- 




Fig. 1.— skull of pkocyon tygm/eus meriuam, seen fkom above 




jr^Q 2.— SKULL OF PROCYON PYGM,-T3US MERRIAJE, SEEN FROM UELOW 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING MAMMALS 



THJJ BAHAMA ISLANDS 381 

liigli roof could not be readied with the net, brouglit down twenty-nine. In 
both caves they were not found far away from the entrance." 

CllILONATALUS TUillDIFROXS ililler. 
Chiloiiatahis tumidifrons Miller, 1903, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., vol. xvi, p. 119. 

This bat is known only from the seven specijnens collected by i\ir. IJiley 
and ilr. Derickson. The genus occurs in Cuba, Jamaica and Old Providence. 

Mr. Riley's notes are as follows: " About a dozen of this beautiful little 
species were found in a peculiar cave at Sandy Point, or near the south end of 
Watlings Island. The entrance to the cave was fifteen feet or more across, but 
only about three feet high. This passage extended back seventy-five feet or 
more, opening into a large chaniljcr with a high I'oof. We had gone to the 
point to look for Nye's Woodpecker (('cntunis nyeanus) and were not prepared 
for collecting bats, but when we heard of the cave, knowing from experience 
in Cuba that rarely ever two species inhabit the same cave and that the list of 
species can be materially swelled by visiting as many caves as possible, we 
determined to examine it. Our guide gathered a lot of rubbish and made a 
small fire in the center, when we were agreeably surprised to see a bat, entirely 
new to xis, flitting about in the dim light, reminding one of a large moth. It 
soon became intolerable in the cave from tlie smoke and heat, as there was no 
outlet except the entrance. Together we secured seven specimens ; the majority 
of those in the cave, but it was rather difficult shooting in the dim liglit and 
from the smallness of the bats. Two were secured that had been driven into 
the entrance, as they could be seen better here against the light. When we 
emerged from the cave and examined our specimens we surmised we had an 
undescribed form. When fresh, the gland or swelling on the rostrum is very 
prominent." 

]\[acrotl"s waterhousii Gray. 

MacrotiLS waterhousii Gray, 1843, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. xl, p. 21. 
Macrotus ivaterhousii Allen, 1890, Bull. Amer. Mas. Nat. Hist., vol. iii, p. 170. 

A mendier of a wide ranging tropical American genus. 

A specimen of tlie long-eared bat taken on Andros Island, was recorded 
by Dr. J. A. Allen, and another, from New Providence, has been for many 
years in the United )States National Museum. Mr. Kiley procured five near 
Georgetown, Eleuthera, and one on Long Island, lu his field notes he says: 
" About a dozen of this species were found near the entrance to a large cave 
about four miles soutli of Geoi-getown. Eleuthera, tlie majority of which were 



382 MAMMALS 

secured. These comprised adults and nearly groAvn young. A single specimen 
u-as found in a cave back of Clarence Harbor, Long Island." 

The specific identity of this bat is in doubt, as I have had no opportunity 
to examine true Macrotus waterlwusii Gray, from Haiti. 

Loxci-iOEiiiXA AUKiTA Tomes. 
Lonchorhina aurita Tomes, 1S6.3, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 83. 

The original specimen is supposed to have been taken in Trinidad. 

Through the kindness of Mr. Witmer Stone, I have examined a specimen 
(Adult male No. 1770, Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia), ap- 
parently the second known, of this very rare bat, taken in Nassau Harljor by 
H. C. Wood. Its measurements are: total length, 100; head and body, 51; 
tail, 16; tibia, 20.1; 'foot, 11; forearm, 50; first digit, 9; second digit, 13; 
third digit, 97; foi;rth digit, 71; fifth digit, 67; width of ear, 23; skull, great- 
est length, 9.6: zygomatic breadth, 11; least interorbital breadth, 5; breadth 
of braincase alcove roots of zygomata, 9 ; maxillnry toothrow exclusive of 
incisors (alveoli), 7. 

PlIYLLOXYCTEinS PLAIXl-T.OXS iliUer. 
Phyllonycteris plainfrons Miller, 1899, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., vol. xlii, p. 34. 

Known only from the Bahamas. The gemis is elsewhere confined to the 
Grreater Antilles. 

This species was based on one lumdrcd srad twenty-two alcoholic specimens 
collected on New Providence by Mr. James E. Benedict and two skins from 
the same island taken by Mr. C. J. Maynard. Subsequently Dr. Harris Ken- 
nedy procured others and presented them to the U. S. National Museum. Mr. 
Eiley obtained the animals on New Providence, Eleuthera, and Long Island. 

Mr. Maynard appears to have been the original discoverer of this bat. 
He writes of it: " On June 3, 1881, in company with Sir Henry A. Blake, 
Governor of the Bahamas, I visited a cave on the western shore of New 
Providence, about six miles from Nassau, and found the dome-like roof covered 
with pendent bats. We shot some ten or a dozen and found that eight had 
young clinging to them. One of the adults, a female, was apparently imin- 
jured, but being heavy with young, had fallen among the re.st. This bat was 
kept by Sir Henry and on the following day gave birth to a single young one. 
This was born liind feet first and was thus enabled to cling to its mother, 
who hung head downward, in the usual manner. I saw both liats the next day 
and observed that tlie young one kept trying to find the teat of the mother, 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 383 

but did not succeed, nor could I then perceive any mammce. Shortly after- 
ward I left the island but, as I learned from Governor Blake, both mother and 
offspring died in a few days and tlie bodies were sent to me in alcohol. A 
careful post mortem examination failed to disclose any mammary glands or 
any trace of any, yet the hat was pregnant with another embryo which was 
well advanced. This bat is a fruit-eating species, and the specimen described 
ate sapodillos greedily." 

Mr. Benedict has kindly furnished me with the following account of his 
experience with the species: "During the visit of tlie Albatross to the 
Bahamas, in the winter of 1884-1885, the Harbor-Master of Nassau, Capt. 
Lightbourn, informed Capt. Tanner, of the Albatross, that there was a cave 
practically unexplored and not very long known, several miles back from 
Nassau. An expedition was formed and several naturalists from tlie ship Avent 
with Captains Lightbourn and Tanner to the cavern, where, before entering, 
a change of clothing was made. The . cave was well filled with a bat guano, 
which would quickly render clothing unfit for use until washed. The cave was 
entered, each man carrying two lighted candles. The party remained in the cave 
about three-quarters of an hour. At first the entrance was narrow and some- 
times low. In one place we crossed a pit which may have led to caverns 
opening below, but we did not have time to investigate. After we had gone 
back some little distance, a very large number of J^ats flew about. They were 
shot with small guns at first, and then they were caught in the hands, without 
shooting. The hands were first covered with rulaber gloves and the sharp teeth 
would penetrate the skin sufficiently to l)e felt, though they could do no harm. 
I penetrated a chamber where the bat guano was so thick it sounded hollow 
underneath. The cavern had been so filled at this ]Joint that there was barely 
room for a man to push himself on his knees and elljows into this chamber, 
but here the bats were especially numerous, and I found that it was often 
necessary to relight the candles. About one lumdred bats were taken, and 
many hundreds must have remained, as no perceptible diminution in numljer 
could be observed. The exact location of this cave I cannot describe, and Capt. 
Lightbourn said that it was known to comparatively few people, though there 
was a mucli Ijelter known cave somewhere back of Nassau." 

^[r. Riley's notes: "In an old out-building that had formerly been a 
part of the outer fortifications of the old Spanish fort at Nassau, now used as 
a sheep barn, we found the males of this species hanging by one foot to the 
roof in great numbers, -Tune -21. The room was light enough to sec the bats 



384 MAMMALS 

very i)lai)il\- without a lantern and we soon toolc all we eared for; but on revisit- 
ing this place again on Jul}' 2, not a Ijat could be found. We had first visited 
the interior of the fort where we took Vespertilio hahciDicnsls and on incjuiring 
if bats inhabited an}' otlier part of the premises, were told of this colony, but 
were assured they were of the same species as those we had already taken. 
Knowing from former experience, as stated before under CJiilonatalus tuinidi- 
frons. that ever}' colony may tuiii out to l)e an uncollected species, we decided 
to take a look at them to make sure, and our surmise was correct. Both males 
and pregnant females were taken in the same cave as Macroius waterliousii. 
about four miles south of Georgetown, Eleuthera. Each female contained a 
single young, nearly ready for exclusion. A numJjer were taken in the 
Hamilton cave, already referred to, on Ijong Island. They were farther back 
from tlie entrance than Nyctinomus haltamensis." 



SANITARY CONDITIONS IN THE BAHAMA 

ISLANDS 



25 



SANITARY CONDITIONS IN THE BAHAMA 

ISLANDS 

BY 
CLEMENT A. PENROSE. M. D. 



INTRODUCTION. 

A thorough consideration of an}' country from a medical point of view 
■n'ould fill volumes. In these chapters, devoted to the medical conditions in 
the Bahama Islands, we can only hope to discuss in a general way the many 
interesting problems encountered on the Expedition, and leave until later, and 
to other means of publication, a technical study of the more important diseases. 

The Bahama Islands offer so many rare opportunities for medical research 
that it was chiefly for this reason the author was persuaded to interrupt the 
even tenor of a general practice and take a trip of several thousand miles in 
a two-masted schooner of one hundred tons burden. 

Situated as these beautiful little Islands are, well out in the Atlantic 
Ocean, often widely separated from each other, and even more isolated by the 
character of their shoals, which the wary mariner is only too anxious to avoid, 
they represent little units in which most interesting problems can be separately 
studied and which collectively constitute a study of the archipelago. As differ- 
ent islands are frequently inhabited by descendants of different races of people, 
i such as Spanish, English, Americans, and ISTegToes, the old aboriginal stock 
having been completely exterminated years ago, one can study racial peculiar- 
ities under similar tropical conditions, and under varying conditions of civil- 
ization. In certain of the islands are found only white people who have 
entirely excluded the negro ; in others, only negroes who have almost entirely 

; excluded the whites; and between these two extremes are islands in which every 

I 

[ mixture of white and black blood can be noted. This affords a rare opportun- 
ity for studying from a racial point of view the immunity of the blacks, whites 
and mulattoes to the prevalent conditions, and of contrasting the one with the 
other. 



388 SAXITART CONDITIONS 

;■ The inhabitants of the various islands also exhibit different degrees of 

,' civilization, depending on their accessibility to the rest of the world. For 
I instance, we can contrast the refinement and culture found at New Providence, 
\ where jSTassau, the capital cit)-, is located, with the almost barbarism in some 
i parts of Andros, one of the largest islands of the group, inhabited chiefly by 
i blacks, and practically unexplored. 

In some of the white colonies where black blood has been excluded, and 
J where, owing to their isolated positions, frequent intermarriage has taken place, 
as for instance at Spanish Wells, and Hopetown, much degeneracy is present, 
manifested by many abnormalities of mind and body. Another very important 
study is that of leprosy, which is becoming prevalent among these Islands. As 
yet no means of excluding such conditions or isolating them from the rest of 
the inhabitants have been adopted, except at Nassau 'svhere there is a lazaretto, 
but which is used only at the volition of the patient. In view of the com- 
mercial and geographical relations of these Islands, it is important that this 
disease should be thoroughly studied and segregated. Finally a number of 
interesting tropical conditions, such as diseases of the special senses, partic- 
ularly of the eye, are to be found in unlimited quantities and among a people 
.crying out for treatment. In fact, owing to the rarity of a doctor's visit to 
;the outer islands, often the most trifling conditions, as for instance a bad tooth 
lor slight infection, may assume the most alarming proportions. 

If the service which the medical staff was able to render himdreds of these 
poor, neglected people were the only work accomplished, we would have felt 
fully compensated for whatever hardships were endured. In fact, we were 
often compelled from the standpoint of humanity to neglect our own research 
work and attend to the needs of the suffering natives who at such times would 
accord us the greatest ovations, following us on the streets, kissing our hands, 
calling to us from the windows of their houses, and swarming in boat-loads 
around our vessel. 

My assistants on tlie medical staff consisted of Messrs. E. B. Beasley, H. P. 
Cole, and T. H. Coffin, all students in the Johns Hopkins Medical School, and 
Mr. Prank Gillmore, who acted as medical photographer (Plate LXV, Pig. 1). 
Mr. Coffin, in addition to his duties as medical assistant, was detailed to study 
and collect the mosquitoes of the Islands. His report is given in another part 
of this volume. 

In addition to the aid rendered by the various members of the medical 
staff, I take pleasure in acknowledging many special favors from Sir Gilbert 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXV 



19 

t 



9 



«? rv -*■••"-!$•. 



^^^Wf ■ '"^ '^3PWBPj 



Fig. 1. — MEDICAL STAFF 




Fig. 2. — view of catANTs kiwn, .\assal 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING SANITARY CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 380 

T. Carter, former Governor of the Bahamas; from Drs. L. 0. Parsons and 
J. J. Culmer of Nassau, and Dr. J. J. Ivellnm of Governors Harbor; Rev. 
Charles B. Wiikenson of Clarence Harbor, Long Island, and especially Rev. 
C. R. Johnson and Captain Samuel Malone of Hopetown, Abaco, who I'cndored 
us great assistance in tracing the relationship of the inhabitants of that 
settleinent. Snrgeon-General Walter AVvman, of the Marine Hospital Service, 
kindly furnished me a report of the medical commission on leprosy, and Hyn- 
son, Westcott & Co., of Baltimore, rendered me efficient service with the medi- 
cal equipment. 

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL EQUIPMENT. 

On a scientific expedition to a tropical country, there are no departments 
which require more careful consideration than the medical. In addition to the 
\\-ork proper there are so many things to be considered concerning the health 
of the men of the expedition, sanitation of the ship, etc., that more than 
ordinary care must be taken in the medical outfit. 

- We feel some pride in the knowledge that in this Expedition one of the 
most complete medical and surgical traveling equipments that we have ever 
seen was provided. Not a single man was brought back who was not benefited 
by the trip, which, of course, necessitated considerable exposure to the winds 
and weather, the direct rays of the sun, change in diet, and other hardships. 

The equipment of the army, state militia, and Marine Hospital Service, 
which was carefully studied and gone over by us, we do not consider as complete 
for all-round scientific work as our outfit. 

It contained all the drugs and instruments usually taken on such an ex- 
pedition and in addition many unusual remedies and appliances for eye and 
ear work, nose and throat treatment, skin diseases, etc. A very complete bac- 
teriological equipment was also included, consisting of all the latest stains for 
bacteria, and over two thousand tubes of different media, including fifty fer- 
mentation tubes for differentiating between the various dysenteries, typhoid 
fever, and other diseases. There were also provided a number of Erlenmyer 
flasks of bouillon for blood culture work, and the anti-toxins of diphtheria, 
lockjaw, pneumonia, erysipelas, etc., with a quantity of vaccine virus. Living 
cultures of typhoid fever, Malta fever, the Shiga bacillus from Japan, the 
Flexner bacillus from the Philippines, and other d3'senteries for comparison 
and blood tests, were also included. A large quantity of malted milk was 
presented by Horliclc's Food Company, of Racine, Wisconsin, and Eskey's Al- 



390. SANITARY CONDITIONS 

buminised Food by Smith, French and Kline, of Philadelphia. Parke, Davis 
and Co., in addition to furnishing anti-toxins, presented the medical staff 
with several ounces of acetazoue, the new remedy used with such success 
recently in the various enteric troubles. Last but not least, we took a very 
complete library of medical books and journals, and a thousand or more printed 
cards for taking histories and keeping a record of the bacteriological and 
urinary examinations made on the trip. 

As the intention was to conduct free clinics on shore, this mass of material 
was so arranged that it could all be represented for the most part in two large 
chests designed for the occasion and which could easily be removed from the 
ship. These chests which were called separately the medical and surgical 
chests, were made especially for the Expedition, of hard-wood fiber, carefully 
braced and hinged with steel. The trays and drawers of these chests were so 
numbered, that as soon as one or more parts were empty they could be filled 
from stock boxes having a corresponding number, and hence avoiding useless 
delay in searching for the case wanted. 

Two microscopes, both equipped with oil immersion lenses, were taken with 
us. A formaline apparatus, large enough to disinfect our ship or any houses, 
should this be necessary, was included in the outfit. We had especially pre- 
pared a medical commode in the form of a box, which could be readily carried 
on shore and which also contained an agate-ware douche-pan, bed-pan and 
urinal. A small chest in which the histories of patients could be carefully in- 
dexed and another containing all the bacteriological stains and appliances 
pertaining to the bacteriological work were kept in the laboratory on shipboard. 
In addition, there were some 10 or 13 boxes of stock material from which our 
supplies could be replenished as they became exhausted from the portable 
chests, and an extra surgical trunk for carrying basins, lanterns, hatchets, 
hammers, saws, etc., for making additional splints and appliances should it be 
necessary. 

METHODS OF WORK. 

Before starting on the Expedition the vessel which had been chartered in 
Baltimore, was carefully disinfected by a formaline apparatus and scrubbed 
down with eastile soap and water, and a strong solution of bichloride of 
mercury. This was done not only for the protection of the members of the 
Expedition, but also to render our bacteriological work less difficult, as the 
chances of contamination of our media was much lessened under such cleanly 
conditions. On the way out to the Bahamas a complete examination of each 



THE BAHAMA ISLAKDS 391 

member of the Expedition, including the crew, was made and recorded, in order 
that if any of the party showed physical wealcness or poor health, proper precau- 
tions could be immediately taken. 

In order to facilitate our work among the natives we adopted the follow- 
ing method. As soon as we came to anchor at a settlement, the medical outfit 
■was carried on shore, and a temporary free dispensary was quickly established 
in a convenient building (Plate LXVI, Fig. 2). At Spanish Wells the use of 
an unoccupied house was accorded us, while at Gregory Town the authorities 
dismissed the school and turned the building over to us. While a portion of 
the medical staff was engaged in making preparations for a clinic, several men 
were sent throughout the village spreading the tidings that the doctor had ar- 
rived and was prepared to give free consultations and dispense medicines with- 
out charge. It was our universal experience that for the iirst hour of our visit, 
there was little response, but after a few of the more courageous people had 
presented themselves for treatment, the more timid would come to us in crowds, 
complaining of all sorts of troubles, and begging to be relieved. The longer 
we worked in a settlement the more the natives seemed to throng about, until 
finally, when the time came to leave and go aboard the ship, we were often 
obliged to pack up our outfit with great difficulty, force our way through the 
crowd, and literally tear ourselves from the settlement. Even then the more 
determined individuals would jump into boats, follow us out to our vessel 
(Plate LXXIII, Fig. 1), force their way on board, and beg to be treated. In 
other places where a clinic on shore was not practicable, we would hold one on 
board the ship, where the cabin and a large portion of the deck was roped off 
to receive patients. It was, of course, impossible to treat all who applied, and 
the more desperate and interesting cases were selected, although a large amount 
of attention was given to patients suffering with ordinary diseases. Under such 
conditions it would have been impossible to accomplish anything without 
system. One of the assistants therefore selected from the crowd the most in- 
teresting or desirable cases; another would note, on cards prepared for the 
purpose, the family and personal history of the patient as well as the history 
of the present illness. A third assistant toolc samples of the blood and pre- 
pared slides for microscopic examination, while others were at hand to do any 
special work necessary. Mr. Gillmore was present to take photographs of some 
of the more interesting cases, in order to preserve records which could not 
otherwise be obtained. As fast as the cases were prepared, I would examine 
them and either operate or prescribe the treatment which seemed necessary. 



392 ■ SANITARY CONDITIONS 

IMPORTANT DISEASES ENCOUNTERED. 

B}' far the greater proportion of diseases treated in the varioiis dispensa- 
ries were of the commoner sort. We, however, were on the alert to select for 
special study the more important cases which every now and then presented 
themselves; and it is to these cases that I wish to call particular attention, 
although I shall have something to say regarding the less important diseases. 

Tuberculosis. 

A disease which of course must always receive most careful consideration 
in any country is that of tuberculosis, the great white plague, which has 
existed for so many years in every latitude. As the Bahamas have often been 
recommended as a health resort, especially for pulmonary conditions, this is an 
important question. Personally, I consider the climate of the Bahamas a 
favorable one for tubercular conditions, especially that type of pulmonary 
tuberculosis (phthisis florida. or galloping consumption), where there is a 
rapid softening and breaking down of the lung tissues. In such eases 
J living in high altitudes is apt to be dangerous. Of the many patients visited, 
examined, and treated at the various clinics on shore and on the vessel's deck, I 
do not remember seeing a single case of " galloping consumption." but tlie 
several cases which came to our notice, all belonging to the fibroid or chronic 
type (phthisis fibrosa), in which there was generally a history of some years 
duration, and physical examination showed pleural thickenings and fibroid 
conditions. Hemorrhage seemed to be much less common in these cases than 
in tuberculosis patients of the United States. 

' We did not encounter many cases of tuberculosis in other parts- of the 
body. A case of hip disease in a little girl at Tarpum Bay, Eleuthera, and one 
or two patients with scrofulous glands and scars of old abscesses, were the 
only exceptions. We did not meet with a single instance of lupus or tuber- 
culosis of the skin. The ordinary bronchial and catarrhal troubles, such as 
i asthma and corizas which are of such frequent occurrence in the United 
[ States, are extremely rare in the Bahamas. In fact the members of the 
I Expedition were much surprised at the amount of exposure they could undergo 
' without contracting the slightest cold. Although my companions were fre- 
quently wet to the skin and at times, especially during rough weather at sea, 
were obliged to sleep in damp clothing, there was but one case of sore throat 
developed, and this was exceedingly slight and of short duration. We were 
all surprised at the amount that one could use the voice, either in singing or 
shouting, without the slightest fatigue of the vocal organs. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 393 

f I can, without hesitation, assert that the climate of tlie Bahama Islands is 
t well adapted for selected cases of pulmonary troubles, and if the natives who 
suffer from pulmonary tuberculosis could be placed in a suitable hygienic en- 
vironment and be supplied with proper food, their chances of recovery would 
be excellent. 

Venereal Diseases. 

Syphilis. — We did not see many cases of syphilis, although the physicians at 
the various islands which we visited told us that they met with about the usual 
number, which was generally brought to the natives by sailors from foreign 
vessels. The few cases I saw showed tertiary manifestations, and did not 
appear to be, considering their poor treatment, especially virulent. It is prob- 
able that the amount of syphilis is very much overestimated, as many cases, 
thought by the natives to be such, proved on examination to be simple varicose 
ulcerations or chronic eczemas, etc. In view of the fact of the large amount of 
degeneracy and locomotor-ataxia found among these Islands, it is rather inter- 
esting to note the small proportion of syphilitic cases. In most instances where 
the conditions of degeneracy, locomotor-ataxia, and other defects of the nervous 
system, were studied, we were able to get a history covering several generations, 
and were surprised to find but little syphilis. This question will, however, be 
taken up again later under the chapter on degeneracy. 

Gonorrhea. — ^We were informed that there was about the usual amount of 
gonorrhea that one might expect to find. I met with a few cases of bladder and 
prostatic affections which were probably due to this source. On some of the 
islands this disease can easily be spread, as the relation of the sexes is most 
promiscuous and probably a large proportion of the children born are illegiti- 
mate. We met with a fair number of cases of gonorrheal ophthalmia, which in 
one or two instances were most pitiful, as they had received practically no 
treatment. 

Malaria. 

We were unfortunate in the time of the year for the study of this disease, 
the cases usually not appearing, so I was told, until the end of July, from which 
time on until the winter months they are quite prevalent. Although we ob- 
tained a number of histories of former chills and fever, probably dating only 
a few months back, surprisingly little malaria was encountered. 

We did not feel justified in puncturing the spleens of any of these natives, 
as our visits were usually so short that we could not follow the effects of such 
procedure. 



394 SANITAEY CONDITIONS 

After frequent microscopic examinations, I finally discovered at Clarence 
Harbor, Long Island, in the blood of three natives undoubted crescent and ovoid 
forms of the ffistivo-autumnal malarial parasite. 

The malarial parasite in all instances showed the finely granular pigment 
closely collected at the center of the crescent, and corresponded to the type of 
subtertian variety figured by Dr. Patrick Manson'-in his work on tropical 
diseases. 

The fever in these cases was of the irregular remittent type. The pa- 
tients were prostrated, showed large spleens, had more or less pigmentation 
of the skin, and, in the more severe cases, a fever of 104 degrees and over. The 
patients from whom we removed the parasites were in a fair condition of 
nourishment. I believe that malaria is fairly prevalent in these Islands at the 
height of the autumn months and a number of the natives show evidences of 
malarial cachexia although having no parasites in the circulating blood. 
Strange to say, the Anopheles mosquito was singularly absent, as is shown in 
another part of this volume. 

Ehedmatism and Lumbago. 

Chronic rheumatism and lumbago, owing to the exposure to which the 
natives are subjected, is quite prevalent. Almost all the older people com- 
plain of misery in their back and legs. We did not, however, meet with a single 
case of acute inflammatory rheumatism among all the piatients treated and 
I do not believe that this is a very common disease among these Islands. 
Neuralgias and myalgias, however, are quite common. 

Gastric and Intestinal Troubles. 

Owing to the poor quality of food on which The people of the Bahamas 
subsist, it is not surprising to find a considerable amount of stomach and 
intestinal troubles. This, however, does not seem to be of a very severe ty])e, 
and is associated more with feelings of discomfort in the abdominal region, 
than with any especial pain. We found in a few settlements some acute 
diarrhea, which was usually due to an over-indulgence in tropical fruits, and 
did not present any typhoidal or infectious characteristics. On one of the 
islands we found a small boy with acute dysentery. This, however, was of 
short duration, and owing to the fact that we had only time to remain On the 

' Tropical Diseases, p. 73. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 395 

islands a few hours, it was imjjossible to make au)' bacteriological examinations. 
In my opinion, if the nature of the food products could be improved, the 
Bahamas would be quite free from intestinal troubles. Not a single member 
of our own Expedition contracted dysenterj' and no case of diarrhea lasted 
over a day, although many of my companions were imprudent in their diet and 
exposure to the sun. 

We made a number of chemical and bacteriological examinations of the 
well and cistern water at Nassau, and found that in some instances they 
showed contamination from sewerage. 

Diseases of the Eye. 

One cannot travel among the Bahamas without being struck with the 
numerous diseases of the eye met with everywhere throughout the Islands. 
Owing to the intense actinic properties of the sun's rays in these regions and 
the extreme degree of reflection of light from the surface of the blue waters 
and white coral sands, it is not surprising that such is the case. Without 
exception, almost all the adults whose occupations required them to expose 
themselves on the sea and seashore showed conjunctivitis, pingueculoi, ptery- 
gium-growths, iritis, etc. 

One is impressed with the great number of cataracts which usually appear 
to accompany middle or old age. It was pitiful to see neglected so many cases 
of ripe cataract which could easily have been operated on with every possibility 
of restoring sight. 

At Hopetown, Abaco, we found a number of cases of congenital blindness 
due to atrophy of the optic nerve. In one family alone there were three broth- 
ers, nearly of the same age, who had been blind from birth (Plate LXXIIT, 
Pig. 2). One of these boys later came to Baltimore to ascertain if anything 
could be done for his condition. After a careful examination by both Dr. 
James J. Mills, a specialist in the Eye Department of the Johns Ho]jkins Hos- 
pital, and myself, we found that the condition of the eyes was one of pigmentary 
retinitis and choryditis, associated with optic nerve atrophy, which is a rare 
condition and is stated by the authorities to result chiefly from consanguineous 
marriages. 

This patient was only one of a large number of individuals residing at 
Hopetown who have suffered from the effects of too close intermarrying. A 
description of this interesting community is given below. In conclusion I may 
say that the Bahamas offered a rich field for the investigator of eye diseases, 

/' 



39G SANITARY CONDITIONS 

and any oculist who cares to spend a few weeks among these unfortunate people 
would find his labors amply rewarded. 

FiLARIASIS. 

While at liassau, Mr. Beasley and I made several visits to the hospital at 
midnight for the purpose of examining the blood of patients for Filaria. We 
were fortunate enough to discover one of these embryonic parasites in a man 
wlio liad recently been received from Long Island, Bahamas (Plate LXXVIl). 
This parasite, which is a minute, transparent little worm and is usually found 
wriggling about in a state of great activity, was in this instance motionless, 
and we were inclined to believe that it belonged to the species Filaria diurna, 
which is active only in the daytime, whereas the species Filaria nocturiia is 
generally only active at night, and found in the peripheral circulation at this 
time. Some credence was given to this belief by the fact that the specimen 
which was motionless at night, later, on the following day became active and 
was seen to be struggling in the field of the microscope, lashing the red blood 
corpuscles about in a furious manner. However, subsequent examinations 
from the blood of the same patient showed active parasites at night, and we 
were inclined to think the species was that of Filaria noclurna, and that the 
man by sleeping during the day favored its appearance in the circulation 
at that time. On measurement, these embryos were found to be about J„ of 
an inch in length by 55'jTj of an inch in diameter, or about the diameter of a 
i;ed blood corpuscle. We discovered only one other case of filariasis during 
our cruise in the Bahamas and that was at Hopetown, Abaco. The patient was 
a little boy. Only one specimen of his blood was obtained, after which the 
youngster, who was evidently frightened, disappeared and could not again be 
found. We only discovered one case of elephantiasis. This was in an old 
colored woman at Current Settlement, Eleuthera, who had an involvement of 
the leg of moderate grade only, but gave a history of similar conditions in her 
family. This case will be discussed later. 

We obtained numerous specimens of this filarial parasite. Of all the 
stains used the most successful was the soda eosin methylene blue stain, pre- 
pared according to the formula of Dr. Wright of Boston. Under the low power 
it appeared to be without structure, and seemed to be enclosed in a delicate 
shealh in which it moved backward and forward. This sack or sheatli was 
longer than the worm it encloses. About the posterior part of the middle third 
there was an aggregation of granular material ; this ran for some distance in the 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXVI 




Fig. 1. — siioKE clinic at current settlement, eleuthera 




Fig. 2. — tempokaey dispensary at cltrrent settlejient, eleuthera 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING SANITARY CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 397 

axis ol the worm. Under high power a very delicate transverse striation coidd 
be detected throughout the entire length of the animal. The body seemed to be 
composed chiefly of closely packed minute cells, enclosed in a transverse, 
striated, musculo-cutaneous cylinder. 

By careful focusing it was found that the head end contained a six- 
lobed prepuce, and while the parasite was alive a very thin fang could be de- 
tected, which stood out from the extreme end, when this prepuce was inflated. 
The Filarice belong to the class of worms called Nematodes, and are three or 
four inches in length. The sexes live together, and frequently are very closely 
packed about one another. The female Filaria is the larger, both in length and 
thickness. The two uterine tubes occupy the longer diameter of her body and 
are filled with ova at various stages of development. In both sexes the moutli 
end is slightly tapered. The vagina opens not very far from the mouth and 
the anus just in advance of the tip of its tail. The male worm is character- 
ized by being much more slender, by its marked tendency to curl and its pecu- 
liar, sharply incurved tail. 

Ordinarily these worms lie in the lymphatic vessels of the body, and are 
productive of no especial symptoms with the exception, in the common variety, 
of the enil)ryonic Filarice appearing in the peripheral circulation at night. 
Under certain conditions, however, elephantiasis nrabum has been produced 
by the plugging up of the lymphatic circulation. In cases of elepliantiasis 
tlie embryo Filarice are never found in the blood. The reason for this, appeai-s 
to be that the embryo of the Filariw, which are supple, slim, and actively moving 
organisms, can readily pass through the small lymphatics and vessels, but in 
case of injury to the adult female worm, in place of giving birth to these 
embryos, aborts and lays the eggs, which are usually attached inside of her 
body, and being oval Ijodies nearly five times the diameter of the embryo, they 
are quite incapable of traversing the small lymphatics, and hence plug tlicm 
up. This stoppage not only prevents any embryos which may subsequently be 
born from reaching the peripheral circulation, but also causes the afl:ected part 
to swell. This theory is substantiated by the cases of elephantiasis which 
develop in countries where the Filaria is so commonly found in the blood after 
injury. 

Recently and chiefly tlirougli the work of Dr. Patrick Manson," mosquitoes, 
especially the species Culr.r fdlicjaus and Anopheli's nigrrriinus. have been 
shown to be an important intermediary host of the Filaria norlurna. If fed on 

- Tropical Diseases, pp. .555-55(5. 



398 SANITAEY CONDITIONS 

the blood of a person who has Filarice in his circulation, the blood examined in 
the stomach of the mosquito will show living Filarice. After a time as the blood 
becomes concentrated in the stomach of the insect the embryo Filarice wriggle 
out of the sheaths in which they were contained, and become much more 
active, moving from place to place. Later on, these sheathless parasites dis- 
appear from the blood in the stomach of the mosquito and are found in the 
thoracic muscles of the insect. Here they undergo a metamorphosis in al)out 
16 to 20 days, in which time they develop a mouth, a peculiar three-lobed tail, 
and increase to about one-sixteenth of an inch in length. 

They now leave the thorax by the pro-thorax, and entering the head of 
the mosquito, coil themselves up close to the base of the proboscis. Dr. Ban- 
croft of Australia has shown that the Filarice find their way into the proboscis 
and it is in this way, probably, that it eventually comes into the lymphatics of 
the human being. 

The parasite may remain in the interior of the labium of the mosquito 
according to Manson for sometime, awaiting an opportunity to enter the 
host, but the exact nature of the process by which the Filarice emerge from 
the proboscis of a mosquito, has not been determined. Introduced into the 
human body it finds its way into the lymphatics and there attains its sexual 
maturity. 

Elephantiasis. 

We found but one case of this interesting affection in the Bahamas, and 
this was at Current Settlement, Eleuthera. The case was that of an old 
colored woman beyond middle age with a well-marked but not excessive en- 
largement of the left leg, especially from the knee down. This enlargement 
was uniform and the skin of the leg was not especially indurated or thickened, 
but she gave a history of attacks of inflammation of the skin of the leg at 
different times in her life, accompanied by considerable pain and burning 
sensation. From her history it was evident that this condition had been 
present in some of the other members of her immediate family. The case was 
a mild one. 

Whether this disease was due to filariasis or not, it would be difficult to 
determine, not finding any such conditions in this settlement, but we presume 
that it was of this nature. 

With this exception, no other cases of elephantiasis were noted among 
these Islands, althougli, in past years, several cases have been admitted to the 
hospital at Nassau. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 399 



Leprosy. 



One of the most important diseases which we studied in the Bahamas 
and which was especiallj' interesting to us on account of its rarity in this 
countrj' was that of leprosy. This disease is rapidly becoming, and in fact 
already is, quite prevalent among the Bahama Islands. With the exception 
of a lazaretto at Nassau, the government has provided no means of isolating or 
caring for the people suffering with this horrible affliction, and it is for the 
purpose of bringing this matter to the attention of the authorities that much 
of the discussion in this chapter has been undertaken. 

Forms of Leprosy. 

There are two chief forms of leprosy, one called the tubercular form, 
lepra tuberosa or tuberculosa, and the other the anesthetic or maculo-an- 
esthetic. 

Tubercular Leprosy. — This is characterized by the growth of granulation 
tissue in a nodular manner or as profuse infiltration of the skin, of mucous 
membrane with resulting disfigurement. The disease usually starts with the 
appearance of erythematous patches attended by some fever and followed by 
small nodular thickenings in the skin especially of the face, backs of the hands 
and feet, and extensor aspects of the arms and legs. These nodules enlarge 
and produce great distortion of the surface so that an appearance is given to 
the face which is described as the leonine fades (Plate LXX). This thicken- 
ing is chiefly in the cutis of the skin, and the epithelium becomes stretched 
over the nodules to such an extent that an oozing surface is developed or 
actual ulceration takes place. The eyes, mucous membranes, mouth, larynx 
and pharynx are the seats of similar nodular growths. The internal organs, 
especially the liver, spleen and testicles, may become affected secondarily. The 
changes in all situations are characterized by a chronic inflammatory condition, 
accompanied by abundant growths of granulation tissue, in which tissue a large 
proportion of the cells are rounded or oval in shape and may be of quite a large 
size showing vacuolation with vesicular type of nucleus. These cells are 
spoken of as " lepra cells." Periarteritis is a common change and very fre- 
quently the superficial nerves become involved in the nodules and atrophy. The 
tissue in the leprous lesions is vascular when young, and never shows caseation 
as in tuberculosis. Lepra cells may contain several nuclei but do not resemble 
the giant-cells in tuberculosis. 

Anesthetic Leprosy. — The changes here are in the nerves with resulting 



400 SANITARY CONDITIONS 

anesthesia, paralysis of the muscles and troi^hic disturbances. In the early 
stages the patient complains of pains along the nerves, and patches occur on the 
skin of considerable size, the margins of which show a congestion. Later 
these patches become pale in the center but the margins remain pigmented. 
After a time remarkable trophic changes appear in the skin, muscle and bones. 
The skin becomes atrophied like parchment and skin eruptions as hullm, 
etc., as in pemphigus, often appear. Great distortion of the extremities may 
occur with necrosis and separation of parts. The lesions in the nerves are of a 
chronic inflammatory nature but with less granulation tissue than in the case 
of tubercular leprosy. This is probably due to the fact that fewer bacilli are 
found in the anesthetic type. (Plate LXXI.) 

Bacillus of Leprosy. 

The bacillus of leprosy was observed first in leprous tissues by Hanson 
in 1871, and further researches were made by Neisser in 1879. This bacillus 
has not with certainty been grown artificially, although recently Dr. L. Alvarez 
believes he has gotten slight growths on blood serum. The leprous bacilli are 
practically the same size as the tubercle bacilli and resemble them both 
in appearance and staining reactions. They take up the basic aniline stains 
rather more readil}' than the latter^ but in order to stain them deeply a powerful 
stain such as carbol-fuchsin is necessary. They resist discolorization, but less 
so than the tubercle bacilli, as it requires but about 5 per cent sulphuric 
acid solution to remove the carbol-fuchsin. The best method of staining them is 
to use the Ziehl-Keelson carbol-fuchsin stain, and then Gabbet's methylene 
blue solution with only one-half the strength of sulphuric acid in this 
solution as is used in staining the tubercle bacilli. Dr. Alvarez never suc- 
ceeded in finding decolorized bacilli in old tubercles or ulcerations. They 
were found only in recent eruptions or nodules and are probalily the young 
or active bacilli, while the bacilli which liold the stam are probably old and 
inert. He states that this discovery may serve to explain the many failures 
in producing evidences of culture on artificial media. 

Dr. Arning who conducted numerous experiments relative to the resisting 
power of the leper bacillus in tissues showed that it resisted the extreme con- 
ditions of temperature and moisture conducive to the development of putre- 
faction, even when put aside for a considerable length of time." 

' Report on Leprosy in the Hawaiian Islands, Nov. 29, 189S. Letter from 
the Surgeon-General of the Marine Hospital Service, etc. Senate Doc. No. 269, 
57th Cong., 1st session, pp. 106-107. Reprinted from Public Health Reports, Decem- 
ber 30, 1898. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 401 

Transmission of Leprosy. 

Although the bacillus leproi is generally accepted as the cause of leprosy, 
the conditions under which it develops and invades the human system are 
still unknown. Some have asserted that leprosy is inherited; others, that it 
is tiansmitted by contact ; while there are not a few who hold that the disease, 
if not directly caused by a fish diet, is at least aggravated by too great a pro- 
portion of this food. 

In regard to this last point, the observations of Dr. A. W. Irlitt,' who has 
spent several years among the lepers of India, are of special interest. Dr. 
Hitt says that the Kabirpauthis of India, who abstain as a rule from the use 
of meat show the largest ratio of lepers per 10,000 of any religious sect in 
India, while the Jains, who always abstain from the use of animal food show 
next to the smallest ratio. His observation would seem to argue against the 
theory of a fisli diet. But Dr. Hitt also concludes that nothing is gained by 
classifying these patients according to their religioiis caste which allows only a 
certain kind of diet, for the Christians and Mohammedans, who eat meat and 
live on a mixed diet, show a higher ratio of lepers, while the Siklis, who also 
live on meat and a mixed diet show a lower ratio. 

As a matter of his own observation. Dr. Hitt says fish alone will not affect 
a leper, neither will milk alone, but when given a mixed diet of fish and milk 
the ulcers enlarge and the patient grows worse. Why this is the case is un- 
known. He believes that the lack of food or some other carise that has a tend- 
ency to lower Ihe vitality will act as an important factor in the cavisation of 
leprosy. In his paper he also gives an interesting table that shows an increase 
in the number of lepers proportionate to the amount of rainfall. 

Although the theory that leprosy is transmitted by contact lacks final 
proof, there is a growing conviction that such is the case. Owing to the long 
period of incubation of this disease as well as to the fact that it appears to 
be confined to the human race, experiments become difficult and uncertain. 
For instance. Dr. Arning, while investigating leprosy for the Hawaiian Gov- 
ernment, inoculated a man named Kenan, a condemned criminal, with leprous 
tissue on September 30, 1884. In 1887 the criminal had developed leprosy. 
The flaw in this experiment was that Kenan had a nephew who died of leprosy, 
wliicli made it possible that the disease I'an in the family." 

Any one who has examined a fragment of leprous tissue under the niicro- 

^ Loc. cit., p. 86. 
" Lac. cit., p. 10.5. 
26 



402 SANITARY CONDITIONS 

scope and has seen it teeming with myriads of bacteria, must admit it possible 
that leprosy is transmitted by contact. And this possibility becomes well nigh 
a certainty when it is considered that this tissiie on ulcerating and sloughing 
liberates these bacteria in countless millions to attach themselves to whatever 
objects come within their reach. Vast qriantities of bacilli are unquestionably 
eliminated from the skin and from the nasal and buccal mucous membrane of 
lepers. It is therefore very probable that every leper is a danger to his sur- 
roundings, the amount of danger varying with the nature and the extent of 
his relations therewith, and also with the sanitary conditions under which he 
lives. 

Surgeon D. A. Carmichael in Iiis report on leprosy in the Hawaiian Is- 
lands ° speaks of kissing, nose rubbing, cohabitation, and reception of the secre- 
tion on abrasions of the surface of the skin or by inhalation, deglutition, or 
transmission by insects as possible methods of coinmunication. Probably one 
of the most common sources of contagion is through improper vaccination and 
uncleanly shaving. The common house-fly, mosquito and bed-bug in all prob- 
ability also transmit leprosy, for Dr. Alvarez, leprologist of the Hawaiian 
government, found leprous bacilli in the bodies of mosquitoes which had 
alighted on the open sores of lepers.' 

Treatment of Leprosy. 

In regard to the treatment of leprosy in India, Dr. Hitt ' says that chaul- 
moogra and gurgan oils seem to be favorites, especially when the chaul- 
moogra oil is used as an inunction. Arsenic, in early stages, is sometimes of 
service. Iodide of potassium is also good in some cases. General and surgical 
cleanliness is, of course, absolutely essential, but if the idccrs are healed too 
quickly, unless an alterative is given, the temperature of the patient is likely 
to go up to 102 or 104 degrees and his general condition suffers. He prefers 
the iodide of calcium given in combination with bromide of calcium and 
syrup of sarsaparilla. He also gives ichtliyol internally in tubercular cases 
beginning with 10 drops and increasing gradually until a drachm is taken at 
a d.ose. Bathing is considered very necessary and m some cases the water is 
slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. Patients suffering from tlie anesthetic 
type should not bathe in the same baths with those suffering with the tubercular 

" Loc. cit., p. 95. 
'Lac. cit., p. 106. 
"Loc. cit., p. 89. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 403 

type. In some cases where the ulceration is verj' extensive, Dr. Hitt ° recom- 
mends a dusting powder, nosophen (tetraiodophenolplitalein). Unna recom- 
mended applications of pyrogallol, chrysarobin, resorcin and ichthyol. It is 
also an important fact that serum therapy has so far been unsuccessful. 

In view of the virtual incurability of leprosy and the detrimental effects 
which its existence in the community causes, and in consideration of the good 
results which have followed the adoption of legal measures of isolation in 
Norway, the International Leprosy Convention which met at Berlin in 1897, 
adopted the following resolutions." 

First. — " In such countries where leprosy forms foci or has a great exten- 
sion we have the best means of preventing the spread of the disease." 

Second. — ''The system of obligatory notification, observation and isola- 
tion as carried out in Norway, is recommended to all nations with self-govern- 
ment and a sufficient number of physicians." 

Third. — " It should ho left for the legal authorities after consultation 
with the medical authorities to take such measures as are applicable to the 
special social conditions of the districts." 

The above report of the Secretaries of the International Leprosy Confer- 
ence unquestionably shows that in the opinion of the highest medical authorities 
of the world leprosy is a contagious disease. 

Btaiiis of the Leper in the Bahamas. 

There is no question that leprosy is prevalent among the Bahama Islands. 
I personally examined and studied a number of cases and heard of a still greater 
number which lack of time and opportunity would not permit me to investi- 
gate. The condition of many of these unfortunate people is wretched in the 
extreme, and is in itself a matter which should demand prompt attention on 
the part of the authorities. But what shall be said of the other aspects of the 
question when I state that public opinion is so lax that not only is little done 
to ameliorate tlie condition of the lepers, but they are actually allowed to run 
at large through the communities in which they live and associate freel}' with 
their fellows? 

We were much surprised at the indifference displayed toward this 
disease, especially among the ignorant natives, for we often found a leper 
living in tlie same house with apparently healthy individuals, without the least 
concern being expressed or shown by the other members of the household. 

" Loc. cit. 
'" Log. cit., p. 4.3. 



404 SANITAEY CONDITIONS 

At Nassau, on the same grounds as the other hospital buildings, there is 
a small building set aside as a lazaretto where lepers are confined at their own 
volition (Plate LXVIII, Pig. 1). Aside from this one asylum, there is abso- 
luteh' no provision for the care of people afflicted with this loathsome and 
disgusting disease. Jloreover, the arrangements in this lazaretto are out of 
date and thoronghl}^ inadequate. Owing to the fact that in the Bahamas the 
water supply is derived from wells and cisterns, the opportunity for cleanliness 
among such patients is not of the best, and I did not see that it was possible 
to be otherwise under the present arrangements. 

Recommendations Regarding Leprosy. 

In view of what has been said above, I deem it my duty to urge the 
people of the Bahama Islands to arouse themselves and grapple with this 
disease without delay, and as an aid to this end I submit the following 
recommendations : 

First. — As there is no known eui-e for leprosy, the victims of this disease 
should be diligently sought out and isolated from their fellows. 

Second. — Two islands should be set aside, one for the detention of sus- 
pected cases of leprosy, and the other for the permanent isolation of patients 
in which the disease has made itself fully manifest. 

Tliird. — These islands should l^e thoroughly and amply equipped with the 
most modern facilities for coping with the disease and for contributing to the 
comfort of the unfortunate victims. 

Fourth. — In the asylum set apart for the pronounced cases of leprosy, 
the two types could be detained in different enclosures and studied and treated 
separately. 

The climate of the Bahamas is well suited to the establishment of such 
asylums, and they could be maintained for less expense than similar ones in 
other regions. 

I cannot help feeling that unless some measures are taken in the near 
future to meet this deplorable condition that the commercial relations between 
the United States and the Bahama Islands may be seriously impaired, especially 
when the authorities in this country are aware of the actual conditions in the 
Bahamas. 

One often has to see the worst in order to act for the best, and I feel sure 
that a thorough investigation of the matter by the authorities of the Bahamas 
would be productive of radical measures to stamp out leprosy from these 
Islands. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXVII 




Fig. 1. — VIEW of ijnfirmaky, Nassau 




Fig. 2. — view of iio.si'itai,. .nassal 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING SANITARY CONDITIONS 



thk bahama islands -jos 

Yellow Fever. 
We did not meet with a single case of j'ellow fever during our cruise among 
the Bahama Islands. In fact, no cases of yellow fever have been reported in 
the Islands for the last fort}- years. Mr. CofRu, however, in his investigation of 
the mosquitoes found that the yellow fever mosquito, Stegomyia fasciata, was 
present in most localities where the Expedition stopped. The absence of yellow 
fever, therefore, is not due to the lack of favorable conditions for spreading the 
epidemic, but to the watchfulness of the authorities and the well organized 
quarantine service. The only protection against this dread disease to the var- 
ious communities living in the Bahama Islands is a prompt and complete isola- 
tion of any cases of yellow fever which may in the future chance to appear in 
their midst. 

POLYDACTYLISM. 

Although we only observed one instance of this interesting condition, we 
learned that it was quite common in the Bahamas. The case we saw and 
studied was that of a full-blooded negro, Samson Booker (Plate LXXII, Pig. 1) 
by name, who lived on the island of Andros. The interesting feature in his 
case was the perfect symmetry of the right hand and foot, although the hand 
possessed an extra little finger (Plate LXXIX, Fig. 2), and the foot an extra 
little toe (Plate LXXVIII, Fig. 3). Indeed, so perfect was the formation of 
the hand, that one would scarcely notice any abnormality unless the fingers 
were actually counted. The left hand and foot showed only a rather rudi- 
mentary little finger (Plate LXXIX, Fig. 1) and little toe. At one of the 
other islands we were informed that there was a man who had seven fingers on 
one hand and a former resident of Hopetown, Abaco, the so-called " three 
thumbed Jack," was celebrated from the fact that he had three thumbs on each 
hand. 

Polydactylism, which is congenital in many cases, seems to be hereditary. 
Most frequently the extra toes or fingers are placed symmetrically on both 
hands and feet. Usually there is but a single digit on the side of the little 
finger or toe, though more rarely the thumb, and much less often the great 
toe is doubled. The development may be complete even to an extra metacarpal 
or metatarsal bone, or it may be more or less imj)erfect, and is often little 
more than a rudimentary nodule connected with the side of the phalanx. 
When perfect, it is most often attached at a greater or less angle to the end of 
the metacarpal or metatarsal bone of the normal finger or toe. At times the 
connection with the hand or foot is by fibrous bone of varying length and 



406 SANITARY CONDITIONS 

firmness. Occasionally the extra digit is so closely joined, that it is contained 
in the same common envelope of skin. It can be amputated at any time, but 
it is best to remove it shortly after birth. If the hand or foot are completely 
formed, as in the case of the right hand and foot in the illustration, an 
operation is unnecessary. 

AiNHUM OR EiNG-TOE. 

This disease usually appears first as a small groove on the inner and 
plantar surface of the base of the little toe and gradually deepens and extends 
around the whole circumference until the toe is separated from the rest of the 
foot. In the meantime the distal portion of the toe is apt to swell up to con- 
siderable size. (Plate LXXVIII, Fig. 1.) This may occur on one foot or on 
both feet simultaneously. The fifth or little toe is most frequently affected, 
next in order the fourth, very rarely the third, second or great toes. But cases 
have been reported where all the toes have been involved and the disease has 
extended to the leg. Usually this condition is without especial pain, though 
in one or two cases a considerable amount of shooting pain was complained 
of, extending up to the foot; especially when the toe was bruised or struck 
against anything. 

We found the natives very anxious to part with the members thus dis- 
eased, and, in fact, occasionally brought about a more rapid amputation 
by the use of string. Almost invariably, under ordinary precautions, the 
stump heals up without any bad results. The general condition of health does 
not seem to be a determining factor in this peculiar disease. 

Ainhum is most common in males and rare in women and children. We 
saw a number of cases of this interesting disease while in the Bahamas, and 
found it chiefly confined to pure blacks, although, occasionally, occurring in 
mulattoes. 

Kothing is known concerning the etiology of this disease. By some it is 
considered a trophic nervous affection, or a form of sclerodermia, while 
others recently have suggested a relationship with anesthetic leprosy. Pos- 
sibly irritation and wounds from going barefoot may be a factor. An 
interesting case of ring-toe in a colored boy of seven who had also developed 
tubercular leprosy on his left cheek was brought to our attention. (Plate* 
LXX, Fig. 2.) 

We amputated a number of ring-toes and brought them back with us for 
study, with a view of staining, especially for lepra bacilli. Sections of these 
toes showed considerable development of the fatty parts, especially of the sub- 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 407 

cutaneous fat, with fatty degeneration of the boue and other tissues. The 
bone is usually considerably absorbed. At the seat of constriction the epithelial 
layers are greatly hypertrophied with atrophy of the papillary layer of the 
skin. Below this is a band of fibrous tissue very thick and dense. The nrost 
careful staining by several methods failed to show a single lepra bacilhis. 

We were struck with the tendency of this disease to run for several genei-- 
ations in the same family. From the fact that a number of persons so affected 
complained of rheumatic and sciatic pains, as well as from the tendency of this 
disease to run in certain families, it would seem that some trophic condition 
of the nervous system was the most likely explanation of its origin. 

The best treatment of this disease is, in the early stages, to make trans- 
verse sections or cuts along the line of constriction, and later, if this first 
method fails, to remove the affected toe. 

Talipes or Club-foot. 

We were considerably interested in the numbers of cases of this condition 
we saw and heard about during our medical studies in the Bahamas. They 
were generally of the congenital variety or talipes equino-varus, and usually 
affected both feet. As to the cause of this condition, there has been much 
speculation. It has been attributed to uterine pressure, to intra-uterine disease 
of the cerebro-spinal axis with resulting paralysis and arrest of development. 
It is not seldom associated with other malformations of the head, face, spine, 
abdominal wall or pelvis. We were interested to note the influence of heredity 
in this condition as demonstrated in a family at Hopetown, Abaco, where the 
condition ran for two generations in the family of Capt. Samuel Malone. It 
appears that both of his grandchildren by one son were born with congenital 
club-feet. The births in both cases were normal, and the father and mother 
physically and mentally were rather above the standard of the community. 
We did not see instances of the other forms of this condition, as for instance 
talipes equinus, talipes calcaneus, or talipes varus, but all the types we met with 
were of the congenital or equino-varus. 

Locomotor- Ataxia. 

We were especially impressed with the number of cases of locomotor- 
ataxia found among the people of the Bahamas. This interesting disease which 
is comparatively rare in the United States is unusually prevalent among these 
Islands. At the hospital at Kassau, during 1902 and 1903, twenty-two cases 



408 SANITARY CONDITIONS 

were treated, eleven each year ; and in the female ward of the same institution 
we saw a case in a girl only nineteen years old, which is a very early age for this 
disease. At Spanish Wells, out of 150 jDeople examined, we found eight cases 
of'locomotor-ataxia, and a thorough examination of the entire population would 
have doubtless revealed more. At a number of other islands we found addi- 
tional cases of this disease, always present in propoi'tions abnormally large 
when compared to other afflictions. 

These cases showed typical symptoms of the preataxic, ataxic, and paraly- 
tic stages of the disease. The symptoms complained of were usually lightning 
pains, ocular aberrations, as for instance Argyll-Kobertson pupil, in which 
there is a reaction to light but not to accommodation, optic atrophy, the loss 
of the knee-jerks, characteristic ataxic walk, paralysis, etc. 

In view of the small proportion of syphilitic cases in the communities 
where locomotor-ataxia is prevalent, it would seem that some other factor than 
syphilis must be considered the cause of this disease. From my studies in 
the Bahamas, I am inclined to think that poor conditions of life, bad sanitation 
and hygiene, exposure to the wind, weather, and salt water, together with con- 
sanguineous marriages, must be regarded as important etiological factors. 
When it is remembered that many of the people who are now suffering with 
locomotor-ataxia have formerly been fishermen, boatmen and sailors, who have 
engaged in diving for sponges and have remained in the water for hours at a 
time, the possi ble reaction of this condition of life on the nervous system should 
not be neglected. 

Pesplands or Flat-foot. 

Flat-foot, owing to the habit of long standing with bare feet in the 
water, and general poor nutrition of the people, was so common as to be 
almost a normal condition among the poorer classes in the Bahamas. An 
extreme degree of this condition is in the Bahamas endured with little or no 
complaint, which in a more civilized community would be productive of 
considerable pain and loss of function. 

Boils, Carbuncles and Infections. 

Infections occasioned by neglect, occasionally assumed alarming propor- 
tions among the natives. There is a variety of infection following puncture, 
usually of the hands, by the sharp end of the leaf of the sisal plant, which is said 
to become chronic and exceedingly difficult to heal. There seems to be some 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 409 

possibility that a poisonous condition is produced in the wound by the juices 
of the plant, but whether this is so or not I am not prepared to say. 

In a number of instances we also noticed some chronic sores of the hand, 
which followed the picking or handling of pineapples. 

Abscess of various parts of the body, especially of tlie jaws from defective 
teeth, were found very prevalent. In fact, the condition of the mouths of 
most of the natives past middle age was generally very bad, the teeth seeming 
to decay and disintegrate very rapidly. This is piobably due in a great 
measure to the poor food, with resulting indigestion, and also to poor condi- 
tions of living. 

Taking into consideration the rough nature of the coral rock, over which 
these people so frequently walk and transport tlieir belongings, accidents and 
injuries of various kinds seem to be very few and far between. 

Degeneracy. 

One of the most interesting problems which the medical stafE was called 

\ upon to investigate was that of degeneracy. Individuals who had evidently 

1 reverted to conditions both physically and mentally lower than that of tlieir 

j immediate ancestors, were frequently met with throughout the Bahamas; but 

I there were two settlements where these conditions seemed particularly well 

1 marked. One of these was Spanish Wells, George Island, and the other 

Hopetown, Abaco. We visited both of these places, and to the latter gave 

special study. 

History of Spanish Wells. 

\ Spanish Wells was supposed to have been settled by pirates, who refused 
to mingle with the surrounding negroes, and as the number of white people in 
the settlement was limited, close intermarrying resulted. The consequences 

■^of this practice are evident in the present condition of the inhabitants. Here 
iwe found an abnormally large proportion of locomotor-ataxia, and eye diseases, 

\ including cataracts, Pingueculae and pterygium-growths. We examined one 
dwarf woman 69 j'ears of age (Plate LXXII, Pig. 1), and were told that there 
had been several other dwarfs in the settlement, some of whom had died re- 
cently. We noticed, also, that the mental acumen of many of the inhabitants of 
this place was rather low. The condition of these people, although bad enough 

I was very much better than that of the inhabitants of Hopetown. 



\^ 



410 SANITAET CONDITIONS 

History of Hopetown. 

^ At Hopetown tlie evidences of degeneracy were more abundant and marked 
and consequently to this place more attention was given. Hopetown is a settle- 
ment of about ]000 pure whites and 13 colored people. As the two races have 
not intermingled appreciably, our study was rendered much more simple on 
account of the absence of mulattoes. In brief, the history of the colony is as 
follows : 

Wyannie Malone, a widow and a Tory sympathizer, not wishing to remain 
in the United States after the close of the Kevolutionary War, changed her 
residence from Charleston, South Carolina, to Hopetown, Abaco, in 1785. 
She brought with her four children, Ephraim, David, Sarah, and Wyannie. 
Walter Malone, one of the children, died in South Carolina. Sarah ran away 
with the captain of a whaler and was lost track of. The other three children 
married and settled down at Hopetown. Ephraim mdrried Elizabeth Tedder 
of Harbor Island. David also married a woman from Harbor Island, while 
Wyannie, the daughter of the widow Malone, married Jacob Adams of South 
Carolina, who had accompanied them in their migration. From this stock 
most of the present inhabitants of Hopetown have descended, and the names of 
Malone and Eussell are constantly met with throughout the settlement. 

Explanation of Chart. 

With the aid of Eev. R. C. Johnson, a clergyman in the settlement, and 
Captain Samuel Malone, one of the old inhabitants of the village, Mr. Gill- 
more and I were able to construct a diagram of the Malone family showing the 
lines of descent since the appearance of widow Malone in the settlement. In 
order to study intelligently this family tree, which is shown on Plate LXXVI, a 
word or two of explanation may be necessary. The lines of descent start from 
the right-hand side of the diagram, with the name widow Wyannie Malone. 
To the left, her five children are placed, two of whom disappeared from the 
settlement, while the marriages and descendants of the other three who re- 
mained are indicated. Next, or to the right, are shown the descendants of the 
grandchildren of the widow Slalone, and their marriages are in turn indicated. 
In this way the descent runs progressively towards the left. In the early 
history of the settlement " Old " John Albury, of Harbor Island, and ISTathaniel 
Key, of St. Augustine, Florida, settled in Hopetown. As they were already 
married when they arrived in this settlement, they brought in new blood, but 
their offspring in a short time closely intermarried with, the descendants of 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 411 

widow Malone, so that the relationship between the three families became very 
close. The family charts of Nathaniel Key and " Old " John Albury are 
introduced in the general diagram immediately above the legend. It will be 
noticed that only a few of the descendants of widow Malone are indicated as 
having married. By this it is not meant that the others did not marry ; many 
of them did, but they moved away and settled elsewhere, and in no way affected 
the future history of the settlement of Hopetown. Only those marriages are 
indicated in which the children remain and lived to intermarry in the settle- 
ment. The red lines on the chart connect the same individuals, and are intro- 
duced to facilitate the reader in tracing relationship. They indicate at a glance 
the enormous amount of intermarriage between the various members of the 
Malone, Eussell, Albury, and Key families of Hopetown. In order to further 
aid the reader, diseases and abnormalities are printed in red and are placed 
directly under the name of the individuals afflicted. It will be seen at a glance 
that early in the history of the Malone family these indications of degeneracy 
were absent; but they began in the fourth generation and rapidly increased 
afterward until they culminated by the presence of five idiots in one family. 
The original stock was apparently excellent, but the present state of the 
descendants is deplorable. A few of the more striking cases of disease and 
degeneracy at Hopetown will now be discussed. 

Special Cases of Degeneracy. 

Leprosy was introduced into this settlement in the third generation 
through the marriage of Elizabeth Malone, daughter of Ephraim Malone, to 
Charles Sands of Cherokee Sound, Abaco, who subsequently died of leprosy. 
Three of his children, Charles, Uriah, and KomeJda had leprosy. Romelda 
married Octavius H. Dorsett of Nassau. One of their children, Charlotte 
Dorsett, developed leprosy and died of the disease. These facts would seem 
to favor the theory that leprosy is transmitted by inheritance, but the same 
facts might with equal force be presented to uphold the theory that leprosy 
is contagious. The two lepers now living at Hopetown, Francetta and Ab- 
salom Malone (Plate LXXI, Figs. 1 and 2), are not directly related to the 
family just described. 

In the family of William Albury who married Elizabeth Tedder, two 
children out of four are deaf and dumb. Another interesting ease is the 
family of Joseph Malone. Joseph married Virginia Malone; their daughter, 
a little girl of 7 years, is a congenital idiot and the father has developed 



413 SANITARY CONDITIONS 

locomotor-ataxia in the ataxic stage. Benjamin C. jMalone, son of August 
Malone and great-grandson of the original Bphraim Malone, was another con- 
genital idiot (Plate LXXV, Figs. 1 and 2), of a somewhat lower type than the 
little girl just described. In addition he showed flaccid paralysis of the left 
arm and hydrocele of the scrotum. 

In the family of William Alonza Russell, we found three cases of congen- 
ital blindness, in three robust young men, ages 33, 23, and 17 (Plate LXXIII, 
Fig. 3). These boys were born blind and on examination showed the very 
faintest light perception. As has been said, one of the boys came to Baltimore 
the year following our visit, and we were able to make more thorough investiga- 
tion into the condition of his eyes. He was taken to the office of Dr. J. J. Mills, 
an eye specialist connected with the Johns Hopkins University, who kindly ex- 
amined his eyes for me and diagnosed the condition as one of optic atrophy, 
associated with a pigmentary retinitis, and choryditis. This condition is one 
stated by the authorities to be due to the effects of consanguineous marriage. 

In another family, mentioned above, that of Mrs. Sawyer, we found that 
out of eight children, five were idiots. Two of these, who were women fully 
grown, ages 40 and 27' (Plate LXXIV, Fig. 7), were carefully studied and head 
measurements taken. Their cephalic indices were normal, and with the excep- 
tion of showing rather broad palates, and in one instance extreme protrusion of 
the front teeth, nothing unusual anatomically was detected. They represented, 
nevertheless, an extreme degree of idiocy, and were just able to articulate 
slightly, say " yes " and " no," and express their wishes in a slight degree. 
An interesting point in the history of these girls was the insanity of their 
aunt, Mrs. Russell, who lived in the house with them and suffered from 
chronic melancholia. The mother of these two girls (Plate LXXIV, Fig. 3), 
seemed to be a fairly sensible individual, in spite of the harrowing fact that 
so many of her children were born idiots. In regard to whether these children 
showed mental defects when very young or some\A'hat later, I could not be 
perfectly certain. The mother said that " all of them appeared stupid as 
early as she could recollect." 

I was impressed with the information given me that child-birth is a great 
danger to the women of Hopetown, and that many die as a result from some 
abnormality taking place during confinement or labor. 

Cause of this Degeneracy. 
From a careful consideration of the facts just mentioned I am strongly 
of the opinion that the deplorable state of degeneracy which we observed at 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXVIII 




Fig. 1. — VIEW of lazaretto at Nassau 










Fig. 2. — VIEW of typical home or colored PLorLE 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING SANITARY CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 413 

Hopetown has been in a great measure, if not entirelj', brought about by too 
close intermarrying of the inhabitants. In the case of lower animals, to be 
sure, it has been found that interbreeding is not productive of disastrous results 
if the original stock is good, and all abnormalities are excluded. Although 
many authorities hold that this law applies as well to the human species as to 
the lower animals, I cannot conclude that close and continued intermarriage 
among human beings is unattended with evil results, for we can never be 
certain that the same conditions are followed in the reproduction of the human 
species as are enforced in the breeding of animals. The organization of the 
human being is so complex, and the nervous system so delicately balanced, that 
it is difficult, if not absolutely impossible, to establish a human type, and to 
\ agree as to what constitutes good human stock. Nothing is more difficult than 
to iind a perfectly normal man or woman, and if we cannot agree as to what 
iconstitutes a noi-mal type, how are we to decide as to what constitutes an 
^abnormality ? In a sense, a genius is as abnormal on the one hand as an idiot 
'on the other, and it is impossible to draw a line between a being with normal 
mental capacity, and one which is slightly below the standard. 

One cannot conduct artificial experiments on the human race similar to 
those carried on with lower animals. Except within very narrow limits, 
marriages are not regulated by law, and therefore abnormalities, if they 
occur, cannot well be eliminated. The volition of the interested parties is 
practically the only check on the propagation of abnormal types. As the 
selection of a companion is not based on scientific but on sentimental grounds, 
and the field of the observation of most men is small, the great majority 
select their life partners from a comparatively limited acquaintance. The 
smaller and more isolated the communitj^, the more restricted will be the 
horizon of the individuals who compose it, and the closer will be the inter- 
marrying. If the laws governing the descent of lower animals are identical 
i with those governing the descent of the human race, the conditions under which 
/ they act are far diilerent. In restricted communities, then, an abnormality or 
a disease will tend to be perpetuated, exaggerated and concentrated. 

In Hopetown we have an ideal illustration of what a small and restricted 
community of human beings will do. Here is an experiment conducted l)y 
ISTature, as it were, to show what will result from close intermarrying, where 
the volition of the interested parties is the only check on marriage. Mar- 
riages here are largely determined by propinquity, with the result that close 
intermarrying without the elimination of abnormalities has been productive of 



414 SANITARY CONDITIONS 

a shocking condition of degeneracy. For all i^ractical purposes, then, it would 
seem, as the rules for the breeding of lower animals cannot be enforced 
among human beings, that close intermarrying should be rigorously avoided. 
As a factor in producing abnormalities, one must not neglect poor living 
and liygiene which are common at Abaco, but the factors of syphilis and 
alcoholism seem to be eliminated from this instance, for a case of alcoholism 
is rare, and of the large number of individuals I examined, I did not detect a 
single case of syphilis. 

Recommendations Regarding flopetown. 

The question arises as to what can be done to relieve the condition of these 
unfortunate people at Hopetown. At once the idea of bringing in new blood 
suggests itself. Owing, however, to the fact that leprosy is present in the settle- 
ment, the carrying out of this suggestion might be productive of evil to the 
new blood introduced, especially as we are ignorant of the manner in which 
leprosy is transmitted. On the other hand, there is no reason to believe that the 
people, if left to themselves, will do in the future otherwise than they have 
done in the past. Future generations will sink to even a lower state of 
degeneracy than at present. To leave a community to gradually exterminate 
itself by intermarrying would seem to be worse than running the risk of pro- 
ducing an occasional leper. It might be well, therefore, for the people of the 
Bahama Islands — First, to empower the proper authorities to remove and 
isolate from the settlement all lepers and all whom they have reason to suspect 
may in the future develop leprosy ; second, to remove all idiots and degenerates 
to an asylum; and third, after this has been accomplished, to introduce new 
blood among the inhabitants. 

TREATMENT. 

Before gi^'ing a brief summary of the methods employed by the medical 
staff in treating the various diseases cited above, it will be interesting to 
describe some of the remedies used by the poorer natives in the outer islands. 

One of the plants, which is boiled and the decoction used for the dressing 
of wounds, is called " cat-tongue " by the natives. Another plant, the white- 
bush, belonging to the croton family, was used in kidney troubles, and another, 
called " snake-root," not identified, used in malaria. ^Ye also found on 
these Islands specimens of the " jumby " bean. This bean, when oaten by 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 415 

mules or horses, causes the hair of the mane and tail to fall out, giving a ratlier 
remarkable appearance to the animals, who have been so unfortunate as to luive 
the bean as a diet. 

r At some of the islands, we found hanging to various fruit trees, fantastic- 
ally draped bottles and sticks, which, we were informed, were charms to frighten 
away thieves and evil spirits. This superstition, called " Obiism," is quite com- 
mon in the outer islands. It is believed by the negroes that if any one but the 
rightful owners should eat the fruit from a tree on which this spell has been 

! placed, he will swell up and burst. We were not fortunate enough, however, 

1 to see a demonstration of this remarkable effect. 

Our own treatment of the natives, which has been somewhat outlined in 
the previous pages, consisted first, in operations of various kinds when these 
were not of such a nature as to call for a prolonged halt of the Expedition, 
and second, in the administration of various appliances and drugs adapted to 
the conditions encountered. In a number of instances where the children 
or the older people were afflicted with stomach disorders, we would leave a 
liberal supply of malted milk, albuminized food, and other medicines, such as 
gentian, dilute hydrochloric acid, etc., with directions for treatment, in the 
hands of competent persons, such as the minister or better informed people 
in the community. In the cases of nervous disorders, we employed the usual 
remedies, such as strychnia, arsenic, iron and iodide of potash; in malarial 
fevers, quinine; in the enteric troubles we were especially pleased with the 
action of the new remedy, acetazone, and also employed various other intestinal 
antiseptics, such as lead and opium pills ; in lung diseases we used various cough 
mixtures, and especially liked liquid peptonoids and creosote. As a general 
rule, the hypophosphites with iron, quinine and strychnia were the most- 
serviceable. Constipation was relieved with the usual remedies, such as 
calomel, pills of aloin, strychnia, and belladonna, and in the case of the 
members of the Expedition I found the compound rhubarb pill of the British 
pharmacopeia to be the most serviceable, for the reason that the rhubarb lias 
a slightly astringent action after its purgative effect and is not liable, for this 
reason, to start up a diarrhea which cannot be stopped. For the various in- 
testinal worms, santonin and male fern were employed. 

GOVERNMENT HOSPITALS. 
It must not be concluded from the preceding discussion that the people 
of the Bahama Islands are doing nothing to relieve the afflicted in their midst, 



416 SANITARY CONDITIONS 

for such is not the case. There is at Nassau a Avell conducted hospital and 

insane asyhim, an ahnshouse. and a hizaretto. Through the courtesy of the 

physician in charge, Dr. L. D. Parsons and his assistant, Dr. J. J. Cuhncr. T 

was permitted to examine tliese institutions and to study many of the inmates. 

According to the official report for 1903, the following diseases were treated 

in the hospital at Nassau : 

Measles 1 

Malaria 8 

Tuberculosis 30 

Tubercular leprosy 5 

Anesthetic leprosy 4 

Primary syphilis 7 

Secondary syphilis 9 

Tertiary syphilis 15 

Alcoholism 5 

Rheumatism 15 

„ i, r Non-Malignant 7 

New Growths J , 

\ Malignant 5 

Anemia 4 

Old age 19 

Neuritis 3 

Myelitis 3 

Apoplexy 2 

Paralysis 8 

Diseases of the eye 11 

Diseases of the ear 3 

Diseases of the nose 2 

Diseases of the circulatory system 30 

Diseases of the respiratory system, other than tuberculosis. 26 

Diseases of the digestive system 49 

Diseases of the urinary system, males 27 

Diseases of the urinary system, females 10 

Diseases of the organs of locomotion 11 

Diseases of the cellular tissue 22 

Diseases of the skin 7 

Local injuries 31 

Poisons 3 

Parasites 2 

At the end of the year the hospital had 40, the lunatic asylum 39, the alms- 
house 40, and the lazaretto 8 inmates. (Plate LXVII and Plate LXVIII, 
Fig. 1.) These institu-tions are supported at the expense of the government. 
There are no private wards and treatment is free. Practically all of the cases 
mentioned in the list were from the poorest class of inhabitants on the Islands, 
and required a eertifieate, usually that of their minister, before they could gain 
admission to the institution. 



HISTORY OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, WITH A 

SPECIAL STUDY OF THE ABOLITION OF 

SLAVERY IN THE COLONY 



27 



HISTORY OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, WITH A 

SPECIAL STUDY OF THE ABOLITION OF 

SLAVERY IN THE COLONY 



BY 

JAMES M. WRIGHT 



INTRODUCTION. 



Investigation of the histor)- of the Bahama Islands has been almost entirely 
neglected. Abundant materials for such a stud}- are in existence, but, except 
for a pamphlet entitled Tlie Bahama Islands; Notes on an Early Attempt at 
Colonization, by J. T. Hassam, efforts to present the substance of these mate- 
rials to the public have been lacking. Numerous short sketches of the Colony 
have been given in histories, and accounts of travels in the West Indies, such 
as Edwards' and Coke's histories, McKinnen's Toui' of the West Indies, Fronde's 
Boiv of Ulysses and G. J. PI. Xorthcroft's Sketches in Summerland. 

The history of the Bahamas presents many interesting problems. Among 
them, perhaps the most important, is that of the social elevation of the negro 
population. When Great Britain attempted to ameliorate the condition of 
these people she dealt with her West Indian possessions as if they were one 
bod}', and applied the same measures to all of them, notwithstanding the fact 
that many of their interests were actually divergent. This problem of amelior- 
ation in the successive stages of proscription of the slave trade, the regulations 
of the institution of slavery, and the transition to freedom through the appren- 
ticeship system, was a living issue for many y6ars, while the latest pliase of 
the question, to wit, the education of the liberated negro, continues to be of 
the utmost importance to the people of the Bahama Islands. 

The author of this paper, who was a member of the Bahama Expedition 
of the Geographical Society of Baltimore, spent the summer of 1903 at 
Nassau collecting materials on the history of tlie Bahama Islands, and the 
results of his researches are here presented. 

The despatches of the Governors and the Secretaries of State for the 
Colonies contain much information of great value, but there are certain gaps 



420 HISTORY 

in the records. Kone of those of the former, and only an incomplete file of 
the latter, for the period before 1829, are to be found in the archives of the 
Bahama government, althongh thej^ are nearly complete after that time. The 
Governors' despatches are lacking also for more than a year in the period of 
the apprenticeship system.' 

The author wishes to acknowledge the kindness of His Excellency, Sir 
Gilbert T. Carter, the former Governor of the Bahamas, of his Secretary, Mr. 
H. S. Gladstone, of Mr. S. H. 0. Clutsam, custodian of the records of the 
House of Assembly, and of other officials of the government, in granting him 
access to the public archives, and in furnishing him information that could not 
be gained from the records. Acknowledgments are also due to Professors John 
M. Vincent and W. W. Willoughby and Dr. J. C. Ballagh, of the Johns Hop- 
kins Universit}', for counsel and criticism in the prosecution of this study. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE BAHAMAS PRIOR TO THE NINETEENTH 

CENTURY. 

The landfall of Cohimbus on his first voyage to America was one of the 
Bahama Islands. The question as to whether it was the present San Salvador 
or Watlings Island on which he first set foot is still a matter of controversy, 
and from evidence that has been brought to light it would seem that the dis- 
pute can never be definitely settled.'' But this coincidence, interesting though 
it is, influenced little the later history of the Bahamas. At the time of the 
discovery the Islands were inhabited by Indians who received the name 

'The chief sources used in writing this were: 
Votes of the House of Assembly. 
Votes of the Council (on the Legislative side). 
Despatches of Governors to Secretaries of State for the Colonies. 

(1829-1849). 
Despatches of Secretaries of State to the Governors. (1815-1849). 
Jliscellaneous Letters gf Governors. (183S-1851). 
Royal Gazette (Newspaper published at Nassau). 
Session Papers of Parliament. 

Relating to Slavery and Abolition, 1831-2, 46; 191, ff, and 297, ff; 
loc. cit., 20, questions No. 2811 to 2863; also 1836, 49 and pp. 
502-547. 
Relating to Land System and Apprenticeship, 1839, 35, 143, pp. 1-42; 
loc. cit., 37, 487, pp. 1-20. 
Annual Register. 
Bahama Statutes. 
' See discussion of this question by Fox in an article entitled " Attempt to 
Solve the Problem of the First Landing Place of Columbus in the New World," in 
U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey Revts., 1880, vp. SliG-Jfll. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



7R. 




THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXIX 



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U: 
""'■^'.^l' 







73 



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H 



1 — I 
Q 



a 



K 

Ph 



O 

Ph 
P 
O 
PS 
CD 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 421 

of " Lucaj'ans." Subseqixently the Siaaniards came and enticed them aivay, 
or forciblj' deported them, to end their miserable lives in slavery in 
'iSpanish mines at Hispaniola and elsewhere. It is said that the Spaniards 
(returned again and again to the Bahamas to kidnap the Indians until, the 
Usknds were completely depopulated of their native inhabitants, and left 
jdesolate. This may be too strong a statement of the case, but it is certain 
'ijthat there are no Lucayan Indians living in the Bahamas to-day, nor are 
, there any traces of Lucayan blood to be seen in the present inhabitants. The 
Indian as an element in the population has completely vanished, and the only 
trace of his former existence in the Bahamas is the occasional discovery of 
Lucayan bones in lonely caverns scattered throughout the archipelago. Most 
of these remains have found their way to various museums in America, but a 
nearly perfect skull is now on exhibition in the Library at ISTassau. A glance 
at this skull (Plate LXXX) will show that the Lucayan Indians possessed con- 
siderable cranial capacity, although they practiced artificial flattening of the 
head.^ 

Another thing that attracted Spanish adventurers to the Bahamas was the 
fabled Fountain of Youth reputed to be located in or near them. The aged 
Ponce de Leon, who was guided to the Bimini Islands in 1513, actually bathed 
in a fountain there but was forced to turn away a disappointed man, without 
the restoration of his youth which he so much desired. 

The title to the Lucayan Islands, as the Bahamas were first called, 
which was given to the Spaniards by the Pope, was not left undisputed. 
English sea-rovers haunted the West Indies in order to prey on Spanish com- 
merce, and pirates who early resorted to these waters and rapidly increased 
in numbers, found among the keys of the Bahamas, havens of retreat where 
they could easily elude the clumsy Spanish galleons. 

In 1578, Queen Elizabeth granted Sir Humphrey Gilbert a title to lands 
in these parts not occupied by subjects of any other Christian power. Sir 
Humphrey included the Bahamas in this grant, although he made no attempt 
; to settle them. But on October 30, 1629, another grant including the Bahama 
; Islands was made by the sovereign of Great Britain, this time to Sir Eobert 
Heath, the Attorney-General. A few colonists were sent out under this patent 
and a settlement was formed on New Providence. This settlement was ill- 
fated, for the island was visited in 1641 by a force of Spanish seamen and 

^ For further discussion of Lucayan Indian remains, see paper by Prof. W. K. 
Brooks, Oh The Lucayan Indians, National Academy of Science, Vol. IV, pp. 215-222, 
Pis. I-XII. 



■123 HISTORY 

the small band of Englishmen was captured and carried awa}'. The place wa's 
then taken possession of by the Spaniards and held for about twenty years. 

In the meantime, while the Spanish were still in possession of New Provi- 
dence, a band of religious exiles, driven out from Bermuda, sailed southward 
to the Bahamas in 1649 and founded a settlement on the island of Eleuthera. 

The colony at New Providence die] not attract a large number of settlers. 
It had a small force of defenders, generally less than fifty in number, and was 
consequently a prey for the spoiler. It was taken from the Spaniards in 
I June, 1666, and Major Samuel Smith was sent from Jamaica with a small 
force to hold and govern it in the name of the King of England. The Span- 
iards assailed it again but without success and it continued in the hands of 
the English. Sir James Modyford, a brother of the Governor of Jamaica, was 
commissioned as Governor of the Bahamas in 1666. 

The efforts to colonize these Islands had thus far had meager result.-^. 
Little had been done to secure peace and safety. A more dignified' effort 
was authorized by Charles II in 1670 when he granted- the Lords Proprietors 
of the Carolinas a charter for the establishment of a government in the 
Bahamas and charged them to give tliesc Islands the same kind of government 
as the Carolinas. Captain John Wentworth was made Governor in 1671 with 
instructions to choose a Council which should propose bills to the local parlia- 
ment for passage. He was further instructed to permit no person either to 
cut braziletto wood without license except on his own estate, or to coast for 
ambergris or wrecks, or fish for whales without license. In the following year 
the new Governor complained to the Governor of Jamaica that his colony of 
five hundred souls had been left without the means of protection, and that the 
Proprietors had issued no commands to hiui about it. He also asked for sup- 
plies from Jamaica. The need of more adequate defenses was shown in Janu- 
i ar}', 1684, when a number of Spanish ships from Havana under Juan de Larco 
•i captured and plundered the town of Nassau. 

It would seem that the Spanish were not without provocation for this 
descent upon Nassau, for one Eobert Clarke, who was Governor at the time, 
acting without authority from London, had issued commissions to privateers 
to prey on Spanish commerce. As soon as this insubordination was discov- 
ered in London, a successor was sent out with instructions to arrest Clarke and 
send him back to England for trial. But England was too late. Lilburne, 
the new Governor, was attempting to check the evils resulting from the con- 
duct of his predecessor when the Spanish appeared and sacked the town. The 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS ' 433 

Spanish were now thoroughly angered. To their minds there were two reasons 
why Englishmen might be preyed upon : first, they were despised as heretics, 
and second, they liad no rights in these seas and territories granted to Spain 
by the Pope. 

Under such conditions trading became hazardous in the Bahamas and no 
Englishman could venture near them without a convoy. Protests were of no 
avail. The Spanish Governor-General at Havana only sent back defiant mes- 
sages when appeals were made to him to put an end to the depredations. But 
the Spanish were not long to enjoy the possession of New Providence. Tlie 
English Governor was soon restored, and, with his return to Nassau, a new 
period of piracy was ushered in. 

Buccaneering was indulged in freely by the inhabitants of the place. 
For brief periods, to be sure, during the next thirty years attempts were 
made to preserve law and order, but without avail, as so large a number of 
the population was engaged in piracy or at least in sympathy with it, that it 
was not possible for the government with the force at its command to stamp 
it out. A law-and-order governor was intolerable to the rovers. If he would 
not join in, or at least connive at, their conduct, he would be taken pi'isoner 
and held by the pirates. In 1703-4, when a combined French and Spanisli ■ y 
expedition took the settlement by surprise and carried away the principal 
inhabitants to Havana, the pirates reigned with a freer hand than ever before." 

Piracy with this settlement as a base became such a menace to the com- 
merce passing through these waters that merchants in Great Britain pressed 
upon George I to put a stop to it. The Lords Proprietors, who had so pooi-ly 
succeeded in their enterprise, surrendered their control of the civil government 
to the Crown, and in 1718 Captain Wooden Rogers, a hardy and fearless sea- \ 
man, became Governor of NassaiT. He restored order, punished or drove out 
the buccaneers and made the place a respectable one in whicli to live. He was 
supported with forces sufficient to establish his control, and with funds to make 
fortifications for security against invaders. The Colony prospered from this 
time, attracting numerous settlers, among whom was a company of German 
Protestants from the Palatinate. More extensive fortifications were undertaken 
in 1738 under the direction of Peter Henry Bruce, of the engineer corps of 
the Royal Navy. He has left an interesting account of his work here in his 
memoirs." 

*Northcroft, Sketches of Summerland, pp. 274-282. 
^ Memoirs of Peter Henry Bruce, 



434 HISTORY 

' In 1775, Commodore Hopkins, of the new American navy, captured Nas- 
sau, evidently expecting to secure possession of tlie stores of powder deposited 
tliere. Failing in this, owing to the vigilance of the Governor, he sailed away 
a few days later taking the Governor and a few others as prisoners of war. 
Only a small force of defenders remained throughout the remainder of the 
American Eevolution. 

In 1781 the Spaniards appeared at Nassau again, defeated the British, 

V and kept a large garrison there for nearly two years. After the conclu- 
sion of the treaty of peace between Great Britain and Spain in 1782, 
but before it had been announced in the Southern States, an expedition 
organized by Loyalists from the Carolinas and Florida took Nassau from the 
Spaniards. This expedition was undertaken as a private enterprise by Major 
,/ Andrew Deveaux and Captain Daniel Wheeler. A few recruits had been 
picked up at Harbor Island and several vessels that were met on the way 
joined with the party. By this small party, of not more than 225 men, the 
Spanish Governor was taken by surprise and induced to surrender a force 
nearly three times its size. Deveaux took possession with a garrison of fifty 
men and sent part of the Spaniards to Havana. 

Upon the separation of the Thirteen Colonies on the continent from Great 
Britain many of their inhabitants preferred to remain British subjects rather 
than become citizens of the States. The unpleasantness of their situation 
among the successful revolutionists was increased by the bitterness of the latter 
toward them. For these and other reasons many emigrated from the States 
to territory that still remained British. This exodus was encouraged by the 
favorable conditions offered to those who wished to settle in the Bahamas. Ves- 
sels were also provided by the Crown to bring to the Colony all who desired to 
leave the Southern States for British territory. On September 10, 1784, in- 
structions were issued to Lieutenant-Governor Powell to grant unoccupied 

i lands in the Bahamas as follows: To every head of a family forty acres, 
and to every white or black man, woman or child in a family, twenty acres, 
at. an annual quit rent of 2s. per hundred acres. But in the case of the 
Loyalist refugees from the continent such lands were to be delivered free of 
charges, and were to be exempted from the burden of the quit rents for ten 
years from the date of making the grants. At about this time Governor Patrick 
Tonyn of east Florida gave public notice in that province that the last vessel 
transport would leave the port of St. Marys, Florida, on March 1, 1785. He 
advised all persons of English blood to leave Florida for the Bahamas before 
the Spanish Governor took possession. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 425 

It was uot, liowevei', without regret that some of the Loyalists left tlie 
continent. Fears were expressed that the Islands were not as prodiTctive as 
they were represented to be. It was a choice between the evils and dangers of 
living under Spanish rule and going to a colony whose resources were doubtful. 
Man}', however, chose the latter, and came over, bringing with them their i. 
slaves. The white population of the Bahamas was doubled by these immi- 
grants, and the negro popiilation was nearly trebled. Many of the new-'| 
comers were cotton planters. These set to work at once with their -slaves 
clearing lands and planting crops, and soon brought the Colony to some im- ' 
portance as a producer of cotton. 

On the part of the older native inhabitants of the Colony there was a . 
prejudice against the unfortunate exiles. Governor Maxwell was not above 
sharing in these feelings, and yielding to them in his official conduct. He 
was therefore disliked by the refugees. Upon his departure from Nassau an 
address of regret at his leaving was presented to him. It was alleged that the 
Loyalists acquiesced in the sentiments expressed in it. The spokesman of the 
latter, however, disavowed any connection with the address, and this denial 
was approved by a meeting of the Loyalists. They found abuses existing both 
in the laws themselves and in the administration of them. Some of the stat- 
utes, they said, were repugnant to the laws of the mother country. They 
accused the Governor of attempting to deny to them the right of trial by jury, 
a right which they considered as belonging to every Englishman in any British 
territory. They also accused the Governor of further oppressive and tyran- 
nical conduct towards them. They demanded reforms, and claimed to have 
effected a reform in the administration of justice. , The legislature was under 
the control of the native inhabitants. The election of 1785 had occurred 
before the Loyalists had begun to assert their power and they were in the 
minority in the House of Assembly. The Lieutenant-Governor, being un- 
favorable to the cause of the Loyalists, would not dismiss the Assembly and 
call another. Therefore the desired reforms could not be brought about. 
Several members of the House who were favorable to the refugees withdrew 
from the House rather than acquiesce in siTch conduct as that in which it in- 
dulged. The Hovise required the attendance of some of them, and when they 
still persisted in their refusal to sit in it they were declared incapacitated for 
holding seats in that body. 

When John, Earl of Dunmore, became Governor in the latter part of the 
year 1786, he too came under the influence of the same party that had sup- 



436 HISTORY 

ported Governor Maxwell, and did not respond favorablj' to the appeals oC 
the Lo3'alists, who had now become the stronger party in the Colon}'. There 
was a general desire that the Assembh' shonld be dissolved and a new one 
called. Petitions asking for this came to the new Governor from New Provi- 
dence, Exuma, Abaco and Cat Island. In 1785 a like petition from the 
Loyalists was read in the House of Assembly. That body immediately or- 
dered the document to be burned by the common hangman before the door 
of the' House, as the majority of the existing Assembly was favorable to the 
policy of the Governor. The latter listened to the petitions of the Loyalists, 
deliberately considered them and replied that he did not consider it expedient 
to dissolve the Assembly. He persisted in his refusal and at the close of his 
administration the Assembly called in 1785 had endured almost nine years. 
i/<. After the departure of Dunmore from the government an act passed the 
legislature limiting the duration of a legislature to seven years, in order to 
obviate such a difficulty as that which the Earl of Dunmore had brorrght upon 
the Colony. 

In 1787 the Lords Proprietors of the Bahamas surrendered tlieir title to 
the lands of the Bahamas to the Crown on the payment of £3000 to each of 
them. The granting of lands and the collection of the quit rents became 
rights of the Crown. The quit rents were poorly collected at this time, and 
after the close of the eighteenth century they fell still further into arrears. 

Although the Colony was prosperous for a number of years owing to the 
great stimulus given to it by the new immigrants, this prosperity was not 
destined to be permanent. The soil, which at best was thin, was exhausted of 
V its strength by the middle of the first decade of the nineteenth century. Its 
value decreased, and with it passed away a great part of the value of the 
slaves that had been employed upon it. Some of the planters now emigrated 
with their slaves before the prohibition was laid on the exportation of slaves 
from British colonies. The restrictions on the holding and working of slaves 
were gradually tightened. Attempts were made to secure the right to emi- 
grate with them, but no relaxation in these restrictions occurred. The inter- 
est of Bahama slaveholders had thus to suffer owing to the necessity of enforc- 
ing a uniform system of regulations against the slave-trade. 

With this brief notice of the early history of the Colony we will now turn 
our attention to a more minute study of the conditions which brought, such 
hardships to the slaveholders of the Bahamas. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 4-27 

AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF THE SLAVES. 
Abolition of the Slave-Trade. 

In all of the West Indian colonies of Great Britain the slaves gradiially 
increased until they composed the greater part of the population. Early in 
the history of each it had been discovered that the employment of slave labor 
was profitable, owing to the favoring conditions of soil and climate. Tlu' 
enterprising English merchants of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
realized this, and also saw the opportunity of making great gains by supplying 
the settlements and plantations with the much-needed labor. The slave- 
trade, Avhich began to meet this demand, grew to great proportions until it 
reached its height in the latter half of the eighteenth century. The trade in 
its mildest form was a barbarous illustration of man's inliumanity to man ; 
nevertheless it was fostered under various guises by royal courts, and in 
addition to the lucrative returns to both trader and planter, the alleged im- 
provement in the condition of its victims w^as pvit forward in its justification. 
The scenes where it was carried on were far removed from tlie mass of tlie 
English people, and the actual conditions under which it flourished were not 
well known outside of a very limited circle, until late in the eighteenth cen- 
tury, when the inquiring minds of the reformers began to investigate this 
trade as one thing that demanded their attention. Agitation against tlie 
slave-trade was begun and kept up, gradual accessions being made to the ranks 
of the reformers, until at the close of the Napoleonic period the -whole world 
began to feel the influence of their labors in behalf of the negro. Public men 
of weight and influence were numbered among the enemies of the trade, and 
their demands for reform could be heard in the Cabinet, in the Houses of 
Parliament and throughout the country. For tlic British Empire the slave- 
trade had been abolished in the year 1807. Attempts had been made to make 
that abolition effective, but great difficulties had to be met and overcome. 
Nearly all the rest of Europe and the Americas were engaged in the enterprise 
and, besides, many Englishmen dared allow their capital to be used in it. 
The agitation of the reform party grew in importance with the passing of 
the years, the leaders gained increased audience among all classes, and the 
feeling against the now illegal traffic rose to a high pitch. Perhaps tlie most 
active agency in spreading the reform was the African Institution whicli 
worked in London, and which came into especial prominence in the years 
1814-1815. This society Iiad in view the amelioration of the condition of the 



• 438 HISTORY 

slaves in the British possessions, and the doing away with the shive-trade. 
Although it became the object of the hatred and of the anathemas of slave 
owners in the colonies, yet it bore an important part in the proscription of the 
slave-trade, as well as in the improvement of the condition of the slaves 
already in the colonies. 

Having met with success in the British Empire it was necessary for the 
reformers, supported by the sympathies of the English people, to strike at the 
same evil in other countries in order to make effective the abolition within 
their own possessions. They went about their task in a masterful way and 
before many years success attended their efforts. Treaties were formed with 
the other European nations to put down the trade on the high seas, and 
attempts were made to get each nation to proscribe it within the territories 
and waters which it controlled. A nominal abolition of it was secured, but 
some of the nations, as Spain and Portugal, were backward in strictly enforcing 
the regulations made to destroy it within their own dominions. 

Eegistration of the Slaves. 

The effective means by which it was hoped to finally stamp out the slave- 
trade in the British colonies was the periodical registration of the slaves 
already in their limits. In this respect, as in its whole program in the interest 
of the slaves, the British Ministry, now dominated by the party of reform, 
strove to set an example which the rest of Europe might imitate. Great 
Britain had led in proscribing the commerce in slaves, she must also lead in 
giving effect to the abolition of the system. Eegistration was first urged in the 
,/■ imperial Parliament by Mr. Wilberforce and Lord Brougham, as a measure 
that should be passed, and applied at once in order to forcibly exclude the 
importation of slaves into the colonies by imperial regulations." West Indian 
planters and slave owners residing in the mother country were on the alert 
immediately, calling iipon those who supported their interests in Parliament 
to obstruct such legislation by every means in their power. Eumors of the 
proposals made to Parliament reached the colonies, where the feeling against 
such action was unanimous on the part of the white population. Whatever 
steps might be taken in the mother country to prevent the passing of such a 
bill were sure to have their approval. The West Indian merchants and plant- 

"Ann. Reg., ISIO, p. 145; 1815, p. 28 and pp. 87-88; 1817, p. 94. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXX 




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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 429 

ers in the city of Bristol presented a petition in 1816 depi'ecating tlie inter- 
ference with the local institutions in the colonies.' In the Bahamas the tidings 
of the activit}' of the opponents of slavery and the slave-trade seemed to be 
unknown, or at least unnoticed, until the year 1815, when, on the return of 
some inhabitants of the Colony from London, information of the movement 
was brought to them. Two publications of the African Institution, one 
"A Plan for the Prevention of the Unlawful Imjjoi-tation of Slaves" the other 
a pamphlet entitled "Reasons for Establishing a Registry of Slaves/' were laid 
before the local Assembly.^ Wild misapprehensions at once beset the mem- 
bers of the House of Assembly. Almost total ignorance of the intentions and 
methods of the African Institution, or as to what Parliament might do, pre- 
vailed. It was only known that something was proposed to be done for the 
regulation of their slave property; it might be anj^thing. In this state of 
mind the Assembly met in the summer of 181.5. Dissatisfaction was expressed 
by some of the members at the failure of the Colonial Agent, George Chalmers, 
to keep their commissioners of correspondence informed of the progress of 
this dangerous movement. Believing that a total destruction of the slave 
property of the British West Indian colonies had been determined upon, re- 
gardless of the rights and interests of those concerned, the House decided 
upon an appeal to Parliament." A committee set to work to inform the House 
of the progress of the movement for registration. It described the African 
Institution as a society " having uo comiection with, or interest in, the colo- 
nies, and ignorant of the conditions in the colonies, and of their local interests 
and usages," which had " put on foot ruinous schemes, and proposed colonial 
degradation and injury on a comprehensive scale." In behalf of the Bahamas, 
the committee denied the existence in them of the evils of which the reform 
party complained; denied that registration could remedy sueli evils if they did 
exist; and expressed their conviction that, according to English law, their 
" venerable charter of privileges " was to protect them from any such inter- 
ference from outside the Colony." The whole report is taken up with an 
arraignment of the abolitionists and a refutation of fancied arguments in 
favor of the registration. The presentation of it was followed closely by a set 
of resolutions on the rights of colonial Englishmen, which, together with the 

^Loc. cit., 1S16, pp. S7-SS. 
"H. v., 1815, p. 105. 
» H. v., 1815, p. 45. 
^'Loc. cit., pp. 105, 106. 



430 HISTORY 

report, was forwarded to the Colonial Department at London to form the first 
part of the protest of this Colony against the registration system." 

Debates in Parliament. 

On the floors of the English Parliament the registration question called 
forth serious debate. On the one hand, Wilberforce pressed the matter with- 
out questioning, in his own mind, the right of Parliament to take action, or the 
expediency of acting at once to suppress the trade; on the other hand, Lord 
Castlereagh suggested that it would be well to ask the cooperation of the 
colonial legislatures in excluding the slave-trade from the British possessions, 
stating that " nothing short of absolute necessity should urge the assertion of 
the right of Parliament to legislate for the colonies, and especially on a meas- 
ure that would subject them to a tax ^^'ithout their own consent." '' There was 
no change in the view of the leading spirits in the movement as to the power 
of Parliament to go ahead and make regulations as demanded by the extreme 
members, but the milder counsels prevailed so far as to determine the Commons 
not to act at once. The experience of the j'ear that had just passed was sufiScient 
to prove the folly of attempting to compel the slaveholding colonies to 
accept imperial regulation of so vital an institution as slavery. Parliament 
decided to defer in the matter to the colonial legislatures, each to act for tlie 
colony imder its jurisdiction. The principles on which this legislation was 
to be .based were to be laid down by the home government, and sent to the 
colonies as recommendations for the laws they were expected to pass." These 
recommendations were at first mere outlines of the principal points on which 
it was desirable to obtain action from the legislatures; in time they grew to 
greater proportions and the program developed with the experience of the 
Ministry in dealing with the question, until finally they were brought to the 
necessity of sending out for the legislature exact detailed models of the 
statutes which the latter was expected to pass. Here began a struggle between 
the local governments of the colonies, supported by the Ministry and the moral 
influence of Parliament, on the one lumd, and the local legislatures on the 

^^ hoc. cit., p. 164. A request to the Colonial Agent was to accompany these 
documents, to the effect that he should circulate them as a refutation of the charges 
that had been made against the West Indian slaveholders. The report stated that 
the Bahama people would resist to the point of emigration rather than submit to 
any such regulation by the home government. 

'^Ann. Reg., 1816. pp. 87-89. 

'"H. v., 1816, pp. 12-16. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 431 

other, whicli in the Bahamas continued for nearly fifteen years. At first the 
principal emphasis was laid on the need of registration, and within a few 
years a satisfactory registration system was secured in this Colony. The 
greater controversy, however, was over the remainder of the program of amel- 
ioration, a matter of mucli greater importance to the Bahamas, and it was 
not finally settled until the abolition of slavery by the imperial Parliament 
in the year 1833." 

Now that the duty of laying the question of a reformation of tlie colonial 
institution of slavery before the colonial legislatures devolved upon tlie Cab- 
inet it was taken up at once, and recommendations were pressed upon the 
attention of these bodies. In the Bahamas tlie Colonial Department found an 
instrument to do its bidding in the Governor, Charles Cameron. Drawing 
from the instructions sent to him, he urged upon the legislature, with skil- 
fully presented arguments, the consideration of, and action upon, measures 
for the exclusion of the commerce in slaves, and for general amelioration." In 
the first place it was necessary to clear away the unfounded misapprehensions 
of the colonists as to the intentions of the leaders in the movement in the 
mother country, and especially as to the x\frican Institution, in which the 
colonists could see every form of evil intention towards the colonies. The 
welcome intelligence that the manumission of the slaves was not intended by 
the authorities, was distinctly set before the legislature." It was admitted 
that the character of the West Indian slaveholders and planters had been 
grossly misrepresented, but it was urged that the colonies now had a most favor- 
able opportunity to redeem their bad reputation; that the intention of tho 
King and the Ministry was to enforce the acts and treaties for abolishing the 
slave-trade, and that a refusal on their part would only serve to confirm the 
suspicions of their bad character." It was also represented that the deter- 
mination of the home government to permit local legislation in each colony 
for itself was a great concession and the legislatures ought to act the more 
cheerfully, since the legislation was to be by voluntary action of the colonies." 
But the strongest reason for pressing these measures on this particular Colony 

" In general the references on this last point are the despatches of the Gov- 
ernors and the Secretaries of State, the House Votes, Council Votes, and the local 
newspapers for the period 1815-1833. 

""H. v., 1816, pp. 27, 28. 

"'■H. v., 1816, pp. 12-16. 

^' Loc. cit.. pp. 12-16. 

'^ hoc. cit., pp. 12-16. 



432 HISTORY 

was that it was necessary, to include it in a general registration S3'stem for all 
the West Indian colonies of Great Britain. These colonies were not allowed 
to trade with the colonies of foreign nations, although they could trade among 
themselves, and if any one of them, as the Bahamas, were left out of the 
registration system it might become an entrepot for traffic in slaves, and thus 
the whole of the British West Indian colonies could obtain a constant sixpply. 
This was the final and conclusive reason for the inclusion of the Bahamas in 
the general system of registration in the British colonies." 

Protest op the Bahamas. ' 

On the part of the Colony there was no lack of arguments against the 
imposition of such a vexatious system. The legislature began with a com- 
plete denial of the existence, in the Bahamas, of the evils which the registration 
system was calculated to remedy, and easily came to the conclusion that there 
was no necessity for the registration of their slaves."" It was ascertained that 
the price of slaves had been greater in Cuba and Jamaica than in the Bahamas 
since the year 1810, thus showing the " absurditj' " of registering Bahama 
slaves to prevent the importation of fresh recruits to the slave population of 
this Colony."^ The value of slaves in this Colony had depreciated during the 
several j^ears previous to this agitation."' The Assembly declared, however, 
that even if the evils complained of had existed, such a system as the j)ro- 
posed registration would not be sufficient to put a stop .to it.^ It was also 
argued that it would entail a great expense on the Colony hj an unnecessary 
addition to the civil establishment ; ^ that the measures Parliament had already 
taken for the suppression of the slave-trade were sufficient to put it down 
without the necessity of any action on the part of the Colony."" Finally the 
members of the House found themselves so firmly convinced of the inexpe- 
diency of the measure that they resolved not to become "the arbiters of the 
ruin of the Bahamas," and refused to act at all.'' To the Governor, the House 

"H. v., 1816, p. 27, portion of a letter from a member of the African Institu- 
tion which the Governor laid before the Assembly. 

=°H. v., 1815, pp. 105, 106, and app., pp. 46, 47; 1S16, pp. 101-103. 

"H. v., 1816, pp. 83-101. 

-- Loc. cit., 1815, app., pp. 46, 47. 

"Loc. cit., 1815, pp. 105, 106. 

-'Loc. cit. The item of expense without a return to the treasury of the Colony 
was sufficient to condemn any measure in this body. 

=^H. v., 1816, p. 103. 

="H. v., 1816, pp. 117, lis. Address of the House to Governor Cameron. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 433 

freely expressed the slaveholders' opinion of the anti-slavery party in the 
mother country. After an exhaustive argument of the whole question to him 
they continued as follows : " With all due respect to Your Excellency's mes- 
sage, this Colony has already felt too deeply the baneful efEect of the abolition 
influence in various ways not to regard with additional dread every new approach 
of that party to the pestilential dominion they are laboring to establish over 
the whole West Indies. Being persuaded that that party has visionary objects 
the Hoi;se must declare that it will not be the arbiter of the ruin of the 
Bahamas." 

The Wtlly Affair. 

This was the state of affairs and of opinion in the Colony, when an inci- 
dent occurred which aroused such an excited state of feeling, involving the 
legislature and the whole local government in such difficulties that the pos- 
sibility of legislation on the important matter of registration of the slaves 
was precluded for a term of four years. 

In the year 1809 a female domestic slave, named Sue, was brought to 
Nassau from the State of Georgia. She was kept at Nassau imtil 1816. In 
the latter year her master came to Nassau, accompanied by a male slave, named 
Sandy, and attempted on his return to take the two slaves, together with an 
infant child of the former, back to Georgia with him." The slaves absconded, 
were seized and imprisoned to await the day of their owner's departure. At- 
torney-General Wylly seized upon them, and prosecuted them on the ground of 
unlawful importation. Sandy and the child were restored to their owner, but 
Sue was condemned on an allegation that she had been offered for sale.^ 

The local House of Assembly, with its accustomed diligence in taking 
account of everything in connection with the government of the Colony, oId- 
jected to the conduct of the Attorney-General."' It appeared that the Attorney- 
General had given a written opinion that, under the imperial statute of the 
j'ear 1806 regarding the removal of slaves from any part of the British do- 
minions, slaves brought into the Colony might be sold there, or freely taken 
away, according to the will of the owner. His new opinion, involving the use 
of license and bond for removals under the same act, was odious to the mem- 
bers of the House.™ A report gained currency that the Attornej'-General 

— ='H. v., 1816-17, p. 143. _ 
"' hoc. cit. 
» Loc. cit., p. 153. 
'"H. v., 1816-17, pp. 153-156. 
28 



434 HISTORY 

had been in communication with the African Institution in London, and was 
keeping that liated society informed as to the attitude of the Colony toward the 
Eegistration Measures."' The House determined to investigate the conduct of 
this official. When he was asked to appear before a House Committee he 
answered in terms that to the House seemed contemptuous. His arrest was 
ordered by a vote of the House — he should answer for his contempt of its 
summons and his misrepresentation of the proceedings of the House in tlie 
last session.'" The House messenger reported a fruitless search for the person 
of the Attorney ; and further that he had been resisted by armed slaves on the 
premises of the latter."" This was unbearable. Such " repeated and daring 
contempt," such a dreadful example to slaves to arm themselves in defiance 
of authority, decided the House at once on the downfall of the man who had 
dared to oppose its wishes. The Governor was asked to suspend him from 
office without delay. He was arrested and imprisoned, but within an hour 
thereafter he was delivered from the gaol by the order of the Chief Justice."* 
The House grew violent, and attacked the court for what it regarded as 
" liighly unconstitutional, illegal, and unprecedented action " in releasing the 
prisoner. Again it ordered the arrest of the released prisoner."" At this point 
tlie Governor interfered with a proclamation dissolving the House."'' In this 
course the Governor was supported by the home government."' 

Three days after the dissolution of the House a public meeting was held 
at Nassau on January 31, 1817, which expressed unanimous approval of the 
action of the House. Eesolutions were drawn up and adopted sanctioning the 
commitment of the Attorney-General, disapproving the conduct of the General 
Court, declaring that conduct unconstitutional and subversive of the rights of 
British subjects, further that it tended to the degradation of the House of 
Assembly from its unquestionable position of authority, and claimed for it 
the same position in the Colony that the House of Commons held in the mother 
country, therefore the superior of all courts. Apprehension of grave conse- 
quences, on account of the untimely dissolution of the House, pervaded these 

"l/oc. ««., p. 157. 

^-H. v., 1816-17, p. 161. See also denial of Attorney-General in the Royal 
Gazette for Feb. 8, 1817. 
^ hoc. cit., p. 167. 
"•' Loc. cit., p. 177. 
'" Loc. cit. 
'-"Log. cit., p. 178. 
='H. v., 1817, p. 17. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXI 



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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 435 

resolutions. People feared an iiprising of the slaves, and tl\ere was such ex- 
citement that few local men could have spoken calml}' of the situation/" 

The next meeting of the local Assembly occurred in September ol' 181 ;. 
In the interval the people and the representatives, whom they had returned 
to the new Assembly, had not forgotten their grievances. It could scarcely 
have been expected that this body would have proceeded to business without 
any reference to the diffieulties of the preceding winter; still it was hoped that 
an interval would serve to bring about a calmer state of feeling. But the new 
House was of no better disposition than tlie old one had been. After learning 
from the Governor that the home government liad disapproved tlieir un- 
authorized aissumption of the power of imprisonment.'"' they adopted the same 
line of conduct that their predecessors had followed. The membership of 
this House was almost the same as that of the former, and their opinions had 
not altered a jot. Absolute suprejnacy within the Colony was tlieij; claim; 
they held that they were the sole judges of their own privileges," and still con- 
fidently expected to be justified by the Prince Eegent. They persisted in their 
endeavors to humble the Attorney-General, but without avail. Bills were 
ordered reversing the judgments in the Wylly case ; " but the very same official 
personages, against whose action these measures were directed, also held seats 
in the Council which had a .share in legislating. As judges of their own cause, 
they naturally threw out these bills." The Provost Marslial who had assisted 
in the arrest of the Attorney-General was arraigned Ijefore the bar of the House 
to make an apology for his conduct in that affair which he had made public." 
A bill for the registration of the slaves was passed, but it was intentionally 
framed so that neither the Council, Governor, nor home government would accept 
it." Not least of these attempts to shift to the Council the responsibility for 
the lack of legislation was the passage of an appropriation bill omitting pro- 
vision for the salaries of the Attornejf-General and tlie Justices of the General 
Court." They resolved not to pass any legislation at all, except for the pur- 
pose of preserving the public credit, and for the reestablishment of their own 

'^ Royal Gazette, IV (1817). No. 337. 
™H. v., 1817, pp. 17-18. 
^-Loc. cit., p. 20. 
*' Loc. cit.. pp. 34-36. 
'■Loc. cit., p. 109. 
■'■■' Loc. cit.. p. 38. 
" H. v., 1817, p. 109. 

''^H. v., 1817, p. 128, address to the Prince Regent. The salaries of these 
officials were rarely granted for longer than one year. 



436 HISTOKY 

privileges, until the several judgments of the General Court and its orders 
should have been so effectively annulled as no longer to have the authority of 
a legal larecedent." The Governor was at last informed that if he did not feel 
authorized to relieve their embarrassing situation, the House vs'ould do nothing 
further during the session than to formulate an address to the Prince Eegent 
for a redress of their grievances." Nothing further was attempted. A few 
days later a prorogation was proclaimed. Time would now be given for 
excited feelings to become quieted. Throughout another session the House of 
Assembly had adhered to its determination to outwit every other authority in 
the Colony. 

Before another session of the Assembly occurred Governor Charles Cam- 
eron had been removed from the government of the Bahamas. He was suc- 
ceeded in the temporary administration of the Colony by Chief Justice Mun- 
nings, who was P resident of the Council. He was the same official against 
whom the same House had acted so violently during its last session.'" His 
position as temporary administrator did not make for peace with the House. 
The members of that body were sadly disappointed that a favorable response to 
their claim was not communicated from the home government. On the other 
hand, they were informed that the Prince Eegent had instructed the Secretary 
of State to communicate to the Bahama House of Assembly that he fully 
approved of the conduct of the General Court in issuing the writ of habeas 
corpus on behalf of the unfortunate Attorney-General, for a recommitment 
would have meant that the original imprisonment had been according to l&w." 
The House on its part spent a great part of this session in committee of 
the whole discussing the matter, in order to ascertain the best means of 
securing a redress of its grievances. It was unyielding in its attitude towards 
those who had offended against it,°° and was still determined to refuse to act 
on the affairs of the Colony until its assumed privileges were secured to it. 
Instead of proceeding to business it piassed another set of resolutions reviewing 
the difficulties, and voted to have the Attorney-General brought before it on 
the 14th of July." When it met on that day it was at once summoned to the 

"Loc. at., pp. 34-36. 

" Log. cit., V. 116. 

■"■ It might be questioned whether those meetings were a " session " of the legis- 
lature. Some authority has said that there must have been some business done in 
order to entitle the meetings of the Assembly to the name of a " session." 

"H. v., 1818, p. 5. 

" Log. cit., pp. 9-10. 

"H. v., 1818, p. 20. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 437 

Council chamber to meet the President of the Council. He upbraided the 
members of the House for their opprobrious conduct, warned them that he 
could not suffer them to oppress an individual any longer, and prorogued them, 
soon to follow up this with a dissolution." 

Another fruitless attempt to harmonize the branches of the government 
was made in March of the following year, on the meeting of the new House 
whose election had occxirred meantime. It was found that this body also was 
as little disposed to compromise as either of the two that had sat before it. 
The same results were met with. But there was an additional grievance at 
this time, in that members of the House of Assembly had been smnmoned for 
service on Juries. The House claimed for its members exemption from jury 
service. If the claim was well grounded, this was a breach of the privileges of 
its members." A prorogation followed. 

The " Healing Act." 

Before another meeting of the legislature took place there was a for- 
timate change in the Executive of the Colony. Major-General Lewis Grants 
had been sent out as Governor of the Bahamas. The opportrmity of the new 
Governor, who had had no part in the struggles of the preceding years, to act 
the part of mediator, was taken advantage of with the happy result of a resto- 
ration of the accustomed quiet to the community. The session had only 
opened, however, when the House rehearsed the whole matter in an address to 
the new Governor.'^ Some of the members of the House suspected, when they 
did not receive the desired response from the Prince Eegent, that their ad- 
dresses had never been laid before him at all. To them the new Govenior re- 
plied firmly that the home government had no intention of granting that the 
House was in the right in its determination that the General Court, the Council, 
and the Attorney-General should bow to its will ; '^^ further, that there was no 
change in the views of those who had made the former assurances to the House. 
The Governor had been instructed that it was not necessary to require of the 
House any acknowledgment that it had acted in an unconstitutional manner in 
its conduct towards the other branches of the government. He desired to pass 
over the whole difficulty, to allow it to drop out of notice, and to proceed to 

"Loc. cit., pp. 33-35. 
== H. v., 1819, p. 36. 
"H. v., 1820, pp. 26, 27. 
»=H. v., 1820, p. 26. 



438 HISTOKY 

business without any further reference to it.'" He assured the House that if it 
desired to pass a bill embodying the sentiments which he had expressed, lie 
would have no hesitation in giving his assent to it."' Accordingly the House 
passed a bill, wliich became the first act of the Bahama Legislature in tlie reign 
of the new Sovereign, declaring that neither the arrest of the Attorney-C4eneral 
under the warrant of the Speaker of the House, nor the bailments of the Cleneral 
Court setting him at liberty, should be taken to have the authority of legal pre- 
cedent, or to extend, or diminish, the riglits and privileges of the House of 
Assembly, or of the General Court.* 

• But the House was not yet satisfied. This " Healing Act," as it has been 
called, was passed only by the casting vote of the Speaker of this unconquer- 
able body. Assurance that they had made no concessions must be made dou1)ly 
sure. By a vote of 17 to 8 the following resolution was passed: "The House 
cannot consistentlj" with its dignity, and never will, grant salaries to said 
persons (William Wylly and the Justices of the General Court), or any of 
them, either for past services since the commencement of the aforesaid dis- 
putes, or for any future services." '" By a vote of 22 to 2 it was resolved that 
the House would still claim the right to imprison whomsoever it chose for the 
hreacli of the privileges of its members, and that it should remain the judge 
of tliose privileges. It also reasserted its claim to superiority to tlie courts." 
On account of the persistently violent attitude of the House in all these matters, 

'"' H. v., 1820, p. 28. Address of the Governor in reply to the message of the 
House. The Governor said: " I am authorized to state that under all the various 
circumstances attending the arrest and commitment of a certain public character, 
while His Majesty, on the one hand, cannot sanction by a direct admission of 
legality the proceedings against that individual, His Majesty, on the other hand, 
does not require any acknowledgment from the Assembly that they have advanced 
any novel or unconstitutional pretensions." 

'" Loc. cit. 

^ 1 Geo. IV, 1. This statute is retained on the statute books of the Colony to 
the present day. It declares in express terms that there has been no acknowledg- 
ment that the House had advanced any novel or unconstitutional principles. The 
citation to 1 Geo. IV, 1 refers to the statutes of the Bahamas. Thus all citations of 
statutes will refer to the Bahama statutes unless otherwise noted. 

'" H. v., 1820. p. 36. The original motion in this matter was to the effect that 
the House ought not to be deemed to he pledged to grant these salaries after the 
passage of the " Healing Act." As that was not strong enough to express their 
feeling it was changed. 

" Loc. at., p. 38. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 439 

the Governor determinecl at once npon a dissohition of it."' The matter was 
hushed np finallj^ with the termination of this session of the legislature, 
except for a proposal in the spring of 1821 to the effect that conciliation would 
not compromise the dignity of the House. The change for the better in the 
feeling of the House is shown in the failure of this motion. There was almost 
a two-thirds majority against it.'^° 

Adoption of the Registration System. 
The four years spent by the House of Assembly in its persecution of the 
other departments of the local government had meant four years delay in 
the establishment of the system of registration for the slaves. During the 
struggle a bill had been passed, which, however, did not meet the approval of 
the home government."' It did not provide for the forfeiture of non-regis- 
tered slaves, nor did it provide for an accurate description of the slaves such 
that they could be identified^ as was desirable to the British ilinistry."' Other 
minor objections. were laid before the Assembly with an urgent recommenda- 
tion that an improved bill be passed. The Bahamas had always prided them- 
selves on their loyalty to the British Crown. In his appeal to the House to 
pass a suitable bill for registration, Governor Grant urged that they should 
not pass a bill that would have to be disallowed, thus appearing to justify the 
imputation against them that the Bahamas were disregarding the wishes of 
the King.°° The House finally yielded and passed a bill, granting certain of 
the more important points that had been urged in the recommendations. It 
provided sufficient regulations for the removal of slaves from one colony to 
another. But there were defects in otlier parts that called for supplementary 
legislation to make the registration system satisfactory to those who were de- 
manding it." Although important concessions were made in this, for the sake 

'" hoc. cit., p. 41. This session had begun about the middle of the month of 
November. The prorogation toolc place on November :^0. The Assembly was pro- 
rogued to December 15. but on December 6 a proclamation of dissolution was 
issued. 

»=H. y., 1821, p. 22. 

"" H. v., 1821, p. 38. This bill when it was passed by the House of Assembly 
was not regarded even by the membership of the House as one which would suit the 
" visionary speculations of the dangerous party at home." Loc. cit., 1817, p. 109. 

" H. v., 1821, p. 38, despatch of the Secretary of State detailing objections to 
the House bill. 

"' H. v., 1821, p. 38. 

™H. v., 1822, pp. 65-66. 



440 HISTORY 

of compliance with the recommendations of the Ministry, still there were 
legitimate objections to the imposition of this regulation upon the Bahamas, if 
the interests of this Colony alone were to be considered. Registration, as has 
been stated, was designed to work towards the suppression of the slave-trade. 
The foreign slave-trade had not been carried on in the Bahamas since about 
the year 1810, or perhaps before the British Parliament had abolished the 
slave-trade in British territory." Crop failures, and the uncertainty as to the 
tenure of the lands which they held, were additional reasons for apprehension 
on the part of the Bahama slaveholders. Furthermore, the expense that 
would inevitably attend such an establishment in this Colony would be out of 
all proportion to the benefits to be derived from it. The slave population, 
here numbering 10,808, according to the registration of 1822, was distributed 
over seventeen islands and groups of islands, which extended over a distance 
of 600 miles of ocean. Most of the other West Indian colonies consisted each 
of a single island, or compact group of islands. No other colony formed such 
a chain as the Bahamas. Easy access to the seat of government, where the 
registration books were to be kept, was an essential condition to the successful 
operation of the system. Communication between the different islands of this 
government was so infrequent, and so difficult, as to render it practically im- 
possible for the same system to be applied here as in the other colonies, unless 
by the assumption of an expense which the colonial revenues could not bear. 
Other features of this system were difficult to adapt to this Colony, owing to 
the varied occupations of the slaves. 

Great Britain was taking the lead of the world in giving effect to her abo- 
lition laws. Her West Indian colonies were compelled to submit to the impo- 
sition of this regulation as one measure for this purpose. Xot one of them 
could be excepted from it, for no door must be left unclosed by which slaves 
could be brought into the British possessions. The exception of one colony, 
however small, would have served for the introduction of slaves into all the 
colonies at a great profit to the carriers. The plan of the Ministry was to 
recommend to all the colonies the same system, and to insist on its adoption, 
and the enforcement of its regulations, until the introduction of slaves from 
the outside should be entirely cut off. Such a plan would allow no part of the 

°"H. v., 1815, app., pp. 46-47. It was claimed by local men in 1815 that the 
depreciation in the value of their slaves had amounted to one-fourth of their total 
value during the first decade of the nineteenth century. In 1825 it was estimated 
that the depreciation had amounted to £500,000 or one-half of the former value of 
this property. Loc. cit., 1825-26, pp. 124, 125. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 4-11 

Britisli Empire to be free from this registration sj'stem. The larger interests 
of the Empire demanded that the rules and regulations for the destruction of 
the slave-trade should be enforced in all portions of the domain, even at the 
expense of hardship, suffering and deprivation to a small part of that great 
Empire, even though the particular evils, against which efforts were directed, 
did not prevail there. In this view it was altogether desirable to include this 
Colony. 

Demands of the English Public. 

The demands of the English public did not stop here. This was really 
only the beginning of the great program that lay before their government. 
They regarded themselves as responsible for the condition of the slaves with 
which their ancestors had supplied the colonists. The British nation was 
responsible for the presence of slaves within British territory, and they 
should now assume the responsibility for the amelioration of the condition of 
those same slaves. But the object was not to ameliorate the condition of the 
slaves, and still leave them slaves. It was intended that by progressive meas- 
ures they should be raised in the moral and social scale, and that they should 
be educated, as far as that could be done, until they were fitted for full enjoy- 
ment of the rights of British citizenship. The matter had been before Parlia- 
ment for a number of years ; it had been investigated by committees of Parlia- 
ment ; it had been discussed inside and outside of that bod}', and the conviction 
of the necessity of taking action grew firmer as time went on. The experience 
of the first years, in which attempts were made to legislate for this purpose, 
had convinced the authorities at home that the best way to accomplish the 
desired end was to secure voluntary action from the colonial legislatures in the 
enactment of the program of amelioration. As colonial authorities had to be 
employed in the enforcement of the regulations of the slave system, it would 
be best to have those laws imposed by colonial agencies. 

The general outlines of what it was proposed to accomplish were set forth 
in a set of resolutions passed by the House of Commons. It regarded the fol- 
lowing as the principal points in which the greatest improvements could be 
made: (1) The prevention of the flogging of female slaves; (2) efllective and 
decisive measures to be taken for the amelioration of the condition of slaves; 
(3) by judicious and temperate perseverance in the enforcement of these meas- 
ures, the House of Commons hoped to secure'a progressive improvement in the 
slaves, such as would fit them for participation in the rights and privileges of 
British citizenship; (4) the accomplishment of this purpose at the earliest 



442 HISTORY 

period compatible with a fair consideration for the rights of private property.'* 
Under the second of these heads may be grouped the details of the measures 
that were proposed. The negroes were to be instructed in the principles of 
Christian morality and religion, to be qualified for and given the right to 
testify in the courts of law, to be taught the sacredness of the marriage tie, to 
be secured against the forced neglect of it, to be given every facility in securing 
their own emancipation, to be attached to the soil, to be protected from too 
severe punishments, and to be given facility and encouragement in the accu- 
mulation of property." 

Besides maintaining that these reforms were only giving justice to the 
slaves from the humanitarian point of view, the Ministry attempted to point 
out to the colonists that from the point of view of the slave owner's real inter- 
ests these things were also demanded. The state of feeling in the mother coun- 
try, and the solicitude of the people for the slaves, were held out to the As- 
sembly; and after the refusal of the Bahama House to act compliantly with 

°'H. v., 1823, pp. 35-37. Copy of these resolutions of Parliament. 

"»H. v., 1832, p. 17. The details of the plan are fully set forth in the Order- 
in-council for Trinidad, a copy of which is given in this place. This order was put 
in force in the Crown colonies. It is a document embodying a great many details 
in large volume. The Ministry' had at first attempted merely the suggestion of the 
general outlines of what they desired of the Colony in the amelioration of the 
slaves. It was soon found that their suggestions were purposely, and deliberately, 
given a wrong interpretation by the colonial legislature. The latter affected to 
misunderstand the intentions of the home government, holding this in the way as a 
reason why the recommendations should not be enacted into their codes. 

The more important provisions of the Trinidad Order-in-council were as follows: 
A protector of slaves should be appointed to reside at the capital of the Colony, and 
have there an office open at all times to give access to and hear complaints from the 
slaves; the protector was not to be interested in slave property by ownership, man- 
agement or guardianship of the owners of it: he was to keep the records of the 
operations of the system, to attend all trials affecting the lives or property of slaves; 
and in all his functions he was to have the assistance of the Commandant of the 
military forces of the Colony. Sunday markets were to be abolished throughout 
the Colony; slaves were not to be allowed to work between sundown on Saturday 
evening and sunrise on Monday morning. The use of the whip or " cat " as a mark 
of the authority of the slave-driver was to be prohibited; only limited punishments 
were to be allowed to be inflicted each day; the flogging of females was altogether 
done away with; and strict records of punishments inflicted were to be kept on 
each plantation. With the consent of the owner, the Commandant of the Colony 
could issue licenses for the marriage of slaves; husbands and wives were not to be 
separated from each other, nor children under fourteen years of age from their 
parents. Slaves were to enjoy property rights, holding and inheritance, etc.; savings 
banks were to be established for the security of the property of slaves. The tax 
on manumissions was to be abolished; slaves were to be allpwed to purchase their 



THE BAIIAiCA ISLANDS 443 

these recommendations/" it was represented tliat there would be great disap- 
pointment in England if the Colony failed to act as it had been urged to do. 
In 1825 the Honse of Lords came to the aid of the Ministry by approving its 
conduct.'^ 

Wlien concessions were made by the House of Assembly, full acknowledgment 
was made that there was a disposition on the part of the Colony to improve 
the condition of the slaves.'' It was represented tliat whatever improvements 
the local Assembly might make would be on the initiative of the Colony, and 
ought not in that case to be objectionable to the colonists themselves. ''' Tlie 
repeal of objectionable features was as strongly insisted on as was the enact- 
ment of advanced provisions. The colonists pleaded that the custom of the 
community secured to the slaves most of the guarantees for protection on whieii 
the home government insisted. The Ministry, unwilling to trust to such an 
indefinite response, insisted on a statutory recognition of these alleged bencficen t 
customs." In this way alone could it be assured that the slave system was to he 
freed from the abuses which slaveholders themselves admitted to exist. West 
Indian proprietors residing in the mother country were consulted as to the 
practicability of the measvires proposed, and the colonists were told tliat the 
recommendations met with the approval of this class. '° Finally in pressing 
the matter upon the attention of the Assembly an appeal was made to tlie feeling 
of gratitude, which the colonists must have felt towards the motlier counti'v, 
for the benefits of British rule.'" 

own freedom, or that of their wives or cliildren; manumissions by private contract 
were to be in writing and made to the protector. Slave evidence was to be admitted 
to the courts in all cases; and ministers of religion were to certify as to the qualifi- 
cations of slaves to be put on oath. Cruelty to a slave was to cause the right of the 
owner to hold the slave to be put at the discretion of the courts; a second conviction 
involved the right of the owner to hold any slave at all; or of the manager of a 
plantation to hold the position of a manager of slaves. In slave trials the burden 
of proof was on the master. The protector was to make an annual report of the 
conduct of his office, the number of cases that came under his .iurisdiction, etc. 
H. V. for 1824, pp. 38-70. 

■"H. v., 1824, pp. 36-37; 1825, p. 32, and 1826, p. 2. 

•^Loc. cit., 1826, p. 2. 

'"- H. v., 1824, pp. 36-37. This was small encouragement to a body of slave- 
holders who desired to be excused from acting at all. 

"■^H. v., 1824, p. 34. 

" H. v., 1824, pp. 34-35. 

"H. v., 1825, p. 32. 

'° Loc. cit. 



444 HISTORY 

Attitude of the Bahamas. 

Against the whole program the colonists brought a great many argu- 
ments — some worthy of attention, others not. It was objected to these 
measures, just as to the registration, that they were ill-adapted to local con- 
ditions;'' that the advocates of them had never visjted the colonies and did 
not know anything about what would be suitable for regulating the institution 
of slavery. As for what they had already conceded, they would consider that 
as no sort of pledge, that they would enact any further measures of the same 
character. Their practicability had first to be demonstrated, and for this 
reason the Baliama House at one time refused to proceed any further with the 
program.'^ The Ministry had desired to proceed too rapidly to please the 
colonists. The holders of this property considered it dangerous at any time 
to meddle with the slave institution in a way that would give any little encour- 
agement to the slaves to rise up against the authority of their masters. Insur- 
rections had occurred in some of the larger colonies, and the horrors of the 
insurrections in the neighboring island of San Domingo were still fresh in the 
minds of Bahamians. The Order-in-couneil gave the right of complaint in 
some matters to the slaves, which would truly have curtailed the almost 
absolute authority of the masters.™ They pleaded for non-interference with 
their cherished institution. They argaied that the existing slaves were the 
progeny of the slave property of their ancestors, who had first settled in the Col- 
ony on condition that the lands should be cultivated by negro slave labor, and 
that those slaves had been guaranteed to the planters by the English law for- 
ever; that if the English government took any measures that would lessen the 
value of, or tend to loosen their hold on, their slave property, it would be a 
breach of the promise made to the early settlers. They held it unlawful to 
deprive them of their property, or of the value of it, without indemnification. 
If by any act of the home government their slave property were caused t& 
depreciate in value, the owners of it ought to be compensated for the whole loss. 
If involuntary labor, as it existed in the colonies, was a crime, it was the crime 
in this instance of the mother country and she ought to bear the penalty of it.^* 

The people of this small island community had never had to bear with 
any considerable interference from the outside. The House of Assembly had 
been allowed to assume control of almost everything in the Colony. The in- 

"H. v., 1824, p. 89. 

"H. v., 1823, p. 71, and 1824, p. 89. 

™H. v., 1824, pp. 89-95. 

*°H, v., 1825-26, p. 124. resolutions passed on January 24, 1824. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXII 





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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 445 

habitants had much conticlence iu their rights as Englishmen, and we have seen 
that they carried their attempts at assertion of those riglits to the extreme. 
Born and reared in the atmosphere of the institntion of slavery, and accus- 
tomed to dealing with it as they pleased, they were averse to any interference 
with it at all, and they could not have been expected to snbmit without protest 
to such changes, in the order of things, as the British Cabinet proposed to them. 
They had inherited the prejudices which are almost universal, if not inevitable, 
in a state of society in which the interests of one class are subordinated to the 
interests of those above them. While they were willing to care for their 
slaves reasonably, it was difficult for them to acknowledge that any authority 
in the Empire had the right to continue, as the Ministry had been doing, in 
insisting on a line of action so obnoxious to them. Hence they used such 
adjectives as " unwarrantable " and " unprecedented " to brand the conduct 
of the authorities in the home government, and were extremely reluctant to 
act on their recommendations. The depreciation in the value of their slaves 
was used as an argument to prove the baneful effects of the agitation that had 
been carried on in England, the reflection from which had reached the colonies. 
The agitation did have some effect in this way, but the great cause of this 
depreciation was doubtless economic. The prices of slaves had gone down 
because of the worn-out condition of the lands of the Bahama Islands. There 
was no longer the same amount of employment for them that there had been 
at the beginning of the century. 

Adoptiox of A Kew Slave Code. 

In 1824 a statute was passed granting part of the reforms iipon which the 
home government had insisted. It placed in the slave code some of the things 
which were claimed as the custom of the Colony." At the following session of 
the legislature the House declined to make any further alterations in its 
slave code.*" The matter was not allowed to rest, however, for the Ministry 
urged more strongly than ever the propriety of taking further action for 
amelioration.'^ In 1S26 almost all of the recommendations of the home gov- 

"4 Geo. IV, 6. 

«=H. v., 1824, p. 95. 

^ Loc. cit., 1826, pp. 18-28. The Secretarj' of State sent out a detailed state- 
ment of tlie wliole plan of the desired enactment, the provisions of which he had 
grouped under eight heads. His persistency won with the House in so far that at 
once on the meeting of the legislature in October, 1826, a committee was appointed 
which brought in eight bills embodying what is was thought could be conceded under 
the eight respective headings proposed by the Secretary of State. They were not 
passed in this form however. 



446 HISTOKT 

ernment in this matter were included in some form, in a comprehensive amend- 
ment to the consolidated slave law. It contained practically all that tlie 
Bahamas ever conceded in the enactment of regulations for the amelioration 
of the condition of their slaves."'' A few minor points were added in 1839. 

Legal Status of Master and Slave. 

The legal status of slaves in the Bahamas, as defined in the statutes men- 
tioned above, will now be treated under the following heads: I. What the code 
guaranteed to the slave, his rights and duties. II. What it guaranteed to the 
master, his rights and duties. 

Rights and Duties of the Slave. 

Under this head will be considered : Maintenance, right to hold property, 
marriage and family, civic rights, religious instruction, conditions and terms 
of manumission, holidays. 

Maintenance. — The master was required to furnish to each of his slaves 
over ten years of age, one peclv of unground corn, or an equivalent, per week. 
For each child under ten years of age, one-half of this allowance would 
suffice. Two suits of " proper and sufficient clothing " were annually fur- 
nished to each slave. In addition to these things the slave was entitled to a 
small quantity of land for his dwelling, and a garden.'' The law of 1824 
prohibited the manmnission of aged and infirm slaves, but that of 1827 per- 
mitted manumission, and required the master in such instances to maintain 
his freedman until death. 

Right to Hold Property. — Slaves were allowed to hold property. The 
code provided in general that " no slave on account of his condition .... 
shall be deemed incompetent to purchase, hold, alienate or inherit property, 
but shall be competent for the exercise of this right." The Receiver-General 
of the Colony was made a depository for money which slaves might wish to 
deposit for safe-keeping. The slave could bequeath such money by means of a 
will made by a simple declaration to that official. The property of a slave 
dying intestate was disposed of according to the laws governing any property 
of the character which he had left behind. Marriage revoked a will previously 
made. In default of legitimate heirs the reputed issue, and the relatives, of the 
deceased slave eould take possession of his property. Lands in the possession 

"' 7 Geo. IV, 1, and cf. 10 Geo. IV, 13. ' 
i'"' 10 Geo. IV, 13. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 4-1:7 

of slaves were considered as personal estate, and were governed by the laws 
regulating the descent of landed property. The property of a slave was attach- 
able for debt.™ 

■ Marriage and Family. — The Babama slave code professed to encourage 
legitimate marriages among the slaves of the Colony, and between slaves and 
free blacks. The old custom of the Bahamas doubtless permitted many abuses 
of the marriage tie among slaves, althougb, later, Admiral Fleming stated that 
promiscuous concubinage was not allowed." With a view to the religious and 
iiiDral improvement of the slaves, it was attempted to promote the attachment 
of husbands and wives among them, and to prevent, as far as possible, polygamy 
and promiscuity of conjugal relations. The consent of the owner in writing 
or the publication of the banns in the regular manner was necessary before 
marriages were allowed to take place. A marriage between slaves was not 
permitted without the consent of the owners. Such marriages were conducted 
according to the laws and canonical restrictions of the established church of 
the Bahamas. The ministers of that church alone were competent to solemnize 
marriages. If there was no Anglican minister in the parish in which the mar- 
riage took place, the duty devolved upon the justice of the peace. In 1837, 
however, the privilege of celebrating marriages was extended to ministers out- 
side the established churches of England and Scotland, but in each instance 
the Governor issued a special license.'" Registers of marriages were kept. Very 
primitive ideas prevailed among these poor people as to the duties conceived 
by Englishmen, to be assumed when entering into the marriage contract. 
Regulations were made for the purpose of inculcating proper ideas as to the 
mutual obligations of husband and wife, and urging upon them the importance 
of remaining together when once united. The separation of families was for- 
bidden imder any circumstances. Neither husband or wife was salable unless 
the other was sold at the same time, and to the same purchaser. Children 
were not allowed to be separated from their parents until they had readied 
the fourteenth year. Alienation of slave property could be carried out only 

'" 10 Geo. IV, 13. Neither of the above questions appears to have been touched 
upon in the laws before 1824. Custom in this as in many other respects was 
doubtless very lax. 7 Geo. IV, 1, sees. 36-40. 

"' Sess. P., 1831-32, 20, p. 217. Testimony given in the West Indian Investiga- 
tion of Slavery by Parliament. 

** 10 Geo. 13. Several years after the abolition of slavery a difficulty arose at 
Harbor Island over the transfer by a Wesleyan minister to another minister of his 
denomination, of a license issued to him to marry two blacks. 



448 HISTORY 

in compliance with these regvilations. They applied to reputed husbands and 
wives, and to reputed, as well as to legitimate, children.^' 

Civic Rights. — N"ot only were slaves not allowed to vote in the Bahamas, but 
it was late in the history of slavery when colored freemen were admitted to the 
exercise of the franchise.* Slaves were not allowed to serve in the local militia. 
Free blacks were also excluded from militia service until 1804. After that 
time there remained prejudicial restrictions on their exercise of that right, 
even imtil after the abolition of slavery."' The restrictions in respect to jury 
service were nearly the same as were those just mentioned in the same period."^ 
Slave courts were regularly established by the later statutes on slavery, before 
the iDassage of which they had been institutions of rather bad character. 

By a statute of the year 1805 the General Court was authorized to try 
suits for the freedonr of slaves. As that court sat only in the island of Xew 
Providence, other measures were necessary for trials in the Out-islands. A 
magistrate in an Out-island was empowered to summon three free-holders to 
assist him, on sufficient evidence, and compel a master either to give up his 
claim to a slave, or to pay the expenses of sending the latter to Nassaii for 
trial in the General Court." All other cases on behalf of slaves, that vrere 
allowed to be tried at all, were tried in the lo-(ver magisterial courts, and later 
in the slave coi;rts. A slave court was constituted in 1824 consisting of two 
justices and at least five jurors." At their best these slave courts were poor 
instruments for the measuring of justice, according to the standards of English 
jurisprudence. It was difficult for a slave to get his case into court at all, 
especially if it were against some white person. It made little difference what 
were the grounds of his suit, or how serious they were to him, they were likely 
to be ignored. 

The cause of the whole difficulty in this respect, which prevented the 
slave from getting justice, was that slave evidence was not received in 
the courts until almost the close of the period in which slavery existed. 
The question of the removal of this evil involved the reformation of the whole 
course of justice in the Bahamas. Slave e'^ddence was either not received at 

«° 10 Geo. IV, 13. 
»»47 Geo. Ill, 1. 

" 36 Geo. Ill, 4; also Smyth's Ds., No. 140. 
"=44 Geo. Ill, 10. 

"^ 45 Geo. Ill, 20, and 7 Geo. IV, 7. From the state of opinion it is not probable 
that a strict application of this provision occurred in many cases. 
"M Geo. IV, 6. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 449 

all in the courts, or it received so little recognition that, as long as the state of 
things existed, a slave could not secure a hearing before them, if the cause 
were to the prejudice of a vehite person. It was out of the question for them 
to exercise any control in the courts, and the}' were allowed little opportunity 
to furnish the evidence they had in cases that came up for adjudication, in 
order that justice might be done. 

In 1784 it was provided that the evidence of slaves should be admitted 
against manumitted persons in all trials for capital or criminal offenses; but 
by the same law only Christian slaves were allowed to testify at all, and they 
only in suits for debt.°° Slave evidence was the first point in which the local 
Assembly attempted to make concessions, in response to the ministerial de- 
mand for the amelioration of the condition of the slaves. But the effort they 
made to remove the restrictions on it would not argue strongly that they were 
convinced of the expediency of granting full credit to the testimony of a 
slave, when put on oath. The traditional prejudice of the whites against the 
admission of the blacks to civil rights is well preserved. After 1822 free per- 
sons of color who had been instructed in the Christian religion, and baptized, 
and who had been free for a term of three years, were admitted to give evi- 
dence in civil cases, the facts regarding which had occurred subsequently to 
the liberation of the person testifying." In 1824 this same privilege was 
extended to all persons of color bom free in the Bahamas, and to others born 
free outside the Colonj', but who had been in the Bahamas for five years. But 
it was still denied to manumitted persons in cases of treason and felony, and 
offenses against the peace, committed previous to manumission, and in all 
eases, the facts in which occurred previous to the passage of this statute."' 
Another change was made in 1829. All slaves, who were not native Africans, 
who had been in the Colony for five years were admitted to testify in civil 
cases, and in criminal trials by indictment, on presentation of a registered 
certificate from an Anglican or Scotch clergyman that they could understand 
the nature of an oath. This did not apply to cases of libel against a free per- 
son, nor in cases which involved penalties on the defendants, unless the trial 
were by jury. No slave could testify against a white person charged with a 
capital offense, nor against his owner in any criminal prosecution, nor in any 
case involving the right of a slaveholder to a slave, or regarding an alleged 

°'24 Geo. Ill, 1. 
™2 Geo. IV, 37. 
"M Geo. IV, 2. 
29 



450 HISTORY 

manumission. Slaves could testify against manumitted persons in all cases 
of offenses below felony. Manumitted slaves, who had been registered as com- 
petent to take oaths while slaves, were allowed to testify as to facts committed 
subsequent to such registration, but not on facts bearing " on the freedom of 
a slave, or the life, liberty or jDroperty of a white person," committed between 
the time of registration and manumission. Even then the courts were author- 
ized to throw out all evidence of a slave whose character was bad, even when 
such evidence was not impugned, nor contradicted, by other and more trust- 
worthy evidence.™ 

Wilful perjury of a slave on oath was punishable with fifty lashes on the 
bare back. A later statute imposed a hundred such stripes, branding with the 
letter " P " (for perjurer), and disqualification to testify again imder oath, or 
to make a deposition.™ 

A slave in attendance at court was left in the custody of his master, when 
not actually on the stand. In cases of treason and felony he was placed in 
custody, unless the master entered into a recogiiizance to guarantee his attend- 
ance when needed.'"" 

Religioiis Instruction. — The Bahama people seemed to have laid emphasis 
constantly on the importance of religious instruction for their slaves. Slaves 
who had had this advantage were recognized as entitled to privileges that were 
still denied to other slaves."' The consolidated slave law of 1829 contained the 
following provision : ''All masters or owners of slaves .... shall .... 
endeavor to instruct their slaves in the Christian religion, and shall endeavor 
to fit them for baptism, and, as soon as conveniently may be, shall cause to be 
baptized all such slaves as they shall make sensible of the Deity and of the 
Christian faith." "' 

Conditions and Terms of Manumission. — To become free was the coveted 
goal of the slave. In order to reach this state he had to comply with rules, and 
to go through severe processes provided by the law ; but after all, the becoming 
free, or gaining recognition as a freeman, depended much on the master. It 
was equally burdensome upon the master who saw fit to manumit a slave. In 
1784 a tax of £90 was imposed on a manumission. The registers of the Colony 
were not burdened with records of manumissions. Such tax was not removed 

»no Geo. IV, 13. 

"10 Geo. IV, 13. 

"» 10 Geo. IV, 13. 

"" See e. g. 24 Geo. Ill, 1. 

'°= hoc. cit. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXIII 




Fig. 1. — XEGROES coming to vessel for medical treatment, clarence HARBOR, 

LONG ISLAND 




Fig. 2. — three r.ROTHERS afflicted with congenital blindness, hopetown. abaco 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING SANITARY CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 451 

and declared illegal nntil 1827, at which time onl)' a small registry fee was 
exacted of such liberally disposed masters.'" 

A law of the year 1805 confined the trial of all questions of the freedom 
of slaves to the General Court. For the accommodation of claimants to free- 
dom in the Out-islands, it was arranged that a magistrate could force a master 
to give up his claim to tlie ownership of a slave, or pay the expense of carrying 
the case to Nassau for trial in tlie highest court of tlie Colony. The expense 
of the latter alternative fell upon the master. In all such trials for freedom 
only the freedom of the slave could be determined, and only nominal damages 
awarded : but if the judgment were favorable to tlie claimant, another suit 
for damages could be made, as well as for wages for tlie time during which 
freedom had been unlawfully withheld."" A second suit for freedom, on grounds 
different from those on which freedom had once been denied, or based on facts 
occurring subsequent to the previous judgment, could not be denied to a slave. '°° 
Magistrates were authorized to appoint guardians for slaves."" 

By the later provision for tlie maniunission, the instrument freeing the 
slave had to be in writing, under seal, witnessed and registered. A slave cordd 
then, for the first time, purchase his own freedom under the express law of the 
Bahamas. He could also purchase the freedom of his wife or child, or of a 
relative, on such terms as he might make with the owner in each case. The 
code gave its support to all such agreements, if they were reasonable. In case 
of a disagreement between the owner and the slave, as to the price on whicli 
they had fixed for the price of freedom, a referee was to be appointed on 
behalf of each party, which referee would act, together with a magistrate, to 
determine upon the amount of compensation due the owner. If these parties 
failed to come to an agreement, an umpire was appointed to make a final deter- 
mination. His decision on the case the law upheld. These proceedings were 
not to affect the rights of judgments, or of creditors, mortgagees, or joint 
owners. 

Children under fourteen years of age could not be manumitted witliout 
the consent of their owners. The statute of 1824 forbade the manumissioii of 
old or infirm slaves, with a view to saving the Colony the expense of the main- 
tenance of such persons in the poor establishment. In the statute of the year 

•"7 Geo. IV, 1. 

'" 45 Geo. Ill, 20, and 7 Geo. IV, 7. 

■»■■ 10 Geo. IV, 6. 

"°Loc. cit. 



453 HISTORY 

1827 such slaves were allowed to be set free, but the master so inclined must 
provide for all such manumitted persons throughout the remainder of their 
lives."' 

Holidays. — Sunday labor was for the first time expressly forbidden in 
the later codification of the slave laws of the Colony. Christmas Day and 
the two following days were allowed as holidays. During these days the 
managers of gangs of slaves, or of plantations, were strictly required to be 
present on their plantations, or wherever the presence of their slaves required 
them for the purpose of keeping order."' 

Rights and Duties of the Masters. 

Under this head will be considered : Eight to property in the slave, com- 
pensation in case of manumission, as to runaways, denial of the right to culti- 
vate land, etc., punishments, general authority over slaves. 

Right to Property in, the Slave. — The slave code secured to the master the 
possession of his slave as a chattel. The master held the slave bound to him- 
self, had power to limit his freedom, to govern his conduct, and to determine 
his sphere of action, within the limits of the restrictions mentioned above. 
At best in this Colony, where mildness was reputed to have prevailed 
in the treatment of slaves, his lot was still that of the slave. With this 
property the master had the right of purchase and sale, which was absolute 
within certain bounds. He could alienate a slave just as he could alienate any 
other property, except when such alienation would involve a removal outside 
of the Bahamas. Eemovals were regulated by statutes of the imperial Parlia- 
ment. The time and energies of the slave were at the disposal of the master. 
By the custom of the place, slaves were allowed some time to work for them- 
selves, to be utilized, if they saw fit, for the laying up of money for buying 
absolution from their own bonds. The offspring of slaves were, by law, in the 
same condition as their parents, and belonged to the owners of the parents. 

Compensation in Case of Manumission. — The slave code not only guaran- 
teed to the master the possession of the slave, but if the latter was manu- 
mitted, or taken from his master without consent, compensation was 
allowed for the loss. In case of manumission by agreement between 

"' 4 Geo. IV, 6, and 7 Geo. IV, 7. Admiral Fleming states that he knew of a 
few cases in the Bahamas, in which the negroes had bought their freedom from 
their masters, but that, in his experience there, he did not know of many cases of 
that kind. Sess. P,, 1831-32, 20, pp. 218-19. 

"' 10 Geo. IV, 13, sec. 75. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 453 

master and slave, the former was allowed whatever compeusatiou might have 
been agreed upon. If a slave were condemned by a coiTrt to be executed or 
transported, the jur}' passing the sentence was authorized to fix a valuation 
on the slave, not to exceed £100, which was made over to the master from, the 
public treasury as compensation."" 

As to Runaways. — The runaway slave was returned to his master when 
apprehended."" It was difficult for a slave to make good his escape in a 
country where there Avas so little land on which to hide, and where the means 
of transportation were so limited. But running away was at times a frequent 
occurrence; so common did it occur several times in the history of the Colony 
as to become a matter of serious concern to the authorities. Both Governor 
and legislature might be seen at times dealing with this vexed question, offering 
amnesty to slaves who would deliver themselves up within a given time, and 
warning those who refused to surrender.'" The alarm, caused by the great 
number of desertions in the years 1800-01, was the immediate cause of the 
passage of a law to deal summarily with them. It ordered the registration of 
all free negroes, mulattoes, mustees and Indians, and enacted that if at any time 
five or more runaway slaves were reported, free negroes were liable to be armed 
and sent in pursuit of them. Colored freemen were ofEered rewards for the 
arrest and delivery of deserters. They were allowed to kill a fugitive slave, if 
necessary, in order to ward off a counter attack from the offending slave."° 

The later code defined a runaway as follows : " Every slave absent from 
his owner or employer for ten days together without leave .... found at a 
distance of eight miles from the house or plantation, to which he belongs, 
without a ticket, or permit, shall be deemed a runaway." Exception was 

»° 10 Geo. IV, 13. 

"" Smyth's JDs. No. 212, and Ds. S. St., 1833, No. 103. The question of runaways 
became complicated with that of removal under the administration of Sir James 
Smyth. He interfered with the removal of several slaves who had run away from 
the Out-islands to New Providence to escape from ill-treatment of their masters. 
Removals from one island to another were allowed only when the person owned 
land on the island to which the removal was to be made, and was removing the 
slave for the bona fide purpose of cultivating that land. 

^^^ Bahama Gazette, XI, Nos. 40, 55, 75, 115, 296, etc. Hardly an issue of the 
Gazette in 1794-95 failed to give notice of the escape of a fugitive. Private rewards 
were offered for their return. See also H. V., 1800-01. p. 21, record of the action of 
the House of Assembly respecting runaways. The slaves had congregated in the in- 
terior of the small island of New Providence where their presence had caused alarm 
to the white inhabitants. 

"= 10 Geo. IV, 13. 



454 HISTORY 

made for slaves going to and from market with suela articles as they were 
allowed to trade in. According to the code the master of a runaway slave was 
required to advertise a description of the property thus escaped; otherwise if 
the slave were executed or transported for any crime the master could receive 
no satisfaction from the public treasury. There were standing rewards, author- 
ized by the law, for the encouragement of the free l)lacks in the arrest of 
fugitives and in the capture or destruction of rebellious slaves. If, on the 
other hand, a slave assisted another slave to secure himself in hiding, or aided 
him in making good his escape, he made himself liable to a flogging of from 
forty to a hundred stripes. A free colored person, taking part in such an 
undertaking, became liable to a fine, or imprisonment until he consented to 
pay the same. The purchase or sale of runaways was forbidden under heavy 
penalty. A reward of £1 was offered to a freeman who should return a de- 
serting slave."" 

Workhouse keepers were required to advertise monthly lists of all returned 
runaways in their custody. Any slave, still in custody at the end of twelve 
months, could be sold at auction, and the proceeds devoted to the maintenance 
of the workhouse. The escape of slaves from the custody of the workhouse 
was treated with not less than fifty lashes on the bare back of the offender. 
Slaves, who succeeded in prolonging their stay away from the place to which 
they belonged for six months, were liable to punishment at the discretion of 
two justices of the slave court; those staying away longer than six months 
became liable to transportation for life, or to suffer such other punishment as 
the justices saw fit to inflict, not extending to life or limb. 

An attempt to run away from the Colony, which inevitably involved the 
heinous offense of stealing a boat, was also punishable with transportation, or 
such penalties as the slave court saw fit to inflict. A free colored person, assist- 
ing in such an enterprise, made himself liable to transportation for life, and if 
lie returned to the Colony, he was to siiffer death without benefit of clergy.'" 

Denial of tin' Rigid to Cultivate Land. etc. — Owners or masters could 
deny to their slaves the right to cultivate, on their own account, cotton and 
certain other crops, to rake salt, or to raise cattle or any other live stock. They 
could not prevent slaves from cultivating peas or beans, nor even from dealing 
in and raising corn and cotton, when the master was not engaged in the same 
occupation. Slaves were allowed to go about dealing in dry goods, only on 

"no Geo. IV, 13. 
"' 10 Geo. IV, 13. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 455 

certificate from the masters, which would protect them from being arrested 
and imprisoned. The,v were altogether forbidden to sell spirituous liquors, or 
to sell meats, either of which offenses demanded the application of the lash."° 

Punislunents. — Slave masters had tlie right practically to punish their 
slaves at their own discretion almost to any extent that discretion might allow, 
with impunity to themselves. They themselves reported tliat their punish- 
ments were light, and only such as were essential for the promotion of good 
deportment among the slaves. There is reason to l^elieve that the punishments 
inflicted in the Bahamas were generally mild, hut there were instances of the 
most unprovoked brutality, showing the possibilities under a regime in which 
the law, while expressing itself against cruelty to the bondsman, was impos- 
sible of enforcement, so that almost full rein was given to the masters. Slave 
masters could not be punished for ill-treatment of their slaves in a small 
colony, where the whole family of whites was on their side against tlie slaves. 
The grand Juries left conscience behind, and did not hesitate even in the pres- 
ence of a watchful governor to ignore the complaint of a slave against the 
cruelty of his master. Governor Sir James Smyth made the attempt in three 
test cases to prosecute masters for cruelty, but diligent and attentive as he was, 
the grand jury threw out slave evidence and slave complaints, just as if the 
law had not spoken at all in the matter."" This was a time of high excitement, 
but this was not the only time when such conduct was observed. Wilful mu- 
tilation was forbidden, under penalty of forfeiture of the claim upon the 
recipient of it. The death penalty without benefit of clergy nominally threat- 
ened the murderer of a slave. Placing iron collars on the necks, loading their 
bodies with weights or chains, offenses which doubtless never found many 
to inflict them in the Bahamas, were forbidden. The use of the whip, cat-o'- 
nine tails, or other instruments, to persuade slaves to work were also placed 
among the forbidden things."' 

Tlie most common form of punishment for petty offenses was whipping. 
This must have been inflicted at the nod of the owner in the time before the 
amelioration was begun. There seems to have been no restriction as to the 
number of lashes that could be inflicted, until the statute of 1824. At that 
time a limitation was fixed which was retained in the later code. Xo more 
than thirty-nine lashes were to be laid on in one day, and no furtlier punish- 

"=4 Geo. IV, 6, and 10 Geo. IV, 13. 

"»Cap. II, pp. 63-64. 

"■ 7 Geo. IV, 1, sec. 8, and 10 Geo. IV, 13. 



456 HISTORY 

ment of the kind was to be inflicted until the recipient liad become free from 
the lacerations resulting from punishments already inflicted. The owner, or 
the person authorizing the infliction of the penalty, was required to be present, 
and to witness the application of it. The British Ministry and the Governors 
of the Colony made attempts to have the flogging of female slaves dispensed 
with altogether. The nearest approach to this that was ever attained was in 
the provision that females above the age of twelve years could be punished 
only in the presence of their masters, or that flogging could be commuted to 
solitary confinement, or stocks, or distinctions of dresses, none of which was to 
continue for a longer period than ten days. This commutation was at the 
discretion of the master. Gaol and workhouse keepers were forbidden to 
punish slaves committed to their custody, without the consent of the owners 
or employers or of some competent court."' 

Violence towards whites was a very grievous offense for a slave to commit. 
Assault on a white was punished with death, under the statute of 1784. Other 
abuse of a white person, under the same statute, was atoned for by a fine of 
£15, or corporal punishment, not limited in amount or in character."" In 
1824 violence towards whites was made punishable at the discretion of the 
magistrate before whom the case was brought. The statute of 1827 fixed the 
penalty at fifty lashes for abusive language or threats against a white person. 
The death penalty for an assault against a. white with a dangerous weapon was 
reenacted in 1830."° 

General Authority Over Slaves. — As a privileged class in a community 
the whites were given certain general authority over all slaves in the Colony. 
They used their influence of moral suasion for the preservation of order and 
the prevention of trespassing on private rights by slaves. Although these duties 
were in the main extra-legal, there were nevertheless some such requirements 
expressed in the code. By the law of 1784 whites could disarm any slaves or 
free colored persons whom they found at large with arms in their hands. By a 
law of 1823 whites could authorize slaves to kill hogs, goats or sheep which 
trespassed against the stock laws by running at large on the highways about 
Nassau and its siiburbs-'^* 

"no Geo. IV, 13. 

»»24 Geo. Ill, 1. ' 

^=0 10 Geo. IV, 13. 

==' 3 Geo. IV, 2. 



the bahama islands 457 

Operation of the Eegistration System. 

During the years that the House of Assembly was resisting the efforts of 
the home government to secure a definition of the legal status of the slaves, 
the registration system was not lost sight of. It had been put into operation 
and several enumerations had been made."' The colonists never gave up the 
hope that the King and the Ministry would see the utter uselessness of the regis- 
tration system for this Colony, and would allow it to be repealed. It was doubt- 
less to this end that a report was made by a House committee on an inquiry 
into its-workings in 1827.'"" This report \\'as doubtless colored to make it appear 
that there was no need of the system, as it was made by those who would have 
liked to have found in it such objectionable features as would demand its 
repeal. It was a vexation to the people of this Colony where the constituent 
islands were so widely scattered. It entailed an expense that made it more 
vexatious, since it was, from the point of view of inhabitants of the Bahamas, 
an unnecessary system. The slave mariners, who were peculiarly useful owing 
to the physical condition of the Colony, could not be employed regularly, nor 
to the advantage of their owners. The employment of them outside of 
the Colony was forbidden, and use within the Colony was subjected to such 
restrictions as almost to deprive the owners of the value of their skill. Diffi- 
culties arose in registering the slaves of the ignorant Out-island people. But 
for the consideration shown them by the Kegistrar of slaves, in spite of the 
inaccuracies of their returns, the operations of the law would have been attended 
with much greater difficulties."* 

THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY. . 
Thus far there had been no serious difficulty in the enforcement of the new 
slave code. The greater part of the time had been taken up with the enactment 
of slave laws in such form as would be acceptable to the home government. 
Governor Grant had had some difficulty with the House of Assembly, but had 
left the Colony with amicable relations still existing between himself and the 
people. In 1829 Sir James Smyth was sent out as Governor. 

•^ Sess. P., 1831, 19, p. 171. The total slave population of the Bahamas in 1831 j 
was 9268. There were 2991 free blacks, and 4240 white. See also Zoc cit., 1833, "^ 
26, 473, extracts from several censuses. In 1822 there were 10,808 slaves, in 182.5 
9284, and in 1828 9268. 

"=H. v., 1827, pp. 24-26. 

"*I/OC. cit. 



■158 HISTORY 

Governor Sir James Smyth. 

The new slave code was practicall}' completed on his assumption of the 
government, and with a few exceptions was in accord with what had been 
recommended by the British Ministry. It was now the duty of the new 
Executive to apply that code to the society of the Bahamas, and thus accomplish 
the end which had been aimed at in all the anxious endeavors of the preceding 
fifteen years. 

Sir James Smj'th was a thoroughly conscientious man, painstaking in all 
he vindertook to do, and attentive to all the duties of his office. He was filled 
with the abolition sentiment of the mother country, which had been the cause 
of so much anxiety to the British colonists, and was a willing instrument for 
the. enforcement of the amelioration laws. He hated the injustice of slavery 
and was not in sympathy with the invidious distinctions as to color and race 
which pervaded the Colony. He also had an exalted idea of the prerogative, 
but found here, however, that the legislature had taken into its hands several 
important functions of the Executive. A part of the task he was to undertake 
lay in the reclamation of legitimate executive powers from the grasp of the 
House of Assembly. 

Attempt to Give Effect to Eeforms. 

Tlie legislature was- in session when the new Governor arrived at 
Nassau. In his closing address to that body, soon after his coming, the 
Governor frankly congratulated the memljers of the House and Council, 
that they had gone beyond what any of the other colonial legislatures 
in the West Indies had done in the enactment of pirovisions for the amel- 
ioration of their slaves.'^ Although so much credit was due to this body, in 
the view of the Governor there was still one important question which they 
had steadily refused to yield. Tliis was the flogging of female slaves, on which 
so much emphasis had been laid as the darkest blot on the institution of 
slavery."" It was claimed by the slave owners that flogging was the sole means 
of compelling the submission of refractory females, that they were more difficult 
to deal with than the males, and that until some other mode of p\inishment 
equally as effective as flogging could be discovered, they were unwilling to give 

"= H. v., 1S29, 107. This was not a source of gratiflcation to a body of slave- 
holders, who were hoping that the ministry would discover the inexpediency of the 
enactment of such laws and instruct the Governor to apply for their repeal. 

>="10 Geo. IV, 13. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXIV 





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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 459 

it up. The Governor made known his attitude against this jiractice in a 
proclamation.'"' 

A case demanding the (Tovernor's attention soon arose. One of the justices 
of the General Court, acting as agent for an estate, sent a female slave to the 
police court at Nassau, where she was ordered to be flogged. The Governor 
acted quickly when the case came to his attention. The Assistant Justice, who 
was a member of his Council, was suspended from that position, and the ]5olice 
magistrate, Robert Duncome, was suspended from office, both to await the 
determination of the home government on the conduct of the Governor."* The 
Executive, confident of the good results that would follow, was dismayed to 
find out that the conduct of the two prominent persons did not cause an ex- 
pression of disapproval on the part of the people. It now began to dawn upon 
him that it was improbaljle that he could procure the passage of the desired 
law against flogging women.'"" 

When the Assembly met again, in the fall of 1831, Governor Smytli made 
an appeal to the House to pass a law to do away with the inhuman practice of 
flogging. He had just restored to tlieir owners a crew of slave mariners wliom 
the revenue officers had attempted to condemn for a violation of tlu' hiw 
governing removals.™ His conduct in this affair had greatly pleased the 
House, for it had sent an address to him not to allow the slaves to be pi'ose- 
cuted. The Governor took advantage of the favor gained by his conduct, to 
press upon the Assembly the question of flogging of females. But he was 
doomed to disappointment again. The feeling on the question had not im- 
proved in the least in favor of the view of the Governor. While it was ac- 
knowledged that whipping was not often necessary, and that it was being 

'=" Smyth's Ds.. No. 42. and H. V., 1831, p. 95. 

'=" Smyth's Ds.. No. 42 

^-'' Loc. cit. The Governor was relieved from embarrassment in his Council by 
the resignation of Assistant Justice Lees. In this affair and in the difliculty with 
the slaves of Lord Rolle, Lees was estranged from the Governor, and the latter was 
thus unfortunately deprived of the services of a man who made himself invaluable 
to the successors of Sir James Smyth. 

'=" H. v., 1S31, p. 73. The revenue officers had seized the crew of a sloop on its 
arrival at Nassau for an alleged violation of the law governing removals, committed 
at Crooked Island. The Governor, anxious that justice should be done, laid the case 
before the Crown law offlcer for his opinion. The Solicitor upheld the seizure, and 
held that the slaves should be prosecuted to condemnation and forfeiture. The 
House sent in an address to the Governor, praying that he would not suffer the 
property of one of the inhabitants to be treated in this way. The Governor over- 
ruled the opinion of the Solicitor on the merits of the case, and restored the slaves 
to their owner. 



460 HISTORY 

abandoned in practice, still tliese representatives of the slaveholding constitu- 
encies were unwilling to give the sanction of legislative approval to its aboli- 
tion.'"' In the Council there was better success. A provision for this purpose 
passed there, however, was thro^vn out on the first reading in the House."' An 
appeal was made to the clergy of the Colony to use their influence in educating 
the people to a more humane feeling, and to use their influence against the 
practice,™ for the Governor realizing that the only way in which the abolition 
of female flogging could be brought to pass was by the reaction on the Assembly 
of the public sentiment of the community."* 

Flogging of Female Slaves. 

This meeting of the legislature had closed in the spring of 1831. An- 
other session was found necessary in order to enact some provision for the 
jury law, which expired during the year. The Assembly was accordingly 
called to meet early in June. The Governor had purposed to be unremitting 
in his eilorts to secure the passage of a statute abolishing the flogging of 
female slaves, and he availed himself of every opportunity to call the attention 
of the members of the House to it, and to urge them to take action for that 
purpose. He had prepared an address to the House on the question, and was 
on the point of presenting it, when information was brought to him of a bold 
act of cruelty to a female slave."' Jolm Wildgoos, a member of the House 
for western New Providence, had ordered a female slave, belonging to himself, 
to be punished in the workhouse, where she had been confined for several weeks, 
following a former severe punishment, also inflicted by his order."" Governor 
Smyth merely called the attention of the House to the conduct of this member, 
trusted it to take the course which humanity would have dictated, by the 
expulsion of Wildgoos from its membership. In spite of the former disappoint- 
ment at the tolerance of the community as to flogging, he still confidently ex- 
pected to find sufficient humane feeling among the members of the House to 

"' H. v., 1831, p. 95. The members of the House appeared not to think it worth 
while to reiterate the arguments against the flogging of women. They referred the 
Governor to a former address of the House upon tlie same question. 

"= Smyth's Ds., No. 88. 

^"^ Loc. cit. 

"' See this address printed as enclosure No. 2, in Governor's Ds. of April 5, 1831. 
Sess. P., 1831-32, 46, p. 287 (24). 

"=H. v., 1831 (extra session), p. 36. . 

"° Loc. cit. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 461 

rise lip against sueli conduct as this on the part of one of their number."' But 
he had not rightly judged this body of men. He had credited them with too 
much anxiety for humane treatment of their slaves. This legislature lilce its 
predecessors had been so extremely sensitive to encroachment on its own as- 
sumed rights, and had insisted on privileges and immunities for its own mem- 
bers, but it was not inquisitive in the ease of one of a down-trodden class for 
whose condition it was responsible. These slaveholders did not wish to have 
Ihe abuses which their system of bondage would permit inquired into and re- 
vealed to the world. It was no affair of theirs. If the member had committed 
any breach of the laws of the Colony, the courts of law were open to punish him. 
As far as they were concerned, they would take no further notice of the 
allegations against him, than to reply to the Governor that they regarded his 
late message to them as an interference with their privileges which was " un- 
warranted and wholly unprecedented." ™ It would appear that the Governor 
was not acting outside of the line of his duty in calling the attention of the 
House to the conduct of affairs and current events in the Colony. He made no 
request of the House, he merely called the attention of the members to this fact 
that had been reported to him, with no comment thereon.™ He did not expect 
the House to proceed to the punishment of the member, further than to investi- 
gate the case, and consider whethei- he should continue to hold his seat in the 
House, for he himself expected to make Wildgoos answer at the "bar of the 
proper tribunal " in the trial of the case."" He might in his own view have 
been charged with dereliction of duty, if he had failed to call attention to it. 
On the side of the House, it was an outburst of that traditional Jealousy 
of the Colony against alleged interference with its privileges, occasioned 
at this time by an exasperated state of mind. This Governor had been insist- 
ing on the consideration of this question ever since his arrival in the Colony, 
and now the House wished him to make an end of it. Both House and Gov- 
ernor doubtless felt that it was improbable that Wildgoos ■would be made to 
suffer for what he had done. A public sentiment, that would not demand his 
expulsion from the membership of the House of Assembly, would neither de- 
mand his prosecution in the courts of justice. The Governor desired it to be 
established and to become Icnown that such conduct would not be tolei'ated in 

"' Loc. cit. Governor's address to the House on this affair. Also loc. cit.. 
p. 40. 

™H. v., 1831 (extra session), p. 38. 
™Z/OC. cit., p. 36. Governor's address. 
^^ Loc. cit., p. 40. Governor's address. 



462 HISTORY 

the Bahamas; the members of the House desired to ignore the matter and 
allow it to be advertised as little as possible.'" 

The House determined upon the recall of Sir James Smyth from the 
position in which he had become a cause of constant vexation to it, and to the 
slaveholding element in the Colony. It began with an investigation of the 
state of the police and the Nassau workhouse and gaol. On this committee of 
inquiry were placed two of the most violent slave owners in the whole Colony, 
one of whom was very bitter against the Governor for his conduct in the ca?e 
of some runaway slaves."" This report charged the Grovernor with unjusti- 
fiable interference fldth the trials of slaves, in several instances, with the result 
that the owners had to become judges and executors of the law and to punish 
their slaves on their own authority. It charged him further with using his 
patronage for breaking up the influence of masters over their slaves; and that 
witnesses in the courts had been cautious in giving their testimony, fearing 
executive displeasure."^ The House was so well pleased with the report of this 
committee that it proceeded at once to the passage of a set of resolutions de- 
nouncing the Governor, charging him \\'ith subversion of law, with encoui'aging 
a refractory spirit in the slaves, with encroachment on the privileges of the 
House, and continued maladministration of the affairs of the Colony until it 
became the part of duty no longer to submit; it openly declared its utter loss 
of confidence in him. It resolved to ask the King to remove him from the 
government.'" The Governor Jiad refrained from interfering with the House 
proceedings in order that that body might content itself by doing all in its 
p)0wer to secure his recall.'" As soon as it had reached that point, it requested 
him to put an end to its proceedings as it 'svould do no more business while he 
remained in the Colony."" Action was not long delayed. A prorogation oc- 

^" Loc. cit., pp. 41, 44, 45, 47 and 49. Also Smyth's Ds., No. 105. Perhaps it 
should be stated that the Governor was as prejudiced on the one side of the slavery 
question as were the majority of the members of the House on the other. But it 
cannot be said that the former committed as great indiscretions as did the latter in 
these difficulties. 

"= Smyth's Ds., No. 105. See also the report of this committee in H. V., 1831 
(extra session), pp. 44 and 45. 

"'H. v., loc. cit. 

"' H. v.. 1831 (extra session), pp. 47-49 and 58. It was decided to send the whole 
of these proceedings to the Colonial Agent at London, and to the Marquis of Chandos. 
chairman of the West India body at London. These officials were to be asked to 
use their influence to secure the recall of the Governor. 

"■'Smyth's Ds., N. 105. 

""H. v., 1831 (extra session), p. 57. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 463 

curred on June 21, onh' three weeks after the opening of the session."' 
Not long afterwards a dissolution was proclaimed, and the members were sent 
back to their constituents " to appeal to that good sense, and to that good feel- 
ing, which have ever been found to be inherent in Englishmen in all parts of 
the world." "' 

In the midst of the excitement over tliese things, the consideration of the 
jury question for which the session had been called was forgotten. As no jury- 
act was passed, there was no provision for the calling of jurymen, except by 
the common law, according to which colored freemen could be included in the 
list of those called for this duty."" Another advantage was that the common 
law did not exclude the evidence of slaves from the courts. 

Governor Smyth had succeeded in effecting some reforms in the slave courts 
of the Colony. Before he came, the complaints of slaves liad not met with any 
considerable encouragement. Kecords of the slave courts had not been kept before 
the year 1829, when a special instruction directing this to be done was sent out 
by the Secretary of State.''" These records were now, in every case, laid before 
the Governor prior to the execution of the sentence imposed, and, on the autlior- 
ity of his superior, the Governor allowed the execution of no sentences in cases 
in which he had reason to extend the Iving's pardon to the offenders.'" 
Decorum and order were introduced, and enforced, in the trials of slaves, all 
which was due to the solicitude of the Governor for giving equal justice to 
both blacks and whites. A restoration to the position of justices in the slave 
courts of ilagistrates Duncome and Anderson, whom Governor Smyth had sus- 
pended for inflicting punishment on slaves, worked against the success of the 
cause in which he was laboring. Both whites and blacks accepted it as a dis- 
approval of the conduct of the Governor, or as an indication that the home 
government was not interested in the trials of slaves, nor in the measures for 
their amelioration."' These two men were again dismissed before the end of 
the year and finally removed from the number of the justices of the slave 
courts. They had l^egun again in the same manner in which they had acted 

"' Loc. cit, pp. 57 and 61. 

""H. v., 1831 (extra session), pp. 61-62. Also Smyth's Ds., No. 105. 

"" Smyth's Ds., 135. Half of the salary of the provost marshal was paid by the 
Crown. The Governor now hoped that as that officer was not entirely dependent 
on the House he could easily be induced to summon negroes as well as whites to 
serve on juries. 

'■"■"Circular Ds., 1829, and Smyth's Ds., No. 133. 

•■"Smyth's Ds., No. 133, and Ds., S. St.. 1831, No. 32. 

■'= Smyth's Ds., No. 133. 



464 " HISTORY 

before they were first suspended. The sanction of the home government of the 
removal for a second time was a virtual confirmation of the policy of the 
Governor in his dealing with the police magistrates.*" 

Elections of 1833. 
It was necessary, for the sake of the interests of the Colony, to have another 
session of the Assembly, but the Governor delayed the issuance of the writs of 
election in order that the minds of the excited slaveholders might become more 
calm before legislation was again undertaken."" The calmer mood was not 
reached, however, as he had hoped it might be. All classes in the Colony looked 
forward anxiously to the coming election. The members of the late House did 
not give up their determination to contest every point with the Governor. Tn 
this they were supported by a majority of the voting population.'"" At the be- 
ginning of the last session of the Assembly a number of the more conservative 
members, who were men of influence in the eommimity, had withdrawn 
from the House in order to avoid being present on the occurrence of such a 
breach with the government, as seemed to be inevitable. Only four members 
were left who were favorable to the Governor. Almost every vote of the session 
had resulted in a majority of 13 to 4 against him. The extremists now set 
about the returning of the same individuals to the new House. A scurrilous 
newspaper, edited by a disaffected individual, took issue with almost every act of 
the government, and became the organ of the opposition, reveling in false 
charges against the government and gross abuse of the colored population.'™ 
Local officials, the payment of whose salaries depended on the annual grant of 

•"^ Smyth's Ds., Nos. 122 and 124, and Ds., S. St., 1832, Nos. 44 and 45. 

'" Smyth's Ds., No. 127. 

'== See H. v., 1832; app., p. 1. Petition of the House for the removal of the 
Governor. Petitions were also sent in from the inhabitants of New Providence, 
from Harbor Island, and from Abaco, calling for the removal of the vexatious 
Governor. See loc. cit. and ff. The results of the elections to the new House 
will show better than these things the state of feeling of the majority of the voters 
of the Colony towards the policy of the representative of the Crown in the Bahama 
government. 

"° Smyth's Ds. of July 2, 1832, account of the prosecution of the editor of the 
Argus for libels on the Governor, abuse of the negroes, and the whites who had 
acted in support of the Governor and his policy. This editor was convicted on the 
first of the six charges brought against him. The others were withdrawn. See on 
the conduct of this paper, Ds., No. 127. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXV 




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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 465 

the House of Assembl}-, were neutralized in the elections that here took place.'" 
The whole of the local population was not, however, against the Governor. 
Some of the most influential slaveholding members of the community had 
viewed with disapproval the course pursued by the majority of the late House, 
and were at tliis time working for the defeat of that majority. The whole of 
the free negro population was favorable to the government."" But there was not 
a large number of this class that were admitted to elections. In spite of the 
efforts put forth to elect men of temperate disposition, all seemed to point to a 
victory for the opposition, in which event there would be a renewal of the old 
difficulties and an inevitable resort to a dissolution.'™ It was a time of anxious 
anticipation with Governor Smyth. The elections occurred near the beginning 
of the new year, 1832, resulting in the return of most of the same individuals 
who had sat in the late House, and' with an addition of others of the same 
disposition. The opposition majority in this Assembly was stronger than it 
had been in the former one.'™ 

The Governor opened the session of the legislature on the seventh of 
February with another appeal for the removal of the legal distinctions 
as to race, urging that the House could surround itself with grateful 
friends.'"' A House committee hastily drew up a reply, on the receipt 
of the executive address, and presented it to the House for its sanction. 
It contained a refusal either to alter the laws governing the negroes, or to 
legislate at all while Sir James Smyth was Governor of the Bahamas. The 
Governor was addressed in language that was unusual on such an occasion. 
Messrs. Malcolm and ISTesbitt, the sole government members, proposed certain 

^" hoc. cit., No. 132. Some of these officials doubtless favored strongly the 
policy of the government but dared not take active part in the elections because of 
this influence of the House over them. Incumbents of these positions who were sent 
out from England were generally favorable to the policies of the government and 
were a source of strength to it in its struggles with the local legislature. 

'™ Loc. cit., No. 127. When the petitions for the removal of the Governor were 
sent in, the free blacks of New Providence petitioned the King to retain Sir James 
Smyth as their Governor. There was a like petition of the whites of the same 
island. See acknowledgment of these in Ds., S. St., 1831, No. 32. In his despatch, 
No. 133, the Governor wrote that many of the ignorant whites at Abaco and else- 
where signed the petitions against him, because they were under the influence of 
the store keepers on Bay Street at Nassau. 

'™ Smyth's Ds., No. 127. While the Governor was planning for the meeting of 
the legislature, he was also planning the course he should follow in case of a disso- 
lution without the passage of the necessary legislation. 

""■H. v., 1832, p. 1. 

'"H. v., 1832, p. 7, Governor's opening address. 
30 



466 HISTORY 

alterations in order to malve tlie address more respectful. All their suggestions 
were rejected by the vote of 19 to 2, and the address was presented as it had 
come from the hands of the committee."" The temper of this body was further 
shown on the presentation of a despatch from the Secretary of State, in which 
the full plan of the Ministry for the amelioration was outlined.'"' Those who 
were urging these measures little reckoned that within the next two years 
Parliament would take the vital step in disposing of this burdensome question ; 
they could not foretell that the proposed regulations, if adopted, would have no 
more than time enough to come into full operation before the necessity for 
them would have passed away. The hard experience of eight years bad 
impressed the Ministry with the necessity of firmness in dealing with 
the hoklers of slave property, and of consistency in the advice that 

•°=H. v., 1832, pp. 18-19. 

>■" v., 1832, pp. 25-32. Copy of the despatch of Secretary Goderich. The home 
government now attempted to make it known that there had never been any in- 
tention on its part to deceive the colonists, but that now it was tliouglit well to make 
a full declaration of its motives and intentions which had actuated it throughout 
the whole course of its dealings with the slave question. It was represented that it 
was necessary to satisfy the feeling for the slaves in the mother country. On the 
other hand, that there was a strong feeling of sympathy for the holders of West 
Indian property, which was so much affected by these measures. It was represented 
that during the last eight years the efforts in behalf of the slaves had met with 
slight success, that advice given had been little heeded, and " in many cases rejected 
without the forms of respect." The following was stated as the final intention, but 
not in the spirit of peremptory dictation: "His Majesty's government intend to 
propose to Parliament in the present session, in common with other financial meas- 
ures of the year 1832, a measure of substantial relief for the West Indian interests, 
so framed as to take effect on the produce of the Crown colonies as a matter of 
course; and upon that of the other colonies only in which the provisions, in their 
precise terms, and in their entire extent, of His Majesty's Order-in-council (of Nov. 
2, 1831), for improving the condition of the slaves, shall have acquired the force 
of law. The measure will be so framed, that the indispensable condition of re- 
ceiving the benefit of it will be the existence of a colonial statute having passed 
the colonial legislature simply, and without qualification in terms, or time, de- 
claring the Order-in-council to possess the force of law in the colony." Further, it 
stated that allowing the legislature to frame the statute was by no means the in- 
tentions of the home government, as that left in its hands also the essence of the 
law. The labors of several years had secured the faithful execution of very little 
of the desired program. Prejudice prevented the Colony from doing what the 
home government demanded: dispassionate self-possession, so much needed for 
unbiased action, was absent. The government would be seriously concerned, if these 
measures failed to pass. The prosperity of the planters was to be renewed. West 
Indian insensibility to public opinion in the mother country was regretable in this 
view, for it threatened the colonies with more dangerous calamities and commer- 
cial reverses than they had ever experienced, and which it was beyond the power 
of human resources to prevent. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 467 

was given them/" The copy of the Order-in-coiincil was laid before the 
House at the same time.™ It was iDrinted, and copies of it were dis- 
tributed by the members of the House to their constituents, in order to 
obtain their views, before deciding a question of such momentous importance.'™ 
But whatever might have been the opinions of their constituencies, they re- 
peated their declaration not to consider the question of amelioration while the 
head of the government remained unchanged.'"' The Council expressed its 
opinion that the measures were not applicable to the Bahamas.'"' The colonists 
feared that if the Governor were allowed to continue his course a slave insur- 
rection would follow. Again they recited their grievances in a petition to tlie 
King for the recall of Governor Smyth.'"" The House proceeded to business, 
passing bills " for the public benefit," some of which were so framed as to make 
sure that the Governor would not give his assent to them. Thus the responsi- 
bility for the lack of legislation would be shifted to the Executive. Payments 
were authorized by the House to be made without the warrant of the Governor.'" 
Other measures offered by the House would have perpetuated the legal recogni- 
tion of the race distinction ; a market bill provided that no negro should be a 
member of the market commission ; a printing bill contained within itself the 
names of all the commissioners, all of whom were members of the House of 
Assembly; the revenue and appropriations bills contained very objectionable 
provisions. Three or four important bills that were presented were loft un- 
signed by the Governor.'" When the violent course of the House led it again 
to the point of petitioning for the recall of the Governor another dissolution 
was resorted to, in order to prevent more violent conduct.''" 

™Loc. cit., pp. 25-32. 

'"■Loc. cit., pp. 33-72. 

^'"■Loc. cit.. p. 110. 

"■■ Loc. cit., p. 121. 

"* Smyth's Ds., No. 141. All but two of the members of the Council were at 
the mercy of the House on the salary list question. The Governor hoped to gain 
control of the salary list, and thus secure independent action on the part of the 
official members of the Council. 

"»H. v., 1S32, p. 209. The petition was dated March 21. 

"° Smyth's Ds., No. 142. 

"' Loc. cit.. No. 143. The Governor had forewarned the House that he would 
not sign any bills that were such as would tend to perpetuate the invidious race 
distinctions. 

'"H. v., 1832, p. 232. This was the second dissolution within a period of eight 
months. 



468 HISTORY 

GovEKNOK Smyth and the Slaveholders. 

This was the end of the struggle between Governor Smyth and the House 
of Assembly. With the consent of the Secretary of State, the Governor deter- 
mined to undertake the government of the Colony for a term without the 
assistance of the legislative body, hoping thus to introduce a better state of feel- 
ing among the people. Before the time when the next House was called Sir 
James Smyth had been removed from the Bahamas. 

The excitement which had prevailed among the inhabitants of the Colony 
had only been increased by this second dissolution of the Assembly.''' The per- 
sistence of the House in its opposition to the wishes of the home government, 
and its heedlessness to the warnings of the latter, had, in the view of the 
Governor, caused it a considerable loss of prestige. On the other hand, the 
consistent attitude of the Executive towards the question of race distinctions, 
and his maintenance of the rights of the prerogative, had very materially in- 
creased his personal influence in the Colony and had won back to the Crown 
representative the exercise of important executive functions.''* The control of 
the markets and the public buildings had now come into the hands of the 
Executive, and he had gained a temporary control of the civil list."' As a result 
of the contest the Colony was left without the regular annual provision for the 
revenues. But the Governor was not thus entirely deprived of the means of 
supplying the needs of the public service. There were still some funds at his 
disposal."" While these would not supply all the demands on the public purse, 
they did relieve the Governor of the fear of not being able to carry on the 
government. Public and private interests would have to suffer great incon- 
venience in this state of things,'" unless succor came to some of them from the 

"= Smyth's Ds., No. 143. 

"*Loc. cit., Nos. 143 and 163. 

^'"Loc. cit., No. 143. 

"" H. v., 1832, 214. The funds that would be forthcoming, in the absence of 
the annual revenue act, were salt and tonnage duties, and duties imposed by acts of 
Parliament and collected by the King's revenue officers at the ports of the Colony. 
An old act of the Assembly of the 8th of Geo. II, came into operation in such 
default of revenue as this. It provided for revenues of which the Crown could 
dictate the disposal. It had been forgotten in the years 1793-4, when the Earl of 
Dunmore had difficulties with the House: the Receiver-General had unearthed this 
statute and duties were collected under its authority. It had never been repealed, 
perhaps owing to the negligence of the House in not removing this possibility of 
obtaining revenue from the Governor, Ds., S. St., 1832, No. 65. In addition to this 
there were the funds arising from the quit rents which came to the Crown. 

"'Smyth's Ds., No. 143. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 469 

home government, for which the Governor made application to the Colonial 
Department. 

The Governor was left in complete control of the situation. The As- 
sembly, being out of the waj' for the time being, there were sufficient revenues 
in his grasp to carry on the government without the interference of those who 
had supported the late House,"' and he received the approval from the Secretary 
of State for that conduct which had excited such protests on the part of many 
of the colonists."" Further than this he was informed that the petitions, which 
had been sent in, calling so urgently for his removal from the government of 
the Bahamas, had been laid before the Privy Council, and that that body had 
not considered them of siifficient weight to merit any serious attention."" The 
state of feeling in the Colony was still much the same as it had been. The 
same prejudices existed, and there was the same aversion to the head of the 
government that there had been since that official had had his first break with 
the legislature. The seal of approval of his past conduct was an encouragement 
to him to continue his efforts in the " out-door " sphere, in which he had been 
so successful. He fully realized now that the task of relieving the negro pop- 
ulation from the burdens under which they had been placed, and the raising 
of them to a higher plane, was anything but a popular undertaking in this 
atmosphere of slavery. He also realized that the whites alone were qualified 
to deal with the problems of local legislation, but that they needed to be taught 
the reality of the royal power, and that they should pay due respect to it. In 
order to accomplish his purpose the Governor feared it would be necessary to 
lay open wider the wounds of the Colony, and to estrange the people perhaps 
more than ever before, Imt he was confident that, with the support of the royal 
power, as he had been upheld thus far, there would be a speedy improvement 
in the state of feeling throughout the Colony. He continued his course as he 
had done before. During the remainder of his incumbency of the government 
he was not to be interfered with by the encroachments of the legislative power, 
upon what belonged to the Executive,"' nor with its protest against the proper 
performance of his duties. We shall see how completely he had things under 
his control, and in what respects the local authorities were enabled to obstruct 
his attempted reforms. 

^'" Loc. cit. 
* >-°Ds., S. St., 1832, No. 65. 
^^Loc. cit., No. 73. 
•" Smyth's Ds., No. 163. 



470 IllSXORY 

The Governok's Council. 
In entering upon his new experiment the Governor had the support of the 
majority of his Council. Although he was successful from the ver}' beginning, 
there were petty annoyances that constantly disturbed him, and tended to keep 
alive the animosities against the authorities. The House of Assembly in its 
late session had provided, before its dismission, that, in case its life were 
brought to a premature end, its commissioners of correspondence should keep 
up their communication with the Colonial Agent in London. A stream of 
complaints was kept going to the mother country ; something was being done to 
'disquiet the people and keep up the state of ill-feeling."' But the people were 
disappointed that the Governor was enabled to continue the government with- 
out the necessity of the voting of funds by the legislature. The ordinary 
functions of the government were performed regularly and punctually ; salaries 
Mere paid as they had been at other times. The disappointment at his progress 
found lodgment in the hearts of some members of his Council. The venerable 
Chief Justice of the Bahamas, William Vesey Munnings, and three other 
members of this confidential body, could not cheerfully contemplate this suc- 
cessful administration. Necessary actions of the Council were " caviled at," 
petty obstructions were thrown in its way to impede it. Outside of the 
Council, the Chief Justice was in a position to defeat the ends of the govern- 
ment by the interpretation of the laws.'^'' With his companion -obstructionists 
in the Council he gave out a statement in public that the arrangements, sug- 
gested in the Order-in-council of November 2. 1831, were impossible of appli- 
cation in till' Bahamas. A statement under his authority was respected, and 
this one would have the influence of turning men against the measures for the 
amelioration of tlie slaves. He attempted to induce the Governor to issue 

"'= Smyth's Ds., No. 143. 

"' Smyth's Ds., No. 194. • The Governor had desired the removal of Chief Justice 
Munnings from the Colony, in order that some one might he put in the position of 
Chief Justice who was not accustomed to interpret the laws to the prejudice of the 
slave, and in favor of the white man. From his long continuance at the post, 
Munnings was not the man to aid in the introduction of a new system in the 
Colony. The Secretary of State had at first considered favorably the plan for the 
transference of the Chief Justice to a place outside of the Bahamas. Later, how- 
ever, he advised the Governor that he was unable to make the promotion. The great 
disappointment of Mr. Munnings at this intelligence doubtless contributed largely 
to determine his conduct at this time. Smyth's Ds., No. 194. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 471 

warrants for payments from the colonial treasury in an illegal manner."' The 
Governor feared a coalition of the disaffected members for the purjjose of out- 
voting him. In order to prevent this, he seized the opportunity in the absence 
of two of the members from Kew Providence, and the inability of one other to 
attend, to call to the Council the Solicitor-General, the Eeceiver-General and 
the Collector of the King's customs, all of whom were of the government party."' 
The two disaffected members remaining were chagrined at the next meeting 
to find that they were outvoted. They gave vent to their feelings of dis- 
appointment in such rough manners and intemperate language that they were 
both dismissed."" By such measures the Governor disposed of the remnants of 
opposition that were left in positions of authority. At a meeting of the 
Council in the last quarter of 1832 he disclosed that the Colony was able to pay 
all salaries — judicial, ecclesiastical, and civil — in full. No hindrance to the 
course of public business occurring, the public confidence in the measures of the 
government appeared to increase. The Governor purposed to put off as long 
as possible the calling of a new legislature, in order that the public mind might 
be given time to regain composure."' 

Attempt to Educate the ApracANs. 

In the meantime, the Governor M-as making anxious endeavors to educate 
some of the negroes. The colonists had regarded his activities in this sphere 
with jealousy. The expense of what had been undertaken in this way had 
fallen on the Crown funds, with the sanction of the Colonial Department. 
Governor Smyth had desired to have placed at his disposal a quantity of school 
supplies, that were in the hands of the board of education, in order that he 
might use them in the African schools, which he had established. As Chan- 
cellor of the Colony he forced the board to give iip the supplies, but he received 
from its members a discourteous note. He placed all of them in prison. All 

"■" Smyth's Ds., No. 194. The Chief Justice in a meeting of the Council 
remarlved that it was useless to have the Council sign the warrants for the 
quarterly payments from the treasury, as its consent was not necessary. The 
Governor merely replied that he was doing it that way because he had been in- 
structed to do so. The legal method was for warrants to be signed in the presence 
of the Council. Loc. cit. 

'*^ Smyth's Ds., No. 200. He at once applied to the home government for a 
ratification of his conduct. 

"" Loc. cit. 

^"^ Loc. cit., No. 206. This was the third quarter for which the Governor-in- 
Council had been able to provide support to public interests. 



472 HISTORY 

but two obstinately refused to make the apologies required of them. The other 
five had to submit to the indignity of remaining in prison for a few days. The 
effect of this was to increase the influence of the Executive and the public con- 
fidence in his impartiality to all classes."'' 

The Out-Islands. 

Although the Governor could send back an Assembly to its constituency, 
still he could not by this means control slave masters in all their dealings with 
their slaves. The people did not consider themselves subject to all the re- 
straints which the Governor had attempted to enforce in their relations with 
their slave property. In the Out-islands the prestige of the reforms that had 
been effected in part at Nassau was not great. In these places the Magistrates 
were of the same class as the ignorant mass of the people. From such admin- 
istrators of the law, justice could hardly have been expected, especially towards 
a class of persons whom they held as chattels. The consolidated slave law was 
so looselj' constructed, and speciously worded, that it could easily be interpreted 
and applied to the prejudice of the slave class. The giving of slave testimony 
had become a deterrent to the infliction of wanton punishments of slaves, and 
yet the section of the slave code applying to testimony was the most complicated 
portion of the statute.'™ The possibility of abuses on the Out-islands was so 
great that Governor Smyth resolved, on his own authority, not to allow the 
removal of slaves from New Providence to any of the Out-islands, unless the 
names of all slaves thus removed should be entered in his office as qualified and 
competent to give evidence in the courts.™ At Governors Harbor, Eleuthera, 
it was reported that several masters had not allowed to their slaves the requisite 
legal amotmt of food and clothing."' Cases of cruelty occurred in some places. 
In several instances when masters attempted to exercise authority over slaves, 
or to inflict punishment on them, the latter ran away to Nassau, where they 
knew they could claim the protection of the Governor.'"' It has Iseen stated 

«» Smytli's Ds., No. 203. It is interesting to note in connection witli this affajr 
that the Secretary of State not only refused to ratify the conduct of the Governor, 
but that he also replied that he had no power to interfere with, or take cognizance 
of, the exercise of the Governor's powers as Chancellor of the Colony. He declined 
even to express an opinion on it. Ds., S. St., 1832, No. 114. 

"" Smyth's Ds., No. 212. Also 10 Geo. IV, 13. 

'»" Smyth's Ds., No. 212. 

^'^Loc. at. Also Balfour to Stanley, No. 27. 

"= Smyth's Ds., Nos. 63, 64, 187, 189 and 216. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXVt 



Beniamin Malone 
Absalom Malone 
Lfper 
(see photograph) 
Sylvauus Malone 
Ezekial Malone 
Obadiah Malone 

Hi r am Malune 

Rosia Malone 

Cliarlotte Malone 

Maria Malone 
J Martha 

' Pilot-WtfiTMa lone 
-"TSfary Malone 

Samuel Malone 



James Malone 
Agrustus Malone 
Benj. Clement Malone 

William Malone 
Susan Malone 



to* 



David Malone 
Mary Anne Malone 
Benjamin Malone ^j 
Jane Malone h 

Elizabeth Malone 



5 Lucetta Malone, 




£B Benjamin Malone 



I S 




Benjamin Malone 
John Malone 
Ephraim Malone 
William Malone 
Cornelius Malone 
Jane Anne Malom 
Agustus Malone^' 



le/f i 



\ Ephraim Malone 



H Ephraim Maloue 



Wm. Henry Sa 

Charles Sand;^ 
Mary Anne^ands 
Francis Sands 
Charlotte Sands 
Girl?/Died 
Leper 




Robert Ru>^ell 
Edward^^ssell 
John Russell 
Wm/Henry Russell 
Tljmna.s Russell 
benjamin Russell 
Elizabeth Russell 
Anne Russell 
Senith Russell 



■*. Anne Malone 



Robert Sands 
William Sands 
c ^ David Sands 
•< p Richardson Sands 



Walter Malone 

(Died at Charleston, 
Soutli Carolina.) 



O 
u 

B 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA 



John Roberts o^ 

(3 thumb jack) g^ 

,f Ihumbs " "* 



Bunnell Key 
Leoa Key 
Lorenzo Key 
Francetta Key 

(Ste Plate Fig. 



Arsmiuter Alhurj' 
Wm, Rufus Albury 
Ethel Albury 
Deaf and dumb 
Grace Albury 
Deaf and dumb 



James Sawyer 

Idiol 
Nathaniel Sawyer 
Edmuntl Sawyer 
William Sawyer 
Bruce Sawyer 

Joa. Raymond Sawyer ^ ^ 
Idiot - - 

Rosamond Sawyer 
Idiot 

Ada Sawyer 
Idiot 



BLACK LINES (— ) INDICATE LINES OF DESCENT 

RED LINES C— ) INDICATE INTERMARRlAaES 

NOTES IN RED INDICATE DISEASES AND ABNORMALITIES 



Clifton Russell 
Horton Russell 
Milton Russell 
Lauretta Russell 
Uagr^e Russell 
Joi«ph Albert Russell 

SHnd. age 33 
AlonzoNewlou Russell 

Blind, iigfi.l 
Robert Russell 

Sll'id. as 



o Mary Aune Bethel H j- x-imcuw ut..^^. 

o Ellen Bethel E ^uC^iarlotte Bethel 

Sofrouin Bethel 2 Ctmtity Bethel 



Beniamin Malone 
Absalom Malone 

(5ee pliototjTipli) 
Sylvauus Malone 
HzekiQl Malone 
Obatliah Maloue 



David Malone 
S|pi Mary AnueMnlone 
5=: B e njamin Malone a 
IS Jane Malone 



in Benjamin Malone 




THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 473 

above that the treatment of slaves in the Bahamas was mild. If that is true 
still there were cases of the most unwarranted cruelty on the part of masters, 
and of illegal punishments, inflicted in an illegal manner. But the statement 
that the slavery of the Bahamas was a mild form of that institution must be 
taken as a relative statement, and to substantiate it, the number of instances of 
cruelty there occurring, relatively to the number of slaves in the Colony, must 
be compared with like returns from other colonies, or from the neighboring 
States in the same time. As compared with the slavery of the States, it may be 
said that the people of the Bahamas on several occasions deprecated the intro- 
duction of slaves from the continent, for the reason that they feared that the 
latter were so discontented, that they would be mutinous, owing to the 
extremely severe treatment which it was presumed slaves always received in the 
States. The same was true to a large extent in the case of slaves from all of 
the island colonies, especially from San Domingo and the French colonies. 
But, on the other hand, it is very easy to argue that the number of cases of 
cruelty in this Colony would not have to be very large in order to make the 
percentage high, for the slaves of the Bahamas numbered only 9000 to 10,000. 
However this may be, the Bahamas were by no means free from eases of cruelty, 
and Sir James Smyth was ever unremitting in his efforts to do away with it 
altogether. He found the state of public opinion disappointingly low, accord- 
ing to the standards of morality and social consideration to which he had been 
accustomed. He set to work to try to educate the public mind to a higher 
plane, but he did not wait until this was accomplished before trying to shield the 
negroes from occasional barbarous treatment. It was part of his plan to teach 
by example, as well as by precept, and to place before the Bahama public exam- 
ples of justice tempered with mercy. 

Law Against Cruelty to Slaves not Enfoeoed. 

In entering upon this line of conduct. Governor Smyth was making a break 
with the precedence of a system that was perhaps as old as the Colony itself. 
He was breaking with the interpretation, and with the application, of the 
law that had grown up within the Colony. The Governor determined to prevent 
further evasion of the slave laws. He was advised by the law officers of the 
Crown at London that he could proceed against a slave master charged with 
cruelty on ex-officio information. He then ordered the Attorney-General to 
bring before the grand jury the three worst cases of alleged cruelty, that he 
would have to take up by indictment, and through them to make a test of 



474 HISTORY 

the enforcement of the law against the cruel treatment of the slaves.™ In spite 
of the fact that the grand ji^ry, chosen to prefer indictments in these cases, was 
the fairest one that had been summoned in the Colony for several years, the 
several bills were ignored; so nearly was slave evidence, and the conii3laints of 
slaves, excluded from the Bahama courts."' 

Masters continued to take advantage of the authority they had over slaves, 
to inflict punishment on them up to the time of the abolition of slavery. It is 
possible that there were more cases of this sort of conduct after the coming of 
Sir James Smyth as Governor than before. Their slaves may have been less 
disposed to compliance with the master's orders, when they knew that there 
was a high authority to whom they could complain with the certainty of being 
heard. The masters may also have been more irritable, and more disposed to 
inflict punishments, and to enforce suliordination, for the same reason. In 
August, 1833, three magistrates brought to justice an ofEender, for cruelty to a 
female slave at Harbor Island. Their conduct caused such a commotion in that 
place, that the magistrates were compglled to swear in special constables in order 
to keep the peace. Four out of twelve of these were free negroes. The excited 

'»=■ Smyth's Ds., No. 202 and 212. Also Ds., S. St., 1831, No. 37. The case of 
John Wildgoos was one which the Secretary of State deemed it desirable to 
prosecute. Wildgoos had, however, left the Colony with other rabid slave men like 
himself, declaring that no man could live under " the present arbitrary Government 
of this Colony." Ds., No. 202. Wildgoos went to America. The three cases 
selected for this test were; (1) That of a number of slaves from Eleuthera, who 
had run away to Nassau to complain to the Governor of the severity of the punish- 
ment inflicted on them. They had been taken back to their master, severely whipped 
again, and on their way to Nassau, making a second attempt to escape, their 
boat capsized, and the whole company was drowned (Smyth's Ds., No. 187); 
(2) The case of a female slave at Harbor Island, who had been beaten "by her 
master with a cow-skin about the back, shoulders, bosom and face. In this case a 
brother slaveholder, who was a magistrate, interfered to denounce the conduct of 
the master, the first instance of the kind that had come to the knowledge of the 
Governor; (3) "The third," writes the Governor, "was that of a wretched worn-out 
old man, who having served his master all his better days, was sent adrift to seek 
a new owner, carrying a paper saying that he was to be sold for $25." The Gov- 
ernor himself found him and referred his case to the police court. Soon afterwards 
he found the same negro " bleeding from the effects of a flogging which his master 
had caused to be inflicted upon him for having complained to me (the Governor) the 
day before." (Ds., No. 202. dated Jan. 1, 1833.) 

'" Smyth's Ds., No. 212. For other cases of cruelty see loc. cit.. Nos. 63, 64, 
139, 187, 212, 216; Balfour to Rice, Nos. 32 and 41. Also Sess. P., 1831-32, 46, p. 287 
(24), enclosures in a despatch of Sir James Smyth; letter to a member of the House 
of Assembly at Nassau on the flogging of women. Also H. V., 1833, pp. 105-106. 
Also Ds., S. St., 1833, No. 27, and 1827, No. 1 (May 12, 1827), and enclosures. Also 
Nassau Gazette of Feb. 17, 1827, Feb. 24, 1827; and Ds., S. St., 1827, No. 2, of Sept. 
28. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 475 

feelings against the magistrates rose higher, and the tliree magistrates were on 
the point of resigning their commissions. Lieutenant-Govoi-nor Balfoair se- 
cured from the Colonial Department approval for this conduct, as in line with 
the policy which it was desirable to follow in the slave colonies.'"'"' On otlier 
Out-islands occurred instances of mutinous conduct on the part of slaves, owing 
to the negligence of their masters, or overseers, in providing them with the 
requisite rations and clothes. At Exuma and Eleuthera gangs of slaves ]-c- 
fused to work for this reason, but no serious consequences resulted. '°° If these 
cases occurred at this time, when it was known that there was a Chief Magistrate 
in the Colony, who was intent on punishing offenders against justice to the 
slaves, it is not unlikely that such a state of things existed during the years 
before his coming. Although these cases may not have been of frequent oc- 
currence, still it is evident that the slave system of this Colony admitted of 
flagrant abuses from ill-tempered or harsh masters, and that there were hei'o 
men who would take advantage of the opportunity, left open to them, to treat 
human beings with lack of consideration, and with unmistakable cruelty. The 
attitude of the public mind towards Governor Smyth gives strong evidence of 
the tolerance of public sentiment in the Bahamas towards the slave owner 
who chose to leave conscience behind in dealing with his slaves. It must have 
been as tolerant before Sir James Smyth came as it was afterwards. Indeed, 
if we accept the testimony of the slaveholders themselves, when they said that 
the barbarous practices, inveighed against by this Governor, were rapidly being 
discontinued by the force of public sentiment,"' we must conclude that con- 
ditions were better in this respect than they had been formerly. However few, 
or many, the cases of this kind of treatment may have been, it is safe to say, 
that, in the case of John Wildgoos, the members of the House of Assembly, 
who may be taken to represent fairly the public opinion, were not willing to 
investigate the abusive conduct of a fellow member, and to put the account of 

'"H. v., 1833, pp. 105-106. Balfour to Stanley, No. 32. For the approval see 
Ds., S, St„ 1833, No. 27. 

""Balfour to Stanley, No. 41. The Lieutenant-Governor sent a squad of soldiers 
to Eleuthera to quiet the disorder. At Exuma, however, the difficulty among Lord 
Rolle's slaves was caused by the failure of the " literate manager " to allow to " illit- 
erate slaves " what was due them. On that ground the government declined to 
interfere. 

An instance of the most revolting cruelty occurred at Watlings Island in July 
1833. A slave was tied hands and feet to a beam, another slave was placed across 
the suspended body, and, while in that posture, a merciless flogging was adminis- 
tered. Death resulted from the cruelty. Loc. clt.. No. 23. 

™H. v., 1831, p. 95. 



476 HISTORY 

it on paper, so that it might become generally known. This would doubtless 
apply to other cases also, which occurred with their consent, or at least without 
any expression of disapprobation. 

Eemoving Slaves from One Island to Another. 

The removal of slaves from one island within the Colony to another was 
a source of vexation to the colonists, and a thing that caused no little unpleas- 
antness in their relations with the Governor. The removal of slaves from one 
British colony to another was regulated by statute of the imperial Parliament. 
By the same authority removals from one island in the Bahamas to another 
were made only by special permission in each case. The licenses for this 
purpose were issued by the Governor, but only on condition that the owner 
of the slaves to be removed held lands in the island to which the removal was 
to be made, and was taking them thither for the bona fide purpose of cultivating 
such lands."" The result, as in the case of the registration of slaves, was a 
great inconvenience to the planters, who had to bear the expense of a trip to 
Nassau, and a loss of time, in order to transfer a gang of slaves from a 
plantation on one island to one on another. The worn-out condition of the 
soils of the Bahamas, the consequent decrease in their productiveness, and 
the. augmented hardship on owners of supporting slaves, whom they could 
not employ fully, increased the feeling of the people against the vexing regula- 
tions which Parliament had imposed upon them.™ There was often great di- 
versity of employment of slaves in the same gang in this Colony, and the in- 
terests of the same master often required removals back and forth from island 
to island during each year."" 

The people were not disposed to comply with the law on this matter. 

"" Smyth's Ds., No. 63; also No. 216. The Governor gave a mistaken interpreta- 
tion to the law respecting removals. In his zeal to protect the slaves from injustice. 
He held that an owner could remove a slave from one island to another, only when 
he held lands in both islands, the one from which, and the one to which, the re- 
moval was to be made. He refused to grant licenses to those who could not certify 
that they held possessions according to his interpretation. During the incumbency 
of his successor, Lieutenant-Governor Balfour, Lord Stanley corrected the error by 
his instruction that the ownership of lands on the island, to which the removal was 
to be made, was sufficient warrant for granting a license for a removal. 

For Secretary Goderich's opinion on the law, see Ds., S. St., 1831, No. 103. The 
imperial regulation is found in Imp. Stats., 5 Geo. IV, 113. 

"""H. v., 1828, pp. 27-28. Petition asking that the Bahama slaveholders be 
allowed to remove their slaves to some other colony where they could be profitably 
employed. 

=" H. v., 1828, p. 79. Also pp. 67 and 73. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 477 

The conduct of a prominent local official, Assistant Justice Lees of the General 
Court, was no encouragement to others to abide by the law. He tricked the 
Governor into granting a license, in an irregular manner, for the removal of 
a gang of slaves from Exuma to Cat Island. When the slaves were about to 
be removed they fled to Nassau to complain to the Governor. Lees took pos- 
session of them, brought them to trial, and threw them into the workhouse, 
where they were severely flogged as runaways."" 

These regxilations interfered with the use of slave mariners, -many of whom 
were employed in the shipping of the Colony. Formerly a master could go to 
sea M'ith his slaves at his own convenience, without any reference to the 
authorities in the government. The necessity of going to Nassau, in order to 
obtain a pennission for each trip, in great measure deprived the masters 
of the value of these slaves.'"" Unless such slaves had been registered, before 
setting out from one island or port for another, they were liable to seizure on 
arrival at a port, to which the customs establishment had extended. Tlioy 
could then be prosecuted, as slaves broiight into the island without the war- 
rant of the Governor, the penalty of which was forfeiture.^' The legislature 
protested against this regulation in the winter of 1831-1832 on the arrest of 
fi-ve mariners, who had been seized imder it. Their protest produced no effect 
on those who were responsible for the regulation, although the Governor did, 
in the case referred to, restore the slaves to their owner.™ 

-" Smyth's Ds., Nos. 63 and 64. Both the Governor and Lees were at fault in 
this affair. The former had not required the latter, as agent for Lord Rolle. to 
obtain the license from the Public Secretary in the regular way. The latter did 
not tell the whole truth as to the purpose of the removal until after the signature 
of the Governor had been secured to the paper bearing the license. The Governor 
protested against it, but to no purpose. As an officer of the law the Assistant 
Justice might have been more careful to comply with the letter of the law, which 
he certainly understood, as an example to the community. (Ds., S. St., 1831, No. 5.) 
Lees seemed to have had a private understanding that if he obtained the license 
for the removal, he would receive a portion of the profits of the cultivation of the 
land of another man than Lord Rolle. (Smyth's Ds., No. 63.) Another feature 
of this affair was that no record of the trial of the slaves at Nassau was kept. 

="=See H. v., 1831, p. 73. 

'^''Loc. cit. 

^" H. v., 1831, p. 73. See also loc. cit., appendix. The vessel, which was thus 
taken possession of, was on a wrecking tour. It had put into Crooked Island, 
where there was a collector of the port, who had never made known the fact of his 
presence. There had been no separate notice given out that this regulation would 
apply to the mariner slaves. The Crown law officer took the view that the slaves 
should be forfeited according to the provisions of the law. The Governor decided, 
and acted, on the merits of the case, and restored them to their owners. Loc. cit., 
1831, p. 95. 



478 HISTOKY 

Slave Trade Survives. 
Daring adventurers keirt up the slave trade. Even in the face of the diligent 
endeavors of the British Empire to apply its laws against the trafSc, the 
promise of gain by the smuggling of slaves into the colonies tempted many to 
engage in this inhuman business. The islands of the Bahamas with their 
numerous jutting rocks, and treacherous surrounding seas, lay in the traclv 
commonly followed by slavers on their way to certain parts of the slave terri- 
tory. Navigation through these seas was always attended with great danger 
and wrecks were frequent. Slave sliips were not exempt from these 
perils. Besides, the vessels of the royal navy patrolled the waters for the 
apprehension of slavers. Both wreckers and men-of-war continued to bring 
slavers into the port of Nassau, until long after the aljolition of slavery in the 
British colonies. This was the origin of a numerous class of people in the 
Bahamas who became objects of special care to the Executive, and often of 
jealousy to the owners of slave property. Naval officers were eager to make 
such captures, in order to gain the rewards offered for them by the home 
government. Customs officers were no less eager, on account of the fees that 
accrued to them on the condemnation of a cargo of captives.'"" 

The law regarded those landed on the coasts of British territory as free- 
men by virtue of their having come to that territory,"™ and the Governor as- 
sumed the role of guardian of their interests. Some of them were placed in close 
settlements at different places in the Colony. One cargo of them was placed 
at Highburn Cay, 34 miles from Nassau."" This settlement was to suffer great 
hardships. The captives were of different tribes of Africans, speaking differ- 
ent languages. None of them had acquired any facility in the use of Englisli, 
and there was no means of communication between them. It was soon found 
that the best plan for civilizing them was hj placing tliem where they would 
come most into contact with the whites, where they could acquire the tongue 
of the Bahama Englishmen, and learn also to care for themselves. The 
drouth of 1833 bore with especial hardship on those settled on small islands. 
The Highburn Cay settlers were removed to Nassau.™ Some of the able-bodied 
men among them were enlisted in the second West Indian reoiment, but most of 



-''■' Ds., S. St., 1832, No. 71. 

-"' Smyth's Ds., No. 130, and No. 137. in which there is another reference to the 
legal opinion on this. 

=»' Smyth's Ds., No. 183. 

="" Balfour to Stanley, Nos. 16 and 26. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXVII 




Fig. 1. — FILAKIA KOCTURNA IN HUMAN BLOOD 
(MAGNIFIED 490 DIAMETERS) 




Fig. 2. — filaria noctuena in human blood 
(magnified 490 diameters) 



VIEWS illustrjVting sanitary conditions 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 479 

the others were apprenticed out, for terms of seven years, to the inhabitants. '^ 
Both of these methods of employing them were afterwards followed. As other 
cargoes were brought to Nassau, settlements were formed in jjlaces where the 
negroes could be under the care of the Governor. At Headquarters (the site 
of the present Grants Town), near tlie city of Nassau, at Carmichael, a few 
miles away, and at Adelaide, on the southwestern coast of New Providence 
Island, were founded the principal settlements of these new inhabitants of the 
Colony.™ In these various places the Africans built their cabins and took ii|i 
residences. The Executive gave them every attention. For those at Car- 
michael Governor Smyth advanced money from his private purse for their 
benefit, and labored in every way to minister to them and to relieve their hard- 
ships.'" The legislature refused to aid the Governor in his enterprise. There 
was a Jealousy of his activities in this direction, and he was looked on as a sort 
of " niggers' man." '" The Bishop of Jamaica provided a small sum to aid in 
educating them,'" and further sums were provided by the home government.'" 
Their material needs were cared for, rations were served to them from the 
commissariat,'" and, what was considered by the Governor as most important, 
means were provided by A^'hich moral and religious education was to be 
placed within their reach."" Tliey were set to work on public improvements for 
the general good, on roads and wells at Carmichael, and on the construction of 
a salt pond at Adelaide.'" Superintendents were placed in these settlements to 
act under the direction of the government in carrying out measures calculated 
to benefit the negroes. From the first it was the opinion of the Executive that 
they would be able to cope with their circumstances, and to maintain themselves. 

™ Balfour to Stanley, No. 26. 

-'° Smyth's Ds., No. 183. Governor Smyth stated that in September, 1832, there 
were 514 of these negroes at Carmichael, 134 at Adelaide, and 370 at Highburn 
Cay. The service of the army medical staff was extended to these negroes in 1830 
by a circular despatch from London. See Ds., No. 197, on the number condemned. 

=" Smyth's Ds., No. 137. 

"^-Loc. cit., Ds., Nos. 72 and 137. 

"-^' Loc. cit., No. 31. 

=" Ds., S. St., 1831, No. 13. In his Ds., No. 72, Governor Smyth had asked the 
Lords of the Treasury for £650 for this purpose. The Lords acceded to this 
proposal. 

='" Balfour to Stanley, No. 16. 

=»» Smyth's Ds., No. 72. 

='" Balfour to Stanley, No. 26. Lieutenant-Governor Balfour feared that it was 
likely that the salt pond would not benefit them greatly, after the oversight of a 
white man was withdrawn. 



480 HISTORY 

They were placed on vacant tracts of Crown land in each case."'" The people 
expressed fears that their presence woidd bring disorders on the community,"'" 
but on every occasion they appeared to be orderly and disposed to work.""" 

CouET Martial of Major Nicolls. 

Sir James Smyth continued in the government of the Bahamas until the 
spring of 1833^ at which time he was succeeded by Blaney T. Balfour as 
Lieutenant-Governor. The new Executive was of the same mind as Governor 
Smyth had been, on the question of slavery, although not as obtrusive as the 
latter in his manner. Sir James Smyth's leavetaking had been delayed by 
a court-martial of an officer of the troops stationed at Nassau. In the autumn 
of 1831 Major Nicolls became meddlesome in criticising the government of 
Sir James Smyth. His conduct was so flagrant that he was placed under 
arrest, and permission obtained from the Horse Guards to proceed against him 
by a court-martial, in order that the whole matter might be probed to the 
bottom, the insolence of the officer punished, and the government vindicated."' 
The application for the court-martial was allowed to lie at the Horse Guards 
unanswered for sixteen months. Meantime the offender was confined in the 
prison. He had not been identified with the opposition party at Nassau, but 
the attempt to prosecute him, as one who had criticised the government, was 
sufficient to arouse public sympathy for him. As the departure of Sir James 
Smyth was known to be approaching, the urgency of the matter was the greater, 
for the Governor was the sole prosecutor. If he had departed without having 
tried the case the trial would never have occurred, and it would have been 
looked upon as a discomfiture of the hated Governor. Exultation over it would 
have caused unpleasantness to the successor of Governor Smyth."' On the 
arrival of Balfour the trial was the theme of almost every conversation. 
" Every feeling of civil or military society was evidently enlisted on the one side 
or the other." The testimony all in hand Sir James Smj'th departed, and 
Balfour assumed the government, while the case was awaiting the decision of 
the military court."" Balfour thought to remove Major Nicolls, in order that, 

^" Smyth's Ds., No. 72. The Governor wrote that the people of Nassau were 
expressly opposed to the settlement at Headquarters. At first the people steadily 
refused to aid them. 

'"Loc. cit., No. 137. 

-"-'Loc. cit., No. 137; also Balfour to Stanley, No. 26. 

^=' Balfour to Stanley, No. 2. 

■^ Loc. cit. 

'^ Loc. cit., No. 31. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 481 

having both principals out of the way, the excitement might subside. Parti- 
sans could thus be reconciled before feeling would rise against the new 
Executive."' The whole difficulty was adjusted during tlie following winter, 
when the officer appeared to make apologies for writing the letter which had 
stirred up so much trouble.''"" 

Abolition of Slavery by Parliament. 

The progress of the anti-slavery movement in the mother country was 
rapid. The pressure of public opinion on the Ministry for the amelioration 
of the condition of the slaves had kept the question constantly before the 
public. The colonies resisted throughout, and resented the pressure put on 
them to enact what they thought no authority had the right to urge. 
Slowly as the Bahamas yielded to the persistent persuasion of the British 
Cabinet and granted rights to the slaves, this Colony was among the iirst of 
the legislative colonies to take this action. '■' That which was most objection- 
able in the slave system, to the Englishmen in England, namely, the flogging 
of women, had been abolished in but few of the colonies."' The unwillingness 
of the legislature to move, and the consequent delays in the passing of the 
much desired statutes for amelioration, caused the demands of the English 
public to rise higher and to become more importunate than they had been. 
" The growth and power of public opinion in England," said Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor Balfour to the House of Assembly, " and not ministerial voluntary option, 
imposed the necessity of Parliamentary legislation on this greatest of colonial 

questions Investigations in the Lords and Commons, no less than the 

intolerance towards the sectarian missionaries in Jamaica, hastened matters 

Public feeling rose to an uncontrollable lieight. The Ministry had 

but one choice, to bring forward the abolition of slavery. The cabinet hesi- 
tated at the eleventh hour. The House of Commons, in a few days, showed the 
leader of the Ministry that he must propose emancipation, or not continue to 

-^ hoc. oit. Major Nicolls was not, however, removed. 

"'■'Loc. cit., No. 88. 

-° H. v., 1829, Governor's closing speech to the House. The I'egulations were 
imposed on the Crown colonies by Royal Order-in-council. 

"'Sess. P., 1831-32, 46, p. 287 (24), enclosure No. 3, in Governor Smyth's Ds. 
of April 5, 1831. The Governor stated in this letter to a member of the House of 
Assembly that the abolition of the flogging of women was not a new experiment. 
He stated that it had been tried in Demarara, Berbice and Trinidad. At least one 
of these (perhaps all of them) was a Crown colony, where the regulation was 
imposed by Order-in-council. 
31 



483 HISTORY 

carry on the public business." '"^ The abolition was accomplished by statute 
of the imperial Parliament in the spring of 1833, the same year in which the 
laboring classes in the mother country were relieved of part of the grievous 
burdens under which they too had been laboring.™ Thus was done at one 
stroke what might have been accomplished gradually, and without the necessity 
of a violent shock to the owners of slave property, but for the course taken by 
the colonies in evading the recommendations of the home government. 

Measures were necessary to provide for affecting the transition from the 
regime of slavery to that of apprenticeship, as provided for in the abolition 
act.^° The old laws governing the relation of the masters and their slaves were 

"' H. v., 1833, pp. 245-250. Address of the Executive to the legislature on 
the emancipation. In this address it is also stated that had the measure for the 
emancipation originated in the colonies, it would have been received with increased 
gratitude and attended with diminished risk, but the experience of the last few 
preceding years had convinced them that there was no ground for such a hope. 
The assemblies were less disposed than ever to pass such a law. The Ministry rose 
to meet the demands of public opinion. This address must have told the truth 
very plainly, and must have given the local legislators such a view of the state 
of things in Great Britain, and of what actually did bring on the emancipation, as 
the Ministry did not want the colonists to have. Lord Stanley almost reproved 
Balfour for his revelation of the secret motives that lay behind the conduct of the 
Ministry in proposing this mcEisure to Parliament. He did not deny that the 
Lieutenant-Governor told the truth in his plain-spoken explanation of the conduct 
of the Ministry. 

The chief of the investigations, referred to in the above quotation from the 
Lieutenant-Governor's speech, was that of the House of Commons on West Indian 
slavery, made in 1832. It is printed in the session papers of Parliament for 
1831-32. vol. 20, a folio volume of several hundred pages. The information 
which the committee was instructed to collect was, in the words of the 
resolution authorizing them, as follows: To note, " (1) Any progressive improve- 
ment which may have taken place in the state of the slaves since the abolition of 
the slave trade in 1807; (2) the actual state and condition of the slaves, the nature 
and duration of their labor, and evidence as to instances of cruelty, and gross abuse 
of authority and power; (3) the increase or decrease of the slave population, as. 
respects Africans and Creoles, and as affected by the state and system of slavery; 
and (4) plans for improving the condition of the slaves, or affecting their emanci- 
pation, and opinions as to the probable condition of the negro and the effect upon 
society in the islands which is likely to be produced by such emancipation." Ds., 
S. St., 1832, dated August 11. 

On the publication of this report, naval officials were ordered to hold their ships, 
in readiness to answer calls upon them to put down violence, which it was feared 
would result in some places. Secret instructions were sent to the governors of the 
different colonies to cooperate with the navy in the suppression of any disorders, 
arising from this cause. See circular dispatch of Sept. 1, 1832, and the enclosed 
secret instructions. There were no serious disturbances in the Bahamas. 

"° Imperial Statutes, 3 and 4 William IV, 73. 

^'' Loc. cit. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 483 

continued in force in the colonies, to which they applied respectively, until the 
first of August, 1834."^' Commissioners, authorized by the Abolition Act, 
were sent to the colonies to assess the valuation of the slaves, on a basis of the 
average price of them during the period 1838-30, in order to determine the 
proportion of the twenty millions of compensation money that should bo paid in 
each colony.^' But the greater part of the labor of providing for the change 
which was to take place devolved upon the local legislatures. We shall now 
undertake to set forth what this Colony did for this purpose. 

Balfour as Lieutenant-Goveenor. 

Lieutenant-Governor Balfour had begun his administration of the govern- 
ment without the violent and strong prejudices, on the part of the colonists^ 
which Sir James Smyth had aroused against himself. Once relieved of the 
presence of the latter, the colonists welcomed the assumption of the govern- 
ment by the new representative of the Crown. There was no promise of a 
relaxation of the efforts to give impartial justice to the negroes, which had 
been made by the Executive since the coming of Sir James Smyth. On the' 
other hand the class about to be emancipated very soon found in Balfour as 
earnest an advocate of their interests as they had had in his predecessor. 
Fortimately for his relations with the House of Assembly, the flogging of 
female slaves was done away together with slavery, soon after his assumption 
of the government. The transition to the new system of apprenticeship was- 
effected during his administration. 

Eumors of the action Parliament was likely to take had reached the 
Colony. Holders of slaves had feared this from the earliest agitation of the 

==' Circ. Ds., Sept. 4, 1833, and further proclamation issued stating briefly to 
all classes what Parliament had done. Loc. cit.. and Circ. Ds. of June, 1833. 

™ Circ. Ds. of Sept. 4, 1833. See report of this commission in Sess. P., 1837-38, 
p. 329. According to this the average price of slaves in the Bahamas for this 
period, 1822-30, was £29 IS s. % d. per head; the compensation was £12 14 s. 4% d. 
per head. Bermuda alone, of the West Indian colonies, received less compensation 
per head for her slaves than did the Bahamas. The highest price received in any 
colony was in Guiana, where the valuation was £114 lis. 5% d. per head, the com- 
pensation £51 17 s. IV2 d. In the Bahamas there was a total of 1109 uncontested 
claims for compensation, and 24 claims involving the ownership of 456 slaves, which 
caused litigation. Of the classes of slaves according to the definition in the 
imperial abolition act there were 4020 praedials attached, 270 praedials unattached. 
and 3444 non-praedials, for all of which compensation was awarded respectively as 
follows: £53.794 13 s. 10 d., £3655 6 s. 6 d.. and £61,233 13 s. 6 d. Loc. cit., pp. 
143-9, 344 and 358. 



484 HISTOET 

question of amelioration. Proclamations were issued to both slaves and mas- 
ters, announcing that slavery had been abolished, and that it would be suc- 
ceeded bj' an apprenticeship system, and warning all classes to aJjide by the 
laws. Slaves were urged to continue in the service of their masters, and the 
masters on their part to pay due respect to the commands of the officers of the 
law.'^" The Assembly was prorogued to a later date than that for which it had 
been called, in order to await the arrival of instructions from the home gov- 
ernment, as to the measures which should give effect in the Bahamas to the abo- 
lition act.""' 

The Assembly Convened Again. 

After almost eighteen months of successful administration of the govern- 
ment of the Colony without consultation with the Assembly, representatives 
of the people were again called in to provide for the needs of the community. 
In the interval the feeling against the government was not as high as it had 
been under the administration of Sir James Sm3^th. But the people did not 
forget their grievances against the Ministry and the local government. The 
abolition coming as it did was received by the slaveholders with sullen silence. 
The same feeling continued to exist as to the interference of the home govern- 
ment with the slavery question. When the elections for the new House came 
on, the people returned almost all of the same individuals who had sat in the las.t 
House. This did not promise harmony of action with the Executive, nor 
compliance with the wishes of the Ministry, in dealing with the question that 
was now uppermost, namely, the provision for the abolition.^' The members were 
not disposed to accede to measures that were suggested by those whom they 
regarded as responsible for the loss of their slave property. Almost everything 
brought before them in this session had some bearing directly or indirectly on 
the slave question, so that it was difficult not to encroach upon the already in- 
jured feelings of these legislators. The Colony had come to a state of peace, 
although the old jealousies still slumbered in the breasts of the extreme slave 
element."™ 

^"^See Circ. Ds. of Sept. 4, 1833. Also Balfour to Stanley. No. 27. 

'^'Loe. cit. 

■''' See House Vote, 1833, p. 1; also loc. cit., 1832, p. 1, cf. 

-™H. v., 1833, pp. 5-7, Lleut.-Governor's address on opening the Assembly. The 
Lieutenant-Governor stated that one-fourth of the debt of the Colony had been paid 
off, and that the cooperation of the Assembly was only needed to put the treasury 
on a firm basis, and to deliver the Colony wholly from debt. He expressed high 
hopes that harmony would prevail in the labors of the House, and that good feelings 
would be preserved throughout the session. See also Balfour to Stanley, No. 37. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS " 485 

The first matter disposed of by the House was the extension of privileges 
to the free blaclv population. The provisions of the resulting statute will show 
how willing the people were to grant rights to this class. The act passed was 
entitled, "An act for Believing His Majesty's free Colored and Black Subjects 
from all Civil Disabilities." '" It contained first a declaration that this class 
should have the same privileges as if they were descended from white parents, 
and that they would be entitled to give testimony in the courts, after having 
enjoyed the state of freedom for a period of two years. But, as if this were 
granting too much at one time, this broad declaration was qualified. Native 
Africans brought in and manumitted were not to be allowed to give testimony 
until after six years residence in the Colony, and then only on presentation of 
a certificate from a justice of the peace, or from a clergyman of the established 
church, that they were qualified to testify .'"° This statute was allowed to re- 
main in force for two or three years. It was then disallowed by the King. 

Struggle over Executive Functions. 

The Lieutenant-Governor now laid before the House the abolition act of 
the imperial Parliament, together with the instruction as to the auxiliary act, 
which the legislature was to pass, in order to give effect to the provisions of 
the imperial act. Some of the members of the House seemed to have desired 
to put on the records of the House a protest against the interference of 
Parliament in the affairs of the Colony. They were warned by the Lieutenant- 
Governor that it would not be advisable to do so.^' The Lieutenant-Governor 
formed a plan for an auxiliary act, difi'erent from that which had been advised 
in the instructions from the home government, as he thought that that plan 
would not succeed in operation in this Colony, owing to geographical condi- 
tions.''" But his hopes for cooperation from this Assembly were doomed to 
disappointment through the intrusion of an old and contested question. Tbe 
House of Assembly held an indirect control over some of the most important 
executive functions of the colonial government. Through some means, per- 
haps, as Lieutenant-Governor Balfour said, by the negligence of his predecessors 
in the executive government, the House directly appointed the commissioners, 
who were regularly enti'usted with the management of public interests, thus 

--' 4 William IV, Chap. 1. 

-=4 William IV, 1; H. V., 1833, p. 32. A clause, regarding the giving of 
testimony in the act of 1829, was repealed by this act. 
^''"H. v., 1833, pp. 245-6. 
"» Balfour to Stanley, No. 52. 



486 ■ HISTORY 

making them inclependent of the Executive. These commissioners lield in their 
control the expenditure of certain public funds. Eesponsible to no authority, 
they attended to matters hastily, expended money in a loose manner for works 
that were but indifferently done, for wliich none could call them to account.'" 
Expenditures were specified in the appropriation bill, and the names of the com- 
missioners were placed in the statutes constituting commissions, and authoriz- 
ing them to act. Likewise the House governed the salary list. In this small 
Colony, where almost every man was involved in political collisions, private 
feelings of the legislators were not guarded against in deciding upon, and 
altering the amounts of, the incomes of the officials."" By its use of these 
powers the House had acquired an influence over the people of all classes, and 
men looked to it as the source from which the favors in the power of the state 
were dispensed. The proper influence of the executive was materially weak- 
ened."" The House had a right to control funds applied to the public service, 
to see that they were not diverted froui their proper uses, and to curtail them 
if found too large, but after that was done it was not in their pirovince to vote 
tluit they were too large, unless they were forced to such a course by the pressure 
of public necessity."" The House had also been able to control the officials 
or at least to bring pressure to bear on them, and to make their conduct eon- 
form to the state of feeling in the C'olony. The use of these powers by the 
House had acted as a checkmate to the influence of the Crown representative. 
Sir tlames Smyth had effected a temporary emancipation of the civil list, and 
certain executive functions, from its grasp. His successor now looked on this 
as the most favorable time to wrest these f)owers from the House altogether. 
He determined to veto bills, by which the commissions were created, unless 

=" H. v., 1833; p. 46, and Balfour to Stanley, No. 61. 

-'= H. v., 1833, pp. 147-8, address of Lieut-Gov. to the House. It was not 
difficult for an official to make himself obnoxious at this time by an impartial 
execution of the duties of his office, and the House of Assembly was known to be a 
body that would use the effective weapon it had, in the control of the salary list, 
to keep officials dependent upon it. 

^' Balfour to Stanley, No. 61. Balfour characterized this dependence upon 
the legislature as an American feeling, which was due, in his view, to the great 
distance from the King's person, together with the proximity to, and the constant 
communication with, the States. And just at this time the feeling was the 
stronger, owing to the obnoxious measures that were being thrust upon their atten- 
tion by the home government. The Assembly had been encouraged in its holding 
these executive powers by the virtual concession of them to it by the executive. 

"'H. v., 1833, pp. 147-8. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXVIII 




Fig. 1. — FOOT affected with ainhum of little toe 




Fig. 2. — left foot of samson rooker, .showing six toe.s 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING SANITARY CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 487 

they allowed the Crown to select the members of them,"" and b}' all means in 
his power to bring back the colonial government to the " sound constitutional 
principle of having the responsible servants of the government nominated .by 
the Crown." He was even more jealous of the prerogative than Sir James 
Smyth had been. 

When Sir James Smyth came into the government, the House, through its 
control of the salary list, held practical control of the Council which was made 
up almost entirely of salaried officials, and of men who themselves favored the 
popular view of the slavery question. We have seen how this influence was used 
for a time and how Governor Smyth relieved the fears of the officials on 
account of their salaries, and reconstructed his Council, introducing men who 
were better disposed to the government. The Council was thus brought to 
favor the policy of the government. But the House on its part was unwilling 
to see these things pass from its control. Long exercise of the executive func- 
tions by its appointed commissioners had caused its members to look on this 
as the legitimate order of things in a British colony. The Council was looked 
upon as a body which had no right to reject measures sent up by the House. 
It was only to ratify bills passed by the House and ought not to resist a demand 
of the people as embodied in a House bill. It claimed the rights, for which it 
contended, as fully recognized."*'' The House was jealous of the Executive, and 
had frequently protested against fancied encroachments of the latter upon 
its rights. Since the agitation of the slavery question had begun, ignorance of 
the real intentions of the home government had made the colonists, inside and 
outside of the House, suspicious of every step the government undertook. 
They feared schemes for aggrandizement and for the destruction of colonial 
rights; a snare was seen in every civility of the head of the government, and 
in '■ every proposal was an attempt at some unavowed advantage," which 
illusion only perseverance in " open unottensive conduct could dispel." "' Bal- 
four attempted to invite confidence in himself, to explain his intentions, and 
to be frank and open in everything, but without avail. There was no leader 
to whom he could appeal, no party to whom he could address himself, no definite 
policy to be followed. Much time was spent in purposeless speech-making, 
without any attempt to carry on business. " Any new violent expression of 

=" Balfour to Stanley, No. 61. H. V.. 1833, p. 46. 

-" H. v., 1833, p. 300, resolves of the House on the rejection of the market bill 
by the Council. 

=" Balfour to Stanley, No. 61; see also votes of the House for this session. 



488 HISTORY 

opinion was received witli applause." "" The only tiling that could bring them 
together was some suggestion of opposition to the government and its policy. 

The first breach of good feeling of the session arose over the market bill in 
which the House insisted on naming the clerk of the market. The Council, 
viewing the question from the administrative side, refused to accede to the 
House bill.^° A conference of the committees of the two bodies undertook an 
adjustment of the difficulty. The Council considered the appointment to the 
clerkship in question as an undoubted executive function, and declared that it 
would not allow it to become subservient to the caprices " of any body of men 
however respectable." '^ After the conference a House committee was sent to 
inspect the records of the Council as to its action on this bill. It was soon 
found out that the latter body had thrown out the bill."'' The House at once 
passed a defiant set of resolutions, holding that it was against the public in- 
terests to keep it longer in session, and that it would not appropriate any money 
for the public buildings and grounds "' until the right of the people " over 
them should be fully recognized, and a bill should have received the assent of 
the Executive, entrusting the care of the public buildings to a commission of 
five or more persons named by a House bill.""' As soon as intelligence of this 
reached the Lieutenant-Governor he called the members of the House to the 
Council chamber, where he administered some wholesome admonitions, and sent 
them back to their constituents."" 

The Lieutenant-Governor had given warning that he would veto any bill 
reviving the old boards.''" The Council had taken the exact course that he 
would have dictated if he had absolute control of it. Now that the House 
attacked it, and refused to proceed to business without the absolute submission 
of the Council, there was no other course left open to the Executive. The 
Council must have condemned the action of the House, or refused to vote at all, 

=•" Balfour to Stanley, No. 61. 

2J8 rpjjg Council at this time had both executive and legislative functions 
residing in the same body of men. The members were not now in fear of the 
House, and their connection with the administration had doubtless given them the 
same view of the results of the House policy that the Executive himself took. 

-™ H. v., 1833, p. 260, I'eport of House committee on the results of the confer- 
ence. This clerkship carried with it certain judicial functions. 

"''■Loo. cit., p. 265. The committee reported that the reading of this bill had 
been postponed for six months. 

=°=H. v., 1833, p. 300. 

^'''H. v., 1833, pp. 205-206. 

■-"H. v., 1833, p. 46. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 489 

which latter it decided to do.^° A collision of the branches of the legislature 
was approaching, and the experience of the years 1817-1821 was not forgotten. 
The discord between the branches of the government was as threatening to 
public interests as it had been at that time, and harmony between the two 
Houses had become a thing of the past. Such a body, Balfour thought, would 
not have been fit to deal with the slavery question in the stage to which it had 
come. 

There was a reaction in public sentiment unfavorable to the members of 
the late House. This was favorable to the government. The advantage, due 
to the unpopularity of Sir James Smyth, had not been entirely lost. Suspicion 
still prevailed among the supporters of the late representatives. Many were 
jealous of the free blacks, who would now enjoy the exercise of the suffrage in 
the approaching elections for a new House.'™ It was probable that the new 
elections would result in the return of different individuals to the House, and 
in a virtual endorsement of the policy of the government. For this reason the 
writs were issued at once, and a new election was held within ten days after the 
dissolution. The more moderately disposed candidates were generally suc- 
cessful. But the presence of the extremist element in this House was shown in 
the first few days of its sittings. James Malcolm, who had been defeated 
according to the return from Harbor Island, made application for the unseating 
of the person elected. "°' He had been one of two members in the late House 
who had consistently voted against the majority. The House determined not 
to set any day for the consideration of his petition, until he should have entered 
into a recognizance for £200 to pay the expenses of the investigation, in case 
it appeared that the unsuccessful candidate had neglected to comply with the 
provisions of the law.''^ This had the effect of causing Malcolm not to pursue 
the object of his petition, for which it was doubtless intended. Soon the 
House voted that, unless the petitioner entered into the bond -n'i.thin three days, 

^'° H. v., 1833, pp. 305-6. In dismissing tlie House tlie Lieutenant-Governor 
used strong language, but he thought he was justified in the case that was 
before him. He had hoped for a peaceful termination of the session. He had 
borne with many petty taunting actions of the House, hoping that it might become 
more moderate. See Balfour to Stanley, No. 61. 

''" Loc. cit. 

™ H. v., 1834, p. 47. In a scrutiny held in that district after the election, 
Malcolm had had no representative. On the return of the scrutineers, one of their 
number was heard to say that he believed, if Malcolm had been represented by a 
scrutineer, he would have been declared elected. On the strength of this the un- 
successful candidate prayed for an investigation by the House. 

■'•^Loc. cit., p. 51. 



490 HISTORY 

it would not consider his petition at all.""" The matter was allowed to drop. 
A few weeks later in the session one of the members for Harbor Island resigned, 
and Malcolm was allowed to take the seat thus vacated.'"" 

Provision for the Comixg Changes. 

This House had met for the purpose of attending to the business of the 
Colony. It was necessary first to provide for keeping the slaves until the day 
when they woidd pass into the new condition of apprentices. The Ecgistry 
Bill was reenacted on February 5,'°^ and other necessary matters were disposed 
of. The important work for this session was to provide for giving effect to the 
Abolition Act of Parliament. A copy of the Order-in-council, that had been 
proclaimed in the Crown colonies, was sent to the House as a convenient out- 
line for the formulation of the auxiliary act.""' It was designed to relieve the 
slaveholders as much as possible in the loss of their property, and to lighten 
the burdens of the bondsman in the same manner. But the sug- 
gestions of the Ministry were not made in the form of demands. Slavery 
had been given its deathblow by the home government, and now everything was 
to be clone to assist the afflicted colonies to make the best of a bad situation, 
which was, however, almost inevitable in the annals of nineteenth century 
progress in civilization. The apprenticeship system was recommended, as the 
most beneficial to the negroes, and as least burdensome to the masters, but 
the express instruction was that " neither as individuals nor as a legislature 
were they Ijound to continue the state of slavery, or apprenticeship, for an 
hour." =" 

The House set to work at once. A committee investigated the points 
touched upon in the Lieutenant-Governors speech at the opening. Difficulties 
arose, owing to the ignorance which prevailed, on the part of both House and 
Executive, as to the share which this Colony was to have in the establishment 
provided for by the Abolition Act."'"' The act was passed, and the necessary 
provision for the introduction of the apprenticeship system on August 1, ]8o4. 

-'""Loc. cit., p. 68. 

™Loc. at., p. 111. 

"■'H. v., 1835, p. 176, the detects of this act are pointed out here. 

-•= H. v., 1834, pp. 19-47. 

=°=H. v., 1834, p. 5. 

™ This is especially true as to the number of the special magistrates that were 
to be allotted to this Colony. For a description of these magistrates and their 
powers, see next chapter. For the recommendations of the House committee, see 
H. v.. 1834, p. 169. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 491 

■was made."" There was an attempt to revive the old difficulties, over the ap- 
pointments, during the session. A measure was introduced containing in itself 
the names of the commissioners of the public buildings. "°° The Lieutenant- 
'Governor sent in a timely warning that he would allow no one but himself 
to appoint the buildings commissioners.""' Several days later the House ex- 
pressed its view again in a set of resolutions much milder than those of the 
previous session, but still claiming the right for which it had been contending.^ 
The Council still stood in the way of the passage of the measure.""" After con- 
ferring with the Council in the attempt to adjust the difficulty,"" it was allowed 
to go over to the next session. The result thus far had l)een a victory for the 
government. The House could not dictate the appointments, and the Exec- 
utive assumed the control to which he laid claim. 

On the approach of the day on which slavery was to come to an end in 
the British West Indies there was much apprehension on the part of the whites 
that there might be uprisings among the slaves. Eumors had spread among the 
latter alleging good fortune to them far beyond what the home government 
had expected to grant them. But a part of their ignorance of their approaching 
condition was assumed rather than real."" The Lieutenant-Governor issued 
proclamations to l)oth l)lacks and whites, urging them to he orderly, the masters 
to use every influence for the preservation of peace, and the slaves to remain in 
the service of their masters, whom they would have to serve several years 
longer.''"' The clergy of all denominations, who were enlisted in the cause of 
order, were very influential among the lower classes. The private secretary of 
the Lieutenant-Governor was sent witli flie proclamations among the Out- 
islands to read them to the people there. Everywhere he was listened to with 
confidence by the slaves, as he wore the uniform of a soldier. The effect of his 

""^ See 4 William IV, 21. See on this act the following chapter on the legal 
status of the apprentices. 

=«H. v., 1834, p. 102. 

''"Log. cit. 

"^Loc. cit., pp. 155-156. 

-"Log. Git., p. 206. 

'"'Log. Git., p. 253. 

"' In some places the private secretary of the Lieutenant-Governor on his 
trip to the Out-islands found wild misconceptions as to what the negroes were 
coming to. In one place it was believed not only that they were to become free, 
but also that all troubles were at an end, and that the King was going to give them 
bread all the rest of their lives. 

^- Sess. P., 1835. 50 (Part 2), pp. 251-2, and 261. Copies of these proclamations. 



492 HISTOEY 

explanations and admonitions to the ignorant Africans was most salutary/'^ 
although disturbances at the Turks Islands required the sending of troops to 
restore order. At Exuma and Eleuthera petty disorders were soon quieted. At 
Nassau the whites took offense at the proclamation of the Lieutenant-Governor, 
which intimated that it was possible for them to commit acts which would 
deserve punishment, and fifteen out of sixteen copies of the proclamation, posted 
about the city, were torn down within twenty-four hours.'" The detachment of 
the second West Indian regiment, which had long been stationed at Nassau, 
was withdrawn during this summer, pending a change in the troops. Their 
absearce was an additional reason for apprehension to the people."^ The delay 
in the arrival of the special magistrates who were expected with the July mail 
packet was an additional cause of apprehension ; """ but as the day of liberation 
approached the people did not become more disorderly, and, as if they ap- 
preciated the meaning of, the great event that was taking place, they allowed 
that day to pass quietly, and slavery in the Bahamas passed away forever. 

PERIOD OP THE APPRENTICESHIP SYSTEM. 
A New Eegime Instituted. 

■ In undertaking the great movement for the emancipation of the slaves the 
English people intended to improve the condition of the negroes. The labor- 
ing classes in the English plantations had been in bondage throughout the 
history of those communities. Political rights were denied them, they were 
crowded to the bottom of the social scale, and the proceeds of their labor went 
to nourish and strengthen their masters. From being mere bondsmen they 
had been reduced to the condition of slaves, a very name from which men 
would shrink. The order was now to be changed. A movement began in 
the latter part of the eighteenth century which little by little gained the 
strength necessary to remove these legal discriminations against the negro. 
This movement first accomplished a denial of the right to carry on the traffic in 
African men and women in English territory and waters and on the high seas ; 
after that the amelioration of the condition of the slaves and free negroes in 
the British possessions was undertaken. This latter object was pursued until 
the British Parliament was led to the point of dealing decisively with the 

=" Balfour to Stanley, No. 113. 

-'* Loc. cit. 

-'" Loc. cit., No. 115. This withdrawal proved to be only temporary. 

-'" Loc. cit. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXIX 




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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 493 

slave institution. The slave was now to be given equal rights with his late 
master in eveiy way that the law could define those rights. " The great cardi- 
nal principle of the law for the abolition of slavery," wrote Lord Glenelg in 
1837, " is that the apprenticeship of the emancipated slaves is to be immediately 
followed by personal freedom " in the same way as it applied to the other sub- 
jects of the British Crown."" The old order in which the slave had rendered 
" implicit obedience " in return for the " maintenance of his life and health " 
was to be supplanted by one in which the negro could command himself just 
as the white man was doing. 

The apprenticeship system was not forced upon the colonies by the great 
emancipation act. It was left to the Colony either to accept the labor force 
according to such a system, under regulations imposed by Parliament, or to set 
the slaves entirely free, if that were pref erred.""* It was wisest for the industrial 
interests of the Colony as \\'ell as more profitable for the owners of the slaves to 
accept the apprenticeship system. The status of the apprentices was defined in 
outline by Parliament. The colonial legislatures were allowed to enact such 
supplementary legislation, not repugnant to the abolition act, as was necessary 
for complete regulation of the laborers."™ The plan of the home government was 
to secure eventual freedom for the entire laboring classes, which state a few in 
the colonies were already enjoying. Before emerging into full freedom, how- 
ever, these ex-slaves were to pass through a term of semi-dependence on their 
late masters during which they were to exercise certain rights of freemen, 
their interests were to be carefully attended to by a corps of special officials 
for the purpose, and the whole period was to be a true apprenticeship to serve 
as a preparation for the responsibilities of freemen, which they were to assume 
at its close. As an additional compensation for the loss of their slaves it was 
arranged that they should serve their former masters to the end of this term."'" 

Classes of Apprentices. 

With the exception of children of a certain age, there were two classes 
of the apprentices, distinguished according to previous occupation, (1) prae- 

=="Ds., S. St., 1837, Giro, of Nov. 6. 

™ H. v., 1834, p. 5. Address of Lieutenant-Governor Balfour to the Assembly. 

=" Imp. Stats., 3 and 4 William IV, 73, sec. 16. Any improvements the legisla- 
tures might make on the regulations of the imperial statute were to become bind- 
ing on confirmation by the King-in-council. For the colonial act, see 4 Wil- 
liam IV, 21. 

=»» Imp. Stats., 3 and 4 William IV, 73, sec. 16. 



494 HISTORT- 

dials, and (2) non-praedials. The praedial apprentices were those, who as 
slaves had been employed in agriciTltnre or in the manufacture of colonial 
produce."" Of this class those employed on lands belonging to their owners 
were designated as praedials attached to the soil,'"*' and were not removable from 
the plantations on which they were employed, without the consent of a special 
justice of the peace.^'^ Those employed on lands not belonging to their former 
owners became praedials unattached, and were removable at the discretion of 
the employers. All slaves not included in the above description, such as day 
laborers, household servants, skilled artisans, sailors and others became non- 
praedials."^' Children below the age of twelve were excluded from the class 
of praedial apprentices, except those who had been employed in agriculture for 
twelve months previous to the passage of the abolition act.'"'^ The intention 
of Parliament in passing the act had been that the non-praedials 
should be entirely freed after a term of four years, and the praedials 
after six years, thus freeing the colonies of the whole system on August 
1, 1841,'™ but at the end of the four-year term of the non-jjraedials the Colony 
i-eleased all its laborers from involuntary servitude, fully accomplishing the 
immediate objects of the friends of the emancipation.'^' The Bahama negro 
was now a freeman, which it was the intention of his benefactors in Great 
Britain to make him. But his freedom was abridged in many respects, as we 
shall see, and he was far from being wholly responsible for himself or from 
being thrown upon his own resources. The Seci'etaries of State for the Col- 
onies were very fond of writing of the negro apjn-entices as they did of " any 
other freemen," or " any other of His Majesty's subjects." The colonists on 
the other hand were reluctant to admit that the negro was a freeman, or to 
grant him the rights which the home government driuanded for him.'^' They 

-•" Imp. Stats., loc. cit.. sec. 4. 

-"■ Loc. cit. 

=■"5 William IV, 8 (10). 

='Mmp. Stats.. 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (4), and Bahama Statutes, 4 Wil- 
liam IV, 21. 

=«=Imp. Stat., 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (4). 

■'" Loc. cit.. sees. 5 and 6. This would not have prevented the holding of 
children hound out until they reached the twenty-first year of age, from being held 
after August 1, 1841; nor those under sentence for an extension of the term of 
apprenticeship for attempted desertion or other offense. 

-^ On the release of the praedials, see 2 Vic, 1. 

=*"See on this Sess. P., 1835, 50 (part 2), p. 253 (59), Ds. of Secretary Rice to 
Lieutenant-Governor Balfour in which he criticises the auxiliary statute of the 
Bahamas. Also H. V., 1834 (extra session), pp. 103-104, report of House committee 
on the objections to their enactment. See further concessions by the Assembly in 
the statute, 5 William IV, 8. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 495 

regarded him with jealousy, guarded him carefully, denied him privileges, 
erected barriers about him, and still preserved towards him that same attitude 
which they had formerly assumed towards their slaves. It was only by that 
persevering attention of the home government, working through the local 
government, that additional guarantees were secured for the benefit of the 
apprentices. 

Legal Status of Api^rentices. 

The subject of the legal status of the apprentices will be discussed first 
from the standpoint of the apprentice, and second from the standpoint of the 
employer. Under the first will be considered the rights, privileges, etc., of the 
apprentice in the following order: (a) maintenance, (b) personal rights,. 
(c) rights pertaining to contracts, (d) marital and family rights, (e) corporal 
punishment, (f) manumission, (g) other rights. The second division or the 
rights of the employer will be discussed under the following heads: (a) prop- 
erty in the services of the apprentice, (b) right to return runaways, (c) en- 
forcement of obedience, (d) prohibitions on apprentices. Lastly will come the 
question of dealing with children. 

Eights and Privileges of the Appbentice. 

Maintenance. — The apprentice was still dependent on his employer for the 
necessaries of life. The same allowances were required in this respect which 
the slave owners had been required to furnish to their slaves.™ But in this 
system an alternative was provided in that in lieu of provisions and clothing 
the emplo3'er could furnish to the apprentice an equivalent in land for culti- 
vation, or in time or money, according to the terms of approved agreements."'" 
If land was furnished, a portion of the working time of the apprentice, to which 
the employer was otherwise entitled, was placed at the disposal of the former 
for purposes of cultivation. These lands were required to be accessible to the 
laborer's habitation.'^' Apprentices over fifty years of age and those affected 
with bodily infirmities remained as a charge upon their employers, if dis- 
missed from service by an instrument in writing.^"" 

Personal rights. — The apprentice now came into the life of the Colony with 
many important rights of a freeman. His personality was now recognized in 

=>«'Imp. Stats., 3 and 4 William IV. 73 (11). 
2M4 William IV, 21. 

=" Imp. Stats., 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (11). 
=■■=4 William IV, 21 (7). 



496 ■ HISTORY 

law, in the courts, and in his relations with his employer, and he was henceforth 
to he considered as a part of the Colon}^, affected by things undertaken and done 
in the name of the State. He was nominally placed on an equal footing with 
the most privileged persons in the Colony. In practice we shall find that he 
did come into the enjoyment of rights gradually, and that recognition, except 
social, was granted him. He could now hold real and personal property with 
all their attendant rights, and could sue, or be sued, in the courts of law and 
equity .°" These things were guaranteed and recognized at the beginning of 
the apprenticeship period ; some other rights were, however, withheld for a time. 
The legislature persisted in denying them to apprentices and only late in 
the apprenticeship period did it finally grant them. It was thus with the 
right to personal freedom. The auxiliary abolition act bound the apprentice 
to the plantation where he was employed, allowing him to leave it, as of old, 
only with the consent of his master. Even on the disallowance by the British 
Ministry,"" the same provision was reenacted to keep the apprentices on the 
plantations where they belonged,™' except on holidays and Sundays, when, 
according to superimposed regulation, they were allowed a certain latitude to 
attend religious services.™ This remained the rule until the year 1837 when 
at last the master's pass card was expressly declared to be no longer necessary 
to enable the apprentice to go freely from place to place at any time " day or 
night, except during the hours of compulsory labor."™ Confinement of ap- 
prentices for safe-custody was limited to cases in which other subjects of the 
Crown could be confined.™ 

From another important point of view this Colony insisted on further 
restricting personal liberty. There seemed to be a fear that, on the emergence 
of this poor people into the state of freedom, there would be a tendency to 
wanton idleness and mischief-making. Steps were taken to forestall any such 
tendency. A vagrancy law was passed in tlie year 1833,"" when the members of 

=«3 4 William IV, 21. 

=" Sess. P., 1834, 50 (part 2), p. 253 (59), Ds. of Secretary Rice to Balfour. 

^^^'d William IV, 8 (8). 

=»= 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (21). 

="'1 Vic, 19 (22). There is reason to believe that this regulation was enforced 
as persistently as its retention on the statute books demanded. There was 
always the fear that the negroes might assemble to concoct dangerous plots, or to 
rise in insurrection, if they were allowed to go as they pleased. There was also 
a desire to have the negroes, whether slaves or apprentices, in their places at all 
times. 

='«5 William IV, 8 (1). 

:oo 4 William IV, 2, passed Nov. 12, 1833. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 497 

the House had not recovered from their violent state of agitation at the conduct 
of Sir James Smyth, and an amendment was passed in 1835,"" which, taken 
together, formed, in the words of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, " the 
most arbitrary vagrancy law in the West Indies." " Hard labor and imprison- 
ment " threatened all idle, drunken and disorderly persons, and those who could 
not give account for the correctness of their lives,™' and the possession of a kit 
of burglar's tools branded the holder as a rogue or vagabond to be dealt with 
summarily.^"' It was evidently aimed at the emancipated classes, and the 
Governor was given powers capable of great abuse.™' These same acts forbade 
under penalty of five days imprisonment the assembling for " no specific and 
lawful object, loitering and carousing ... in the liquor shops, loud singing or 
whistling, flying kites in or near highways, and calling loudly in the markets 
to attract customers." '" Apprentices could leave the Colony with the consent 
of the masters, and could secure passports certifying to their identity.'"' 
Rights 'Pertaining to Contracts. — A more liberal spirit was shown in the 
regulations between the employers and apprentices. Every agreement to which 
an apprentice was a party had to be attested by one or more literate witnesses."" 
This provision seemed not to have operated successfully. It seems probable that 
there was a laxness in securing to the negroes a full understanding of the 
terms of the contracts into which they entered. In 1837 a full understanding 
of all agreements was made necessary to give binding force to contracts with 
apprentices.'"' The most common form of agreement was that of task work 
which was substituted for the regular labor of the apprentice.""' This form of 
contract was employed to some extent from the beginning of the apprenticeship 

™ 5 William IV, 17, passed Jan. 1, 1835. 

^'^Loc. cit. See also Sess. P., 1836, 15 (appendix), pp. 77-78. 

=°=5 William IV, 17. 

™' Sess. P., loc. cit. Part of the danger in this lay in that when some local 
man became administrator of the government for a time the disposition to apply 
these acts strictly could easily work great wrong. 

^See these acts in Sess. P., 1836, 49 (appendix). No. 66. These laws were 
still in force on February 2, 1839. See loc. cit., I'SSS, 37, p. 487 (17). In a 
despatch of this date from Lord Glenelg to Lieutenant-Governor Cockburn, the 
latter was instructed to press the legislature to repeal them, and meantime to use 
his discretionary powers to mitigate the evils that might result from the applica- 
tion of them. 

»5 4 William IV, 21. 

™= 4 William IV, 21. 

»'7 William IV, 8 (1). 

^' See 4 Wimam IV, 21, on the authorization of this form of agreement. 
32 



498 HISTORY 

system. It became veiy popiilav with both emplo_yers and laborers/"' on account 
of its mutually advantageous features. At the end of the apprenticeship system 
many of the laborers were eager to continue in the service of their former 
masters under agreements similar to those under which they worked as appren- 
tices/" based upon the principle of mutual agreement before witnesses. Agree- 
ments or contracts could not in any case be made i)inding for a longer period 
than twelve months, after the expiration of which period they must be renewed. 
This provision seemed to have been easily enforced, and it became the most sat- 
isfactory and beneficial feature of the whole apprenticeship system. Its oper- 
ation was subject to some difficulties and disagreements, but it placed a certain 
responsibility upon the negro, to which he responded, and it gave him a recog- 
nition as a person, whicli encouraged him to rise to meet that responsibility and 
to cope with his circumstances. It allowed the enterjirising to gain time to 
utilize for their own purposes; it made it possible for many to bargain for 
their own freedom, and to gain it. After the year 1835 record books were kept 
on each plantation in which were entered records of all agreements entered into 
by ajiprentices on that plantation. Tliese were entered by a special justice. 
In case of disagreement as to the terms of a contract, it was ascertained whether 
the apprentice fuWj understood the terms of the agreement before the case was 
decided.™ 

In the absence of task-work agreements, the employers were allowed to 
employ their apprentices forty-five hours each week, all work to be done between 
sunrise and sunset on Mondays to Fridays inclusive. Saturdays and Sundays 
were left at the disposal of the apprentices.""' Contracts voluntarily entered 
into between employers and apprentices, and with the consent of a justice, 
Avere enforcible in the courts of the Colony under penalties on the violators of 
them.""^ 

Marital and Family Bights. — Almost the same rights as to marriage and 
family prevailed here as in the latter part of the history of slavery. Some of 
the restrictions of that time were removed. Marriages could now be celebrated 



°™ See reports of the Stipendiary Justices Winder and Hill, from the several 
Out-islands, in Sess. P., 1836. 49, pp. 543-545. Colebrooke's Ds. of Jan. 9, 1836. 

™Sess. P., 1839, 37, 487 (pp. 12 and 14). Cockburn to Glenelg, Nos. 92 and 99. 

™5 William IV, 8 (4). 

="=4 William IV, 21(17-19). Also Sess. P., 1839, 37, p. 487(4), remarks of 
Attorney-General Anderson on the Imperial Act, 1 Vic, 19, amending that of 3 and 
4 William IV, 73. 

"=4 William IV, 21. 



THE BAHAMA ISLAKDS 499 

by the clerg}' of all denominations, or by any authority competent to celelirate 
marriages between other free persons."" Other rights and privileges, attendant 
on the marriage bond, "were now in the possession of the negroes as with other 
freemen. The separation of husband and wife, or of parents and children, was 
forbidden."' 

Corporal punishment. — Parliament no longer hesitated to declare itself 
as to the flogging of women. The imperial abolition act plainly forbade such 
punishments for the future. The colonists acceded to this provision.™ Pun- 
ishments of male apprentices were also restricted. Masters applied the lasli 
to them only with the consent of a special justice. Other modes of punish- 
ment were recommended. Corporal punishment fell into disfavor, was less 
frequently employed and finally before the end of the apprenticeship period it 
was dispensed with altogether."' 

2Iiuiuinission. — Every facility was given to apprentices to become freemen. 
Although the apprenticeship was to continue for the period of four years, 
means were pirovided by which the ajDprentices could become free before the 
end of that period, and in some cases even without the consent of their employ- 
ers."' An employer could set his apprentice free by an instrument in writing 
attested before one or more justices of the peace, thus absolving the apprentice 
from obligation for service during the unexpired term of his apprenticeship."' 
In case of joint ownership of an apprentice, either of the parties entitled to his 
services was competent to make a valid and complete release of the laborer 
from obligation to the joint owners.'™ A negro illegally held as an apprentice 
was authorized to sue for his freedom. On presentation in court of the proof 
of the right to his freedom he could recover nominal damages, in addition to 
wages for the time during which he was illegally held to service.''' 

="5 William IV, 8 (6). See also 4 AVilliam IV, 21. 

'^° 5 William IV, 8 (11). The auxiliary abolition act allowed the separation 
of children over fourteen years of age from their parents. This was repugnant to 
the act of Parliament (sec. 9), and the Secretary of State called attention to the 
fact in his comments on the auxiliary act. Sess. P., 1835, 50 (part 2), 258. The 
Assembly later adopted the improvement suggested by this despatch. 

'"See 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (17), of Imp. Stats., and 4 William IV, 21, 
Col. Stats. 

"' Sess. P., 1836. 49, p. 532, Colebrooke's report on the apprenticeship system, 
in his despatch of Oct. 8, 1835. Also Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 85. 

"•'Imp. Stats., 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (8). 

='»4 William IV, 21. 

--'' Loc. cit., sec. 8. 

"'4 William IV, 21. i 



500 HISTOKY 

Other Rights. — Apprentices were allowed certain other rights and privi- 
leges of British subjects which had been denied to them as slaves. The same 
spirit on the part of the white inhabitants, that had been shown elsewhere, was 
shown here. Only after attention had been called to the rigidity of these 
restrictions,""" were they repealed by the Assembly. The auxiliary abolition act 
of the Bahamas disqualified apprentices for jury service, forbade them to serve 
as arbitrators, or on appraisements, or to hold elective or other positions in 
His Majesty's service, whereas the home government had only intended in its 
restrictions to give the apprentices " no military or political authority." "^ 
These restrictions were later removed in the Bahamas. Military service or 
service in any civil capacity, to which the governor might call the negroes, was 
enjoined upon them just as upon other British subjects, provided they did not 
interfere with the performance of services due to the masters.""' 

Eights of Employer. 

The employers still retained many rights over those who had been their 
slaves. In these relations there was an approach to the English system of 
apprenticeship in which a young person was bound out for the purpose of 
learning a trade. The additional restrictions, here due to West Indian race 
prejudice, varied the adaptation of the system to the Colony. Obligations were 
mutual between master and apprentice. The master taught the apprentice a 
trade, which was to the interest of the former as well as of the latter, in return 
for the use of his services for the whole period. AVe shall now take up the 
relations of employer and laborer from the standpoint of the master. 

Property in the services of the apprentice. — ^The services of the laborer 
were the property of the master and under certain limitations could be sub- 
jected to any disposition which the employer could make of other property. 
The employer was entitled to the services of the apprentice for forty-five hours 
each week. This rule prevailed in the Bahamas throughout the whole appren- 
ticeship period.''" There were restrictions on the employment of certain of the 
apprentices during this time. Praedials attached could be removed from 
place to place only with the consent of two or more special justices, even if it 
were for the purpose of worlcing the lands of the same emplo,yer.'™ This kind 

"-Sess. P., 1835, 50 (part 2), p. 258. 

^"Sess. P., loc. cit. Also 4 William IV, 21 (sees. 14, 23 and 51). 

'"4 William IV, 8 (12). 

===5 William IV, 8 (8). 

''''' Loc. cit., sec. 10. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXX 




O 

a 

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1-5 

o 

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to 
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1-5 






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THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 501 

of removal could not take place when it involved the separation of a laborer 
from his wife, or of a parent from his children.""' The imperial abolition act 
forbade the removal of apprentices from the Colony without the consent of two 
or more special justices.'"* The services of the apprentice, as property, were 
alienable by sale, gift, deed, or in any other manner of conveyance, but in every 
such ease the transfer had to be made under the attestation of one or more 
witnesses. The laborer's services were not transferable at public auction except 
under judicial process, or in case of a judgment for debt against the person 
entitled to them.""" In any such case the separation of families was forbidden, 
or of those reputed to be in such relations to each other."'" A husband became 
entitled to the services of apprentices belonging to the wife previous to mar- 
riage.""' 

Right to return runaways. — Runaways and deserting apprentices were to 
be returned again to service. An apprentice being absent from service for 
seven and a half hours in any one week could be declared a deserter. He thus 
became liable to a penalty of hard labor for one week; for an absence of two 
days the penalty was two weeks of confinement, and fifteen lashes, and for an 
absence of a week, one month of hard labor and thirty lashes.'^' But in lieu of 
or in addition to these punishments, vagabonds and runaways, and others un- 
faithful to their obligations, except those working under pecuniary contracts, 
were punishable by additions to time. These additions were limited to fifteen 
hours in any one week. Deserters absenting themselves for any considerable 
length of time could be punished and the employers remunerated by additions 
to their term of service equivalent to the time during which they were absent."'" 
These additions to time could not in any case be extended so that serving out 
the penalty would continue beyond August 1, IS-il, one year after the expira- 
tion of the term of the praedials.""' On the whole there were not many offenses 
involving additions to time as the penalty.""' 

»"Z/Oc. cit. 

™Imp; Stats., 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (9). 

™5 William IV, 8 (11), and 4 William IV, 21. 

3304 William IV, 21. 

""^Loc. cit. 

=«4 William IV, 21. 

"'Loc. cit. 

='*Imp. Stats., 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (20). 

^"' In one case a penalty of ten months' extension of the term was added for an 
absence from service for that length of time. The Secretary of State for the 
Colonies was much concerned about it, but withdrew the objection to the extreme 
penalty on being informed of the facts of the case. Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 537, D.s., 
Colebrooke to Glenelg and reply. 



502 HISTORY 

Enforcement of obedience. — The emploj^er had the same right to reijuire 
obedience to his commands that he had had under the old slave system, and in 
ease of resistance to apply to a special justice to supervise the infliction of the 
penalties. There was for a time a disposition on the part of the masters to 
regard the apprentices in the same light as they had their late slaves, as 
if they would have recognized no changes in the relations between the two 
classes. These self-deluded individuals were soon undeceived as to the ability 
of a new judiciary to deal with such matters, and to effect a real as well as a 
nominal change in relations. The Bahama auxiliary abolition act authorized 
masters to punish boys under foiirteen and girls under twelve years of age as 
parents and guardians were accustomed to punish children in the mother 
country.'"" Evasive provision — iSecretary Eice asked for its repeal, which was 
accordingly granted in 1835."'' Indolence, drunkenness, fighting, and other 
such conduct, were punishable on complaint by the employer and conviction 
before a special justice of the peace.''' 

Prohibitions on apprentices. — Apprentices were not allowed to leave the 
plantations on fl'hich they were employed during working hours without the 
consent of the masters.'"" Anotlier prohibition on appi-eutices, which was also 
disallowed by the King, was to the effect of forbidding the production by them 
of things that were produced upon the plantations where they were employed.'" 
It was also unlawful for an aijprentice to bear arms without the consent of his 
master.'" 

Children. — Persons entitled to the service of the mother of a child could 
not be compelled to accept the latter as an apprentice in virtue of its relation 
to its mother. Such children not apprenticed were supported by their parents 
if not otherwise provided for.'" Children under six j'ears of age, born after 
August 1, 1834, if not adequately provided for, could be bound out by special 
justices to the persons in caeli case entitled to the services of their mothers for 

3304 William IV, 21 (48). 

=''5 William IV, S (13). 

"^M William IV, 21. 

'"'' Loc. cit. Secretary Rice objected to this and the King disallowed it, but it 
was renewed by the Colonial Statute. 5 William IV. 8 (8). 

='°Sess. P.. 1835. 50 (part 2), 516. Copy of the Order-in-council dating July 31, 
1835. which disallowed the above mentioned section of the Colonial act, 4 Wil- 
liam IV, 21. 

"' Loo. cit. This prohibition included swords, fire-arms and gun-powder, any 
of which any master was authorized to seize, if found unaccountably in the posses- 
sion of an apprentice. 

=« 4 William IV, 21. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 503 

terms of service extending to the twenty-first year of ago.'" In such apprentice- 
ship time and opportunities were to be given for proper education and religious 
instruction.'" 

The Special ^Magistracy. 

The home government determined not to make the application of the 
regulations in the new system dependent upon the Colony. There had already 
been too much experience of the reluctance of the West Indian Englishman to 
grant expressly acknowledged rights to the negro to trust him with the appli- 
cation of the new regulations. There was nothing to warrant a continued 
faith in the disposition of the late slaveholder to treat his apprentice with 
impartiality under a new system of regulations which granted extended liber- 
ties to the latter. A special magistracy was erected for the application of the 
regulations of the new system. The magistrates were appointees of and were 
commissioned by the Crown. There were twenty of these magistrates for the 
whole of the West Indies, three of whom were at first allotted to the Bahamas.'" 
The colonial legislatures were allowed to authorize the appointment of any 
number of special Justices, to l^e specially commissioned by the governors and 
paid by the colonies.'" The Bahamas employed fourteen of these justices dur- 
ing the first year of the apprenticeship system.'" 

All these magistrates bore special commissions under which tliey were 
authorized to deal solely with the masters and servants as freemen, in the new 

™ All such apprentices were freed by the cancellation of the indentures of all 
Africans in the Colony after the release of the apprentices in 183S. See next 
section. 

"<Imp. Stats., 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (13). 

='«Imp. Stats., 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (14-15), and Balfour to Stanley, 
No. 108. 

'" Imp. Stats., loc. cit., sec. 14. 

3« 4 William IV, 42. The legislature not being in session at a convenient time, 
Lieutenant-Governor Balfour called a meeting of the Council and made an arrange- 
ment by which seventeen persons were asked to act in the capacity of special 
justices without further promise of remuneration than that the question of paying 
them for their services would be laid before the legislature at its next session. It 
was not desirable to be forced to the adoption of such an alternative, but owing to 
the conditions existing in the Bahamas, it was not possible to serve the whole 
Colony adequately with only three justices. To relieve the embarrassment it was 
necessary to accept the lesser of the two evils and to set up an unsatisfactory 
magistracy rather than to do without. Something had to be done to institute the 
new system in all parts of the Colony, and to prevent lawlessness. Otherwise the 
masters might have been driven to resort to a complete emancipation of their 
apprentices. Balfour to Stanley, No. 108. 



504 HISTORY 

relations into which they had entered. Over these they were given exclusive 
jurisdiction.'" The individuals bearing these commissions were not, however, 
forbidden to bear commissions as general justices of the peace,"" in which 
capacity the governors availed of the services of some of them as long as they 
were in the Colony."" The duties of these justices were narrowed down to 
the regulations of the relations between the employers and employees, and 
were kept distinct from the duties of general justices of tlie peace. In some 
petty offenses there was concurrent jurisdiction of special and general justices, 
but only a special justice could take cognizance of oifenses of employer against 
employee, and vice versa.''" Outside of this the general justices could act, 
under ordinary circumstances, in suppressing disorder and misconduct that 
had a tendency to breach of the peace.'"' 

For purposes of administration the Colony was divided into seven dis- 
tricts.'"' In each of these districts one or more special justices was to reside 
and make periodical visits to all the settlements within its limits."" Lieu- 
tenant-Governor Balfour located the three English justices, who came at first, 
in places from which they could visit all parts of the Colony. One was placed 
at New Providence, another at Eleuthera and a third at the Turks Islands."'" 
The local justices, as distinguished from the English justices, were generally 
resident proprietors or overseers in the islands over which they had juris- 
diction.'" This arrangement was destined to continue in full force only until 
March of 1835, the time of the coming of William Colebrooke, the suc- 
cessor of Balfour in the Bahama government. Under this first arrangement 
nothing of importance was accomplished in adapting the apprenticeship system 
to the requirements of the Bahama Islands. The reasons for this and the 
reforms which were finally introduced will be discussed in the following section. 



=«Imp. Stats., 3 and 4 William IV, 73 (18-19). 

^'"'Loc. cit., sec. 11. 

'=" See e. g., Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 512, instructions of tlie Secretary of State. 

^"l/oc. cit., p. 519, also p. 517, circular instructions to tlie magistrates. 

"'- hoc. cit. 

353 4 William IV, 42. This statute gives the districting of the Colony as 
follows: 1. Turks and Caicos Islands, Inagua and Mayaguana; 2. Crooked and 
Acklin Islands and Cays; 3. Rum Cay, Watlings Island and San Salvador; 4. 
Eleuthera and Harbor Island and Cays; 5. Exuma and Cays, Long Island, Ragged 
Island and Cays; 6. Abaco, Grand Bahama and Cays; 7. New Providence, Andros, 
the Berry Islands and Cays. 

'^''* hoc. cit. 

='^'' Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 9. 

'"•'Loc. cit. 



the bahama islands 505 

Eefoems in the Magisteacy. 

This system as instituted with the local justices did not continue long, 
but it had done harm to the cause of reform. Colonel Colebrooke came in 
March, 1835, and in his first despatch on the magisterial system he pointed out 
defects which were demanding remedy. From reports of the magistrates he 
found out that the expense of the existing system was too great, that many 
settlements on the Out-islands were not being visited often enough, and that 
the salaries of the magistrates were not large enough to maintain those officials 
as they should have been.*"' A little later he discovered also that the local 
justices were altogether incompetent to perform the duties required of them."^ 
Wherever the English justices had gone in the Out-islands the efEect of their 
visitations was altogether salutary. Disorders were suppressed, quiet was 
restored, and the spirit of insubordination that had prevailed in some places 
was calmed.'™ It was, however, physically impossible for them to make the 
tour of all the Out-islands in any reasonable period of time, and the exposure 
to heat and rain was so great as to incapacitate them, in a large measure, for 
their work. The local justices had, on the other hand, generally failed to keep 
the peace, or even to gain the confidence of either negroes or whites; ^°° they had 
too often neglected their duties in their districts and had punished ofilenses 
severely and indiscriminately with the result that harmonious relations between 
the classes were not promoted or encouraged.""' The calls from the Out- 
islands for the stipendiary justices continued to increase, and it was imperative 
that some one should be sent to them to adjust matters between the employers 
and their men.""' 

Lieutenant-Governor Colebrooke determined upon a reformation of the 
whole magisterial system. He applied to the home government to send out as 
many more of the special justices as possible, urging that any number of them, 
however small, would aid in the restoration of order. The House of Assembly 
concurred with him in the necessity of securing, by some means, a more efScient 
service from the magistracy, and on the recommendation of the executive voted 
to change the whole plan to that of a system of circuits. The cost of 
this promised to be less than that of the system then in operation. It also 

==' Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 9. 

"•'Loc. cit., No. 60. 

''"H. v., 1834-35, p. 184; also Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 53. 

=" Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 22. 

'"^Loc. cit., No. 60, Aug., 1835. 

^"'H. v., 1834-35, p. 184. 



506 HISTORY 

gave such promise of improved service that a termination of the prevailing- 
irregularities seemed almost in view. The change was accomplished within 
three months after the arrival at Nassau of Colonel Colebrooke.'''' The As- 
sembly authorized the Lieutenant-Governor with the consent of his Council to 
divert the funds, that had been applied to the local magistracies, to the support 
of the circuits under the new system.'" The salaries of the local justices were 
discontinued in April, 1835.'°" In June, 1835, the Secretary of State for the 
Colonies sent out an instruction, to the effect that the commissions of all 
magistrates who were pecuniarily interested in apprenticed labor should be 
revoked, and that the number of those who had been habitually resident in the 
colonial society should be reduced as low as was consistent with the 
due execution of tlie law, stating that it was inconsistent with the intentions of 
Parliament that the powers of a special justice should long continue to be 
e.xercised by any such person.""" Before December, 1835, eighteen of these 
justices had resigned, or had been removed, fifteen of whom seemed to have been 
removed under the order of the circular referred to.'°' The Lieutenant-Governor 
ordered the ordinary justices of the peace to make certain visits in their dis- 
tricts and to quell disorders, though without power to enforce the abolition 
laws."" The Secretary of State was unable in the fail of 1835 to obtain from 
Parliament a grant for an additional number of magistrates for the Bahamas, 
but he authorized the Marquis of Sligo at Jamaica to transfer one special 
justice from that Colony to the Bahamas as soon as the service there would 
permit.'™ In October, 1835, he did secure from Parliament provision whereby 
he was able to send to the Bahamas two more special justices. These were 
rendered necessary, as we have seen, by the revocation of the commissions of the 

="" Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 22. All the settlements were not in such a 
state of disorder as has been stated of some of them. At Eleuthera the magistrates' 
constables had succeeded in keeping a certain measure of good order, loc. cit. 
Two magistrates and a detachment of troops were sent to Exuma where the in- 
subordinate laborers of Lord Rolle had refused to work, H. V., 1834-35, 184. Both 
of these places had grown quiet by the latter part of August, 1835, Colebrooke to 
Glenelg, No. 86. 

=" Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 36. 

™= Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 514. Circular of Col. Secretary Nesbitt to the Local 
Magistrates. 

■''«" Circular instruction to the governors of the colonies, dating June 15, 1835. 
See H. v., 1835-6, p. 29. 

»■ Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 539, end. 1, in Ds., No. 499. 

"^ Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 94. 

="' Sess. P., 1836, 49, pp. 506-7, Ds. of May, 1835. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXXI 




SIR GILBERT T. CARTER, GOVERNOR, BAHAMA ISLANDS, 1S9S-19(U 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 507 

local justices.^'" Thus was the magisterial establishment cleared of the dead 
weight of incompetent justices and placed on the basis on which it remained 
throughout the remainder of the apprenticeship period. From this time 
forward, all the reports on its operations were almost without exception favor- 
able to its efficiency and its competency to deal with the problem of apprentice 
labor in this C0I0U3'. The difficulty from the beginning had been that on ac- 
count of the lack of training in the performance of Judicial functions, and from 
identification with local interests, tlie local magistrates were incapable of 
performing these peculiar magisterial duties. They were never able to com- 
mand the respect and the confidence of the employers or the apprentices. Upon 
these officers depended in great part the success of the system by which the 
great body of ex-slaves were being educated for the state of freedom. To their 
disinterestedness, their impartiality, their devotion to duty, and their general 
efficiency was due the harmonizing of the jarring elements, the preservation of 
peace, and the prevention of injustice, discontent, disorder, and lawlessness 
throughout the Colony. 

Duties of Special Magistkates. 

It was the duty of these magistrates to adjust the disturbed colonial 
society to the new relations into which its people were entering, and to assist 
the classes in every way to live up to the regulations imposed on them. Tin; 
white inhabitant, accustomed to a regime in which implicit obedience to his 
command was the rule, was unwilling to give cognizance to the changed rela- 
tions in which the late slave was to have partial command of himself; on the 
other hand the apprentice was fearful for a time that this change to apprentice- 
ship was not what the King had intended to grant him, and that the local gov- 
ernment had leagued itself with the late slave-masters to deprive him of the 
boon of immediate and complete freedom. Everywhere the magistrates visited, 
the first and most important duty was to explain the nature of the new relations 
and to set matters to rights between the masters and the apprentices.^" There 
were in many parts absurd conceptions of what the new relations amounted to. 
This fact was due in no small degree to the prevailing irregularities."'" The 
local justices added to, not lessened, the confusion."'" The officials strove to 
impress on all classes that the changed conditions were merely a preparation 

'■" Sess. P., 1S36, 49, p. 516, Ds. of Lord Glenelg. 

"' Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. .532, circular instructions to the special justices. 

^'"Loc. cit. 

"" Colebrooke to Aberdeen. No. 60. 



508 HISTORY 

for further changes in society, that they ought to strictly obey the reciprocal 
obligations imposed on them, and that their cooperation was necessary to secure 
the most benefit to themselves ,""' and further ''' to impress on all parties that 
the term of apprenticeship was one of probation in which they were to be 
gradually prepared for the new relations in which they would ultimately stand 
to each other, and that the best preparation for the change would be a strict 
observance of the law and the obligations it had imposed." "'" They heard com- 
plaints of employers and employees, settled disputes and adjusted differences, 
the neglect of which might have led to more serious disturbances.™ They had 
authority to judge of the point at issue in dispute, between employer and em- 
ployee, in case of the failure of the parties to agree.""" These things they did 
with results that were most gratifying to those interested in the success of the 
change in progress."' They quieted the misapprehensions of all parties, re- 
stored order, and won the confidence of the people."" To keep the peace and 
quell incipient disorders, jails and places of confinement had to be erected. As 
hard labor was much employed as a form of punishment, work-houses were to be 
supplied. The special justices cooperated with the rate payers in providing 
funds to pay the cost of materials and of work on these buildings. They ap- 
pointed constables in every district, who made monthly circuits, received com- 
plaints and kept journals of them. These constables were empowered, ia 
extreme cases, to send offenders to Nassau during the intervals between the visits 
of the special magistrates. Ordinarily these constables were called on to act 
only when the justices came. They acted for the most part as advisers to 
apprentices.^'" The magistrates made sketches and surveys of lands in the 
Out-islands, took account of any features of soil, etc., that might conduce to the 
formation of settlements. They were members of the school commission and 
visitors of the public schools. They aided the out-lying communities in erect- 
ing school houses and in providing means of education.'" 

Lieutenant-Governor Colebrooke rightly judged that the special justices 
on their tours would collect much information as to the actual condition of 
things in the Colony, Ijy which information he could profit in making more 

'"■' Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 51.3. instructions to magistrates. 

="=H. v., 1834-35, p. 190. 

"■' Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 122, Dec, 1833. 

=" Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 532. 

""" H. v., 1834-35, p. 184 ff. 

''' Colebroolie to Aberdeen, No. 53. 

='=° Sess. P., 1836, 49, pp. 512-14. 

="Loc. cii., pp. 512-13, and 543-45. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 509 

efiScient the magisterial system, and by working through it the government 
would be enabled to act with more confidence, concerting measures for the 
general improvement.'*' Much information was thus collected and reported 
by these officers. Another duty that became increasingly important with the 
passing of time was that of the supervision of voluntary agreements between 
employers and apprentices. In all cases in which the parties could agree on 
specific terms such agreements were encouraged. In this respect especially 
did the special justices act as a safeguard to the interests of the apprentices. 
It was found that voluntary engagements for task work, or otherwise, called 
forth in the best manner the dormant energies of the negroes and encouraged 
industrious habits in them. All such agreements had to be voluntary on the 
part of the apprentices in order to be binding. The special justices were 
enjoined to see that the terms of all agreements were not unreasonable and that 
they were fully understood by the negroes, dealing with all parties as f reemen.'*^ 
In all things they were urged to use their moral influence to gain the confidence- 
of the people and to promote peaceful interests.*" They had the power in this, 
as in other things, to impose penalties on both employers and employees, in 
order to enforce compliance with the regulations in the abolition laws. 

In addition to these regular duties there arose from time to time special 
duties which it was convenient to have these oflicers perform. One of these 
was that of their assistance in the summer of 1835 in the reclassification of 
the apprentices. This was necessitated by the habit prevailing in many parts 
of employing praedial apprentices as if they were non-praedials. As the non- 
praedials were to be freed on the first of August, 1838, a confusion might have 
resulted as to who were, and who were not, non-praedials. It was necessary to 
keep the classes of apprentices carefully distinguished. Many of the praedials 
as well as non-praedials were eager to redeem the unexpired portion of their 
apprenticeship.^'^ 

Operations of Apprenticeship System. 

As far as this Colony was concerned the British Ministry was not mistaken 
as to the probable results of the establishment of the special magistracy. The 
English justices accepted the responsibility that awaited them and established 
order. They secured such mutual good understanding that disquietude and 

="= Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. (59. 
'" Sess. P., 1836, 49, pp. 534-5. 
'^*Loc. cit., p. 517. 
™^ Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 36. 



510 HISTORY 

discontent became exceptional. In fact nearly every report that came in after 
the first circuits were made gave the intelligence that all classes evinced a dis- 
position to be peaceable."" 

The able manner in which the English justices disposed of complaints and 
settled difficulties gave the people renewed confidence in them. Contentment 
with existing relations and a desire to make the best of them were to be seen 
on every hand. This aided the magistrates so much that less difficulty was 
experienced in disposing of complaints with each successive visit. This tended 
to lessen the necessity of the frequency in the visitation of the magistrates.'" 
The sympathetic cooperation of both employers and employees seemed to have 
been enlisted in keeping the peace and in promoting harmon}^ — convincing 
evidence of the impartiality of the conduct of the officials.'" At Exuuia before 
August, 1835, some of the employers were little disposed to promote the 
interests of apprentices, but expected the same requirements from them as 
when they M-ere slaves, and did not acknowledge the existence of the new 
relations."'" Another report from the same island in January, 1836, noted 
great improvements, both employers and laborers being much better satisfied.""* 
The employers were generally found to be of liberal disposition. This, together 
with the confidence of the apprentices that the magistrates would safeguard 
their interests, aided in securing punctuality in the performance of engage- 
ments.'" Masters were mindful of the position in which the laborers were 
placed. The latter res'ponded appreciatively to the kindly treatment accorded 
to them. Both came to realize that their individual interests depended on 
mutual good feeling.'"" All this became the subject of remark by the Executive 
on every occasion. 

Perhaps the most beneficial feature of the apprenticeship system was that 
of the vohantary agreements between emplo3'ers and a]iprentices. After tlie 

■'"See following references for these favorable reports: Sess. P., 1836, 49, pp. 
524-31 (Aug., 1835) ; loc. cit., pp. 543-5 (Jan., 1836), report of the circuit in the latter 
part of 1835; loc. cit., 1839, 37, p. 487 (12), (Aug., 1838); see also Colebrooke to 
Glenelg, No. 122 (Dec, 1835); No. 94 (Oct., 1835); No. 50 (May, 1836); Cockburn to 
Glenelg. No. 3 (Sept., 1837); and No. 56 (Feb. 1838); also H. V., 1835-6, p. 2 
(Dec, 1834). 

!"' Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 86. 

''» Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 122. 

'■"" Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 522, report of special justices. 

""Loc. cit., 543. 

''^Loc. cit., p. 532. 

"°'H. v., 1835-6, pp. 73-79. Message of the Lieutenant-Governor transmitting 
reports of the special justices. Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 545. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 511 

first experiment witli them liad proved their usefulness, they came rapidly into 
favor and increased in popularity up to the close of the apprenticeship period. 
They secured to the master a more punctual performance of the laljorer's 
obligation to him, and on the otlier hand appealed to the best there was in the 
negro to bear responsibilities voluntarily assumed. Both parties preferred 
them. To them was due mucli of the good feeling that existed between the 
classes after the summer of 1835."" Praedials as well as non-praedials were 
employed in this way.™* Complaints to the magistrates were less frequent 
where agreements were most common.''" The use of them spread rajndly to all 
parts of the Colony, as soon as the intelligence of their beneficent results was 
carried to the Out-islands."" 

Ift his instructions to the magistrates in September, 1825, Lieutenant- 
Governor Colebrooke urged as a leading object of the circuits that they should 
encourage voluntary agreements with specific terms. They were not to allow 
agreements whose terms were not equitable. It seemed desirable to reserve 
two days in each week to the laborer for the purpose of obtaining food and 
clothing for himself.'"' At New Providence voluntary contracts were entered 
into, during the autumn of 1835; at Eleuthera at the same time nearly all the 
proprietors had formed agreements to furnish time and land to the apprentices 
in lieu of food and clothing."" By January of the following year agreements 
were being successfully employed at Ragged Island, and the laborers there 
were being paid annual wages for work on the salt ponds on Saturdays; Rum 
Cay was also employing them."" Where this jjlan was not followed the com- 
plaints from all parties were multiplied and the visits of the magistrates were 
attended with less benefit to the community.*" Prosperity attended them, and 
especially did they enjoy peace, a blessing which tire Bahamas had hardly 
known for twenty years. The difficulty of disposing of their produce alone 
hampered their prosperity.*"' 

Another form of engagement was that by which the apprentice bargained 

™ Colebrooke to Glenelg, Nos. 94 and 95. 

■™ Colebrooke to Aberdeen. No. 36. 

™= Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 95. 

'" Sess. P., 1836, 49, pp. 530-31, report of S. Js. Winder and Munro. 

™' Loc. cit., pp. 534-5, instructions to the special justices. 

^'^ Loc. cit., pp. 524-31, enclosure No. 3. 

™Loc. cit., pp. 543-5. 

*" Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 85, Oct., 1835. 

"' H. v., 1835-6, pp. 73-79. Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 545. 



512 HISTORY 

to absolve his obligation to his master for a stipulated consideration."' A 
number of others were released for no pecuniary consideration. 

Just before the close of the apprenticeship period, Parliament amended its 
abolition act with a statute regulating the labor of apprentices.™ It enjoined 
certain duties on the employers, gave the governors of colonies additional 
powers of control of apprentices, and gave the latter a number of additional 
privileges and exemj^tions. It was of no considerable importance in this 
Colony, having been declared in force on May 29, 1838, only two months before 
the laborers, praedials as well as non-praedials, were finally set free. It miglit 
have borne some fruit in vexing the masters in this Colony. As it was, perhaps 
its principal result was in helping to induce the local Assembly to enact a law 
releasing the praedials from the unexpired portion of their term of apprentice- 
ship. 

Complaints. 

The complaints made by the employers and apprentices were mostly of a 
trivial nature. They were much more frequent at the beginning than after 
the magistrates had completed the first visitations to all parts of the Colony. 
They became less and less frequent with each successive tour."* As has been 
stated the formation of voluntary engagements tended greatly to lessen the 
number of complaints,"" and the arbitration of difficulties was successful and 
satisfactory to all."' 

Punishments. 
The special magistrates had the power to require obedience to engage- 
ments, and good conduct on the part of all by the infliction of penalties on 
offenders. The mind naturally reverts to the lash when penalties are men- 
tioned in this connection. We have seen that Parliament |)rohibited its use for 
women in the abolition act. It went out of use also for male servants. Lieu- 
tenant-Governor Colebrooke soon after his arrival ordered a gradual discontinu- 
ance of its use as a stimidus to labor, and the substitution for it of other modes 

"-The total number of instances of this up to Sept., 1835, was 81; the total 
amount paid for these was £1215 9 s. or a little more than £1.5 each. Those 
voluntarily released without compensation during the same period numbered 688; 
293 being males and 395 females. 

*"' Imp. Stats., 1 Vic, 19. 

"' Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 532. Also pp. 543-5, on report of circuit, especially that 
referring to Cat Island and Rum Cay. 

"= Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 95. 

"• Sess. P.. 1836, 49, pp. 524-31, No. 3. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 513 

of punishment. '"■ The substitutes that were most satisfactory ^-ere hard labor 
in the work house and extensions of time. Fines were employed to some extent 
and were redeemable by hard labor.*"' The efficacy of hard labor as a means of 
punishment was early demonstrated by its employment in the work house at 
Nassau. Colebrooke soon recommended it in other places, as a means of 
building the much needed gaols."" Stocks Avere used in some places with good 
effect. The usual labor for women was grinding corn or picking cotton."" To- 
wards the close of the apprenticeship period the reports showed marked improve- 
ment, by the great reduction in the number of penalties imposed. The magis- 
trates had taken things in hand, and the results of their labors are shown in the 
reports they made for the district of New Providence, during the last month 
of the application of the regulations of apprenticeship, viz. : July, 1838, Special 
Justice Winder gave the report that there was not one case requiring the inflic- 
tion of a penalty on either employer or apprentice,"' a report that was unpre- 
cedented for that populous district. 

Colonel Colebrooke was careful to make known in all parts of the Colony 
what was occurring in the more peaceful communities. For a time the ignor- 
ance as to this, prevailing even at the capital, worked unfavorably to improve- 
ment. The head of the government was on the alert on every occasion to 
make known the favorable condition of affairs. The Nassau people were for 
a time not disposed to believe that such success, as was reported, was being met 
with in tlic Out-islands. The reports were almost uniformly favorable. The 
dissemination of this intelligence excited the people to emulate the example of 

"'Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 95. 

"' Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 531, return for the period July 31, 1834,. to October 1, 
1835. Total number of apprentices, 10,400; punishments by authority of S. Js., 
768; employers' fines, amount £124 8 s. 6 d.; male apprentices whipped, 169; female 
punishments, 286. ' Two hundred and seventy-two of these punishments were in- 
flicted at New Providence, and 246 at the Turks Island. Loc. cit., end.. No. 3. 
The greater number of punishments at New Providence and the Turks Islands was 
explained by the fact that fishermen and others resorted to these places from other 
parts, and many offenders were brought to them to be punished. In some islands 
the offices were open every day to settle disputes, and punishments were fewer in 
them on that account. 

^ Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 532, and pp. 543-5. 

■"" The most extreme penalty reported was that of a male apprentice named 
Sam, bound to one Durham, at the Bluff Settlement on Eleuthera. He ran away. 
A magistrate and three constables advised him to return to service. He refused to 
return, set the law at defiance, worked on the King's land, and lived with another 
runaway named Tulip. He was absent for ten months. He admitted all charges 
and begged for mercy. His penalty was one month's hard labor, thirty lashes and 
ten months' extension of his term. Sess. P., 1S36, 49, p. 537. 

"'Sess. P., 1839, 37, p. 487 (12). 



514 HISTOET 

those who were peaceably disposed, in seconding the measures of the govern- 
ment. The eflfect of it in all parts was salutary.'" 

Eeform in the General Codet. 

At the same time that the reform was taking place in the special magis- 
tracy, there was seen to be a need of reform in the General Court. The slave 
court of the old regime had passed out of existence. The business of the 
whole Colony of freemen now fell upon the General Court. Its business was 
increased to such an extent that in its then present condition it was unable to 
meet the needs of the Colony."' The Assembly authorized it to hold four 
sessions in the year but that had not sufficed to care for all the business that 
came to it."* Complaints also came up from Turks Islands, a disaffected 
community 500 miles away from the capital, of the inconvenience to their 
people of the service rendered by the General Court. These people had to bring 
all cases that were not tried in the Justice's court to Nassau for trial. Com- 
munication with the capital was always infrequent, always attended with diffi- 
culties and beset wath dangers from ocean currents and jutting rocks. The 
expense of carrying a case to ISTassau was too great for the people to bear. 
For ordinary cases of robbery or larceny it was unreasonable."' A journey from 
New York to Liverpool and back was attended with no less hardship and 
inconvenience than one from Turks Islands to Nassau and return. 

As in the case of the special magistracy, Lieutenant-Governor Colebrooke 
conceived the idea of establishing circuits for the justices of this court. As- 
sizes would thus be held in all the larger Out-islands. With the concurrence 
of the Secretary of State he recommended it to the legislature. His plan 
carried,"" and a little later the Assembly made provision for tlie traveling 
expenses of the justices."' According to the arrangement, instituted circuits 
were made twice annually to all the more important islands. These circuits 
were as follows: 1, the western, including the Berry Islands, the Biminis, 
Andros, Abaco, Grand Bahama, and Harbor Island ; 2, the middle, including 

"- Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 94. 

■"■■■ Colebrooke to Aberdeen, Nos. 32 and 35. 

■"'Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 112 (18S5). 

"'See Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 17 (1836). 

"»See 5 William IV, 7. 

'" Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 45. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXXII 




Fig. 1. — VIEW siiowixo governjiext house axd gardens, Nassau 




Fig. 2. — lane of poincianas, government ikil.-,],, .NA.-5.-iAU 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING GENERAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 515 

Eleuthera, Long Island, Eiim Cay, Exuma, San Salvador, Watlings and Eagged 
Island; 3, the eastern, including the Turks and Caicos Islands and Inagua.'" 

Captives from Slave Ships. 

A class of persons that caused much anxiety to Lieutenant-Governor 
Colebrooke was that of the captives from slave-trading vessels. A number of 
these vessels continued to be brought to the port of Nassau by the wreckers, and 
by vessels of the royal navy which constantly patrolled the adjacent waters in 
search of slavers. Colebrooke was zealous to make a drastic crusade against 
this commerce,"" but was never able to accomplish more than to add the in- 
formation that came to his hand from the small Colony in which he was located. 
He had to be content in his small sphere here with dealing with those captives 
who were actually brought into the Bahamas. His predecessor had recom- 
mended that they should be sent to Trinidad where there was a demand for them 
as laborers, and where they would still have the advantage of British regulations. 
There was almost no regular employment for any considerable number of them 
in the Bahamas except in the raking of salt. In this hard labor there was little 
opportunity for self-improvement, or for learning the English tongue, which 
was considered very important. The cruelties practiced by the overseers of 
the salt-rakers were such that it did not seem desirable to consign these poor 
people to that employment.™ In June and September, 1834, two large cargoes 
of captives were brought into port. Fortunately there was a demand for the 
services of these Africans among the people of New Providence Island. They 
were apprenticed for a term of seven years. Their employers were bound 
to support them, to teach them to work, and to provide adequate instruction for 
them.''^ It was on the coming of these vessels that Balfour made the recom- 

"' Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 110. Chief Justice Munnings had grown old and 
had often within the last few years been a disturber in the Privy Council of the 
Colony. The failure to secure a promotion for him outside of the Bahamas made 
him the more discontented. But during the administration of Colebrooke, he 
departed with his family for a visit to England. The vessel in which he sailed 
was lost at sea. It was never heard from after its departure from one of the 
eastern islands of the Bahamas. Assistant Justice John C. Lees became his suc- 
cessor. Colebrooke attempted to have him removed to some other colony. But 
after a report by him on a circuit to the Out-islands, he recommended him for the 
Chief Justiceship of the Bahamas, to which he succeeded on the death of Chief 
Justice Munnings. Colebrooke to Aberdeen, Nos. 32 and 99 (1835). 

""See his Ds., No. 48, to Aberdeen. 

«» Balfour to Rice, No. 5. 

"' Loc. cit. 



516 HISTORY 

mendation to the home government to send any others that came to the 
Bahamas to the colon}^ of Trinidad. 

On the arrival of William Colebrooke in the following year (1835), the 
policy of the local government and its recommendations as to the captives was 
entirely changed. The new Executive saw throughout the Bahamas large tracts 
of unoccupied lands (he knew not how unproductive they were) and imagined 
that they would be suitable for settlements of captive Africans.- He attended 
an inspection of a settlement of these captives soon after his arrival in the 
Colony.''" and found out that they were healthy and well provided for. He 
determined at once to secure as many of these Africans as possible, to have them 
sent hither ivoni other colonies, if necessary, and to settle them on this vacant 
Crown property where, he hastily concluded, they could soon provide for them- 
selves after a kindly paternal assistance from the government.'"" Thus would 
he build irp a new class of subjects of his sovereign. He adhered to his hasty 
conclusions in the face of the decline, under his very eyes, of the settlements at 
Adelaide and Carmichael, on New Providence Island. He attrihuted the 
failure of these two settlements, to the incapacity of the superintendents.''^' 
Here William Colebrooke would have erected a refuge for unfortunate Africans 
captured by slave hunters, all unaware that starvation threatened those who 
attempted to live on these barren lands. He wished also to have here an 
asylum for decrepit and discharged soldiers, from the West Indian regiments 
of the British empire.*^ But he was unable to convince, the Colonial Secre- 
tary of State of the soundness of his views in this respect.'"" 

The plan suggested by Colebrooke was to settle these ignorant black men 
in close settlements on the Out-islands, apparently unthoughtful of the meager 
refining influences that existed even in the better populated parts of the Colony. 
Lord Glenelg could not consent to the formation of such settlements where men 
would not learn the English tongue, nor imbibe English democratic ideas, nor 
become attached to the British Crown. Colebrooke admitted the desirability of 
these things but still hoped to win favor for his project. He desired to have 
the captives brought into the Colony and apprenticed to the inhabitants. He 

■■" Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 13. 

'"-^ Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 18 and No. 51. 

"' hoc. cit.. No. 41. He was persuaded that they ought to be able to subsist 
themselves in such settlements by their own labor. Much work had been done in 
these two places under the direction of Sir James Smyth to make them desirable 
places for residence. 

*"' Loc. cit., No. 51. 

<=«Ds., S. St., 1836, No. 86. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 517 

argued that the Bahama apprentices were the most intelligent and the furthest 
advanced morallj' of those in any British West Indian colony."' He labored 
to prove that the negroes would be more favorably situated in the Bahamas 
than in Trinidad, arguing that there was an increased demand for them as salt- 
rakers and in loading vessels at good wages ; '^ that the environment was better 
in the Bahamas than in Trinidad; that the general comfort and respectability 
of the Bahama negroes was superior to that of those in the neighboring British 
colonies; that adult laborers wei-e generally able to make a comfortable living 
within two years after their introduction into the Bahamas; and that the 
treatment they would receive here and the homes they would find, would make 
them into loyal subjects of the King in return for the protection afforded them. 
The probable cost of settling them would have been inconsiderable, in his view, 
in prospect of the return for the outlay."" Fortunately for the captives, Cole- 
brooke was unable to induce the Colonial Department to adopt his program for 
these settleinents. 

Coleljrooke had only to deal A\'ith tliose negroes which were brought into 
the ports of the Bahamas from the neighboring water. But in 
this way many captives were introduced into the Colony. In ilarch, 
1836, the slaver Vigilante, M'ith a Ijurden of 230 negroes, and in April 
of the same j'ear the Creole with 314, all in a deplorable condition, were brought 
to Nassau."" The cargo of the former was in a dreadful state. Diseased and 
wearied by the long voyage, many of them were blinded with ophthalmia. All 
were half naked and they were liuddled together in a vessel without a deck, 
having to make their bed on the hedge poles which protected the yams, that 
served for their means of subsistence. The latter cargo, made up largely of 
children, was in nearly as bad condition. Under the orders of the Lieutenant- 
Governor they Avere in each case landed as soon as possible, and cared for in such 
manner as the meager hospitals and other places on the island could accom- 
modate them."' After the negroes had been restored to strength they 
were indentured to the iuliabitants, as had been done in the case of those brought 
in before. The people seemed eager to obtain these docile newcomers as serv- 

«' Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 25 (1836). 

'"^Loc. cit. 

«» Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 39 (1836). 

«»Colebrooke to Glenelg. Nos. 28 and 31. 

"' Loc. cit., No. 43. An attempt was made to prosecute the ships' masters for 
piracy on account of the atrocious conduct reported of them. The bills were 
rejected by the grand jury on the ground that they had no jurisdiction over crimes 
committed on the high seas. 



518 HISTORY 

ants."' The remnants of another cargo, most of whom were drowned at Harbor 
Island, came in jS^ovember, 1837.'" Two more loads of ghastly looking Afri- 
cans, numbering in all 1013, were brought in the spring of 1838. Both of 
these vessels were of limited size. The Africans were cared for in the best 
manner possible. The people to whom they could be indentured desired to 
accept them as apprentices only for terms of a considerable number of years. 
Some difficulty was experienced in the attempt to bind them out for short 
terms. There were applications for all of them, however, and all were inden- 
tured within a few weeks."* 

The demand for indentured servants at Xassau was almost satisfied. The 
eagerness to receive them abated. In the early summer of 1838 great difficulty 
was experienced in disposing of the cargo of a Spanish slaver. Adults were 
less easily indentured than children. The inhabitants would only accept them 
on terms that were very favorable to themselves. If set free the newly arrived 
Africans were not equal to the battle with their circumstances. They could 
not understand the nature of agreements, and were unable if unaided to gain 
a living. It was always best to place them in tutelage and under the care of 
the special justices, in order to prevent them from being imposed on by the 
public. Those who were able to receive them as servants preferred to contract 
for a term of seven or fourteen years, ifany would not take them for a shorter 
term. It was more profitable to apprentices, as well as to the masters, to place 
them out for the longer term. The masters endeavored to teach long term 
apprentices to be useful and many of them became independent and prosperous 
after a few years, whereas little interest was taken in teaching those who 
would soon have to be released."" During this summer, also, the failure of 
C'olebrooke's settlements began to throw the negroes in them Jjack on the hands 
of the government. It became impracticable to place indentures for shorter 
terms than four years."" The necessity of the maintenance of any considerable 
number of them was avoided by the vigilance of Lieutenant-Governor Cockburn 
in finding new employment for these people. A few, however, did fall upon 
the government for a time. 

After the cancellation of the praedial agreements the indenturing of this 
class of Africans was also discontinued. This left some without employment. 

«=Loc. cit.. No. 39. 
•""Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 38. 
"' Cockburn to Glenelg. No. 75. 
"'Cockburn to Glenelg. No. 79. 
"" Loc. cit. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 519 

In the autumn of 1838, all Africans landed from slaving vessels were freed 
from the obligations of their indentures."' The children from a brig that was 
brought to Nassau were placed in care of the African establishment at Car- 
michael.'™ 

The settlements made for these Africans were not successful. That at 
Highburn Cay made by Sir James Smyth failed, because of a drouth. Those 
at Carmichael and Adelaide were declining during the administration of 
Colebrooke. Another was formed at Headquarters, near the city of Nassau. 
This was the most successful of any of these experiments. The site of Head- 
quarters, now called Grants Town, was a swamp. The negroes entered 
it under the supervision of the government, drained it, enclosed their allot- 
ments, planted gardens, erected dwellings, and laid out streets and other im- 
provements for the public good.""" On this site was formed a permanent settle- 
ment, the lots being sold to those who occupied them. Preparations were 
made for a large scheme of settlement wherever the vacant lands of the Colony 
would admit it. Township sites were selected on the Out-islands. Among the 
first of these was that at Stirrups Cay, one of the Berry Islands, fifty miles 
north of Nassau. This place was called Williamstown, in honor of the King; 
another was called Victoria for the princess. There was much competition for 
building sites in these places. Colebrooke hoped to persuade the negroes to 
settle in these places and to establish permanent homes as soon as they were set 
free.""" Some of these settlements flourished for a time, but none of them 
with the exception of Grants Town has had any considerable permanent im- 
portance in the Colony. They generally declined after a few years. Some of 
them have, however, become the sites of the small towns on the Out-islands. 
There has been no continuous prosperity in the Colony that would warrant the 
building of towns. Bennetts Harbor at San Salvador, the Harbors at Rum 
Cay and Ragged Island, at the Bight and Great Harbor at Long Island were 
among these town sites that were selected at this time."' 



"'Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 119. 

^ Loc. cit.. No. 134. Cockburn received an instruction to tbe effect that he 
should use all means in his power to secure the cancellation oi these agreements, 
but did not understand it as applying to the captives. A little later he received 
more definite instructions and proceeded to give the order for the cancellation of 
these indentures. Loc. cit. 

""Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 72. 

«" Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 12.5. 

"' Sess. P., 1836, 49, pp. 543-5. 



530 HISTORY 

Eelations of the Branches of the Government. 

The transition from slavery to apprenticeship in the Bahamas was ac- 
complished without anj' considerable disturbance. In some places the negroes 
had refused to worlv until the coming of the magistrates, when the new rela- 
tions were explained to them. The coming of these officers proved a cure for 
all ills of this kind. Quiet was restored. It was now known that slave pro- 
perty was annulled, that compensation would be received for it, and that any 
efforts this little Colony could make could not alter in the least the working 
out and attainment of the object at which the home government was aiming. 
Pour years were left to the people in which to employ their laborers without 
other remuneration to the latter than that of subsistence. It was to the 
advantage of those who had owned slaves to make the most out of the services 
of apprentices, while the opportunity lasted. 

The spirit of the slave owners was conquered. They had resisted, standing 
on their inviolable " constitutional rights " of Englishmen, until Parliament 
gave the death-blow to their " right " to hold slaves in British territory. Ifow 
that continued attempts to resist could effect no longer a postponement of the 
evil day, they determined to comply with the wishes of the home government 
in the regulation of the apprenticeship system. Their most liberal concession 
was that by which they provided that the King might disallow any part of their 
statute regulating apprentices, without impairing the other parts of the same 
act."" The objectionable parts could thus be annulled without destroying the 
act itself. The Assembly also complied with the recommendations of the 
Secretary of State for amending the auxiliary act, and passed other laws such 
that early in the summer of 1835, the Secretary of State was able to admit that 
" satisfactory provision had been made by the Bahama government for carry- 
ing out the intentions of His Majesty's government " in the abolition."' 

Although this compliant spirit prevailed for a time, there were still 
smoulderings of resentful opposition to the progress of the measures of the 
government. These feelings were shared by the members of the opposition 
party in the House of Assembly and Avere supported by a faction at Nassau. 
A newspaper published by a young American furnished an outlet for the 
expression of the views of this faction. This party seemed to be imwilling to 
believe that any measures of the home government, for the improvement of 
social conditions in this Colony, could operate successfully. The members 

"= 4 William IV, 21, last section. 
«'Ds., S. St., 1835, No. 26. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXXIII 




Fig. 1. — ^viEW of fort fincastle, Nassau 




Fig. 2. — view of entrance to a Nassau estate 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING GENERAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 521 

of it at first distrusted the special magistrac)^ There was for a time a total 
ignorance at the capital as to the state of things in the Out-islands. Before the 
return of the special justices from their first circuits, this disafEected faction 
attempted to take advantage of this ignorance to bring the government into 
disfavor with the people. For a time none could contradict the charges they 
made. Such conduct was unfavorable to the progress of the reforms, and of 
government measures in the Assembl}'.'" Even after the report of favorable 
conditions came, this faction continued to represent things as unfavorable, in 
order to place the government in a bad light."' The members of this party 
were jealous of the class just rising from the condition of slaves, in which 
they had wished to keep them. Lieutenant-Governor Colebrooke saw among 
them what he called the spirit of Americanism, a lack of reverence for royalty 
and of attachment to the mother countrj', which he attributed to the frequency 
of communication with the States.'"" 

The House of Assembly sitting at this time was that which had been elected 
in 1834, before the abolition took effect. A considerable portion of the 
constituency existing in 1835 had had no voice in the election of this body, 
a fact which caused no little dissatisfaction both on the floor of the House and 
outside of it. In its membership were four gentlemen of color who had sat 
through its deliberations without menace to public interests. A few members, 
chief among whom was Charles Eogers Nesbitt, favored government measures 
and generally succeeded in carrying them through the House. Speaker 
Meadows and a number of others were of the opposition, some of them almost 
violent against the government. Still other seats were occupied, or at least 
controlled, by the merchants of Bay Street at Nassau. These inclined to the 
opposition."' Besides these there was a violent member sitting for the Turks 
Islands, who was a disturber and an opponent of the amelioration measures.'" 

"'Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 94 (1835), and No. 10 (1836). 

"'Loc. cit., No. 10. 

"'Loc. cit.. No. 10. 

"' Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 10. The elections in some of the Out-islands 
were nominal. In some of these only a few electors would assemble to vote and 
the poll was easily controlled. In closer settlements the poor inhabitants were 
dependent on the merchants for their necessaries and were generally indebted to 
the latter, who could control their votes. 

"'Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 10 (1836). This man, Henshall Stubbs by name, 
was the only considerable employer of labor at the Turks Islands who refused to 
make voluntary engagements with his apprentices. He was reported to have been 
constantly in disputes with the magistrates. 



532 ITISTOIJY 

The spirit of the opposition was " inimical to the changes in progress." "' The 
Council, with the exception of one or two members, was in favor of the program 
of the government. 

A session of the Assembly which began in the autumn of 183-t, under the 
administration of Balfour, continued until after the coming of Colebrooke, 
in February of the following year. In March, 1835, the House of Assembly 
incorporated in its appropriation bill an item of £2225 as remuneration to 
Henshall Stubbs, the member from the Turks Islands, on a claim for service 
rendered with a private guardship at the Turks Islands, during the agitation 
over the abolition of slavery.'^" The claimant voted in his own behalf and the 
appropriation bill was carried in the House by a majority of only one vote. 
On account of the presence of this item the Council rejected the whole appro- 
priation bill. A sensation was created in the House by this vote. To prevent 
a difficulty the Lieutenant-Governor prorogued the Assembly for a few days. 
A new session began within a few days afterwards. No serious interruption 
of business was caused by the prorogation and the effect of it on the House was 
salutary. The members became milder and received government recommen- 
dations with more favor than before."' But in this session one of the first 
things to come up was the appropriation bill including the claim of the Turks 
Islands member. The amount of the claim had now been reduced to £900. 
The Council, although disposed to reject the bill again, passed it and it received 
the assent of the Executive."'" The Council did not adjourn without placing on 
record a resolution that it would pass no more such claims for public services 
imless they were preferred through the Executive. The bone of contention 
was removed. The Assemljly was prorogued without further breach of rela- 
tions, but the feeling in the House was not such as to promise careful consider- 
ation to proposals at the next session. 

"' hoc. cit. 

''-" H. v., 1834-5, p. 130, report of the committee on this claim. There had been 
excitement and insubordination at the Turlis Islands in the year 1832 when all were 
expecting action by Parliament on the slave question. The slaves were' not easily 
controlled. Many of them were eloping from Grand Cay. There was little hope of 
securing aid from Nassau to put down the insubordinate. Stubbs offered to employ 
his own vessel, equipped and manned by himself, on condition that the inhabitants 
would certify that the vessel was needed to preserve the peace. Thirty-seven per- 
sons, five of whom were magistrates, agreed to certify to his claim. Stubbs fitted 
out and manned his vessel and did guard duty from April 11, 1832, until March 
6, 1834. 

••"Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 26. 

"■■ Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 64. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 533 . 

The Assembly met again in December, 1835. Thus far the government 
had been able to counteract any opposition that had arisen in the popular body. 
Tranquillity continued to prevail in all parts of the Colony according to 
reports that came to the capital. The intelligence of tliis acted favorably on the 
people. It was not without effect within the halls of the legislature. But little 
of it supported the contention of the opposition as to the success of the appren- 
ticeship system. At the opening of the session, the Executive refrained from 
making reference to anything that might distract the members from attention 
to the public interests. Nothing was done to arouse the opposition. But the 
discontented could not act with equanimity of mind from the very beginning of 
the session."' Things without and within disturbed them. Soon after the 
meetings had begun, an American brigantine, whose masters were charged 
with piracy, was brought into port."' As the Vice-Admiralty Court could not 
meet for trial of the prisoners until February, 1836, a bill was passed in the 
legislature to permit them to be tried at once without incurring the expense 
of supporting them for almost two months."' The judicial proceedings were 
followed with interest by the people. The members of the Assembly were no 
less stirred up than the rest of the community. Troops had to be employed to 
guard the prisoners."" A proposal to repeal the clause in the militia act, which 
forbade the enrolment of the blacks in the service, was rejected by the House 
after an animated discussion.'" A bill for improvements in the administration 
of justice was thrown out on the second reading."' A very popular education 

'^Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 10 (1836). 

«'Loc. cit.. No. 120 (1835). 

■■■'^ Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 4 (1836). There were 176 persons under the 
charge of piracy. It did not seem unwise to dispose of their case as soon as 
possible. 

''"hoc. cit.. No. 13. 

"' H. v., 1835-6, 53, resolutions passed on this occasion. Located as the 
Africans were in the Colony in settlements almost entirely removed from the other 
inhabitants and at a distance from any power to control them, this together with 
the probability that more of them would arrive at any time from Africa caused the 
majority in the House to think that " an act to prevent the enrolment of them in 
the Colonial militia," was desirable. There lay in the removal of it too much 
danger to the public peace. The House professed to be willing to facilitate the 
enrolment of the militia, but not in this manner. 

■""Regarding this action of the House, the Lieutenant-Governor wrote: "That 
the bill for the administration of justice was not allowed to go into committee 
may be ascribed to the clauses it contained for preserving the jury trial and the 
constitutional objection I maintained to any abridgment of the right of the subject 
to trial by jury which the House has shown a disposition to abridge since the recent 
changes in society." Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 10 (1836). 



. 524 HISTORY 

bill was passed by a majoritj' of four after a strong opposition. A proposition 
came up to appropriate money to pay the expense of the trial of the pirates. 
A minor item in it was objected to. The whole bill of expenses was at once re- 
jected by a resolution which declared that the Receiver-General had acted ille- 
gally in paying it.*'° Excitement in the House was growing. Taunts were 
thrown out to the Council for its yielding on the appropriation bill in the 
previous session. The sensation produced in the Council by the reckless 
course of the House caused the Lieutenant-Governor to see that any longer 
continuance of this conduct could only cause greater dissatisfaction and that 
the opposition would gain strength by it. The fractious member from the 
Turks Islands declared, on the floor of the House, that the members then sitting 
did not represent fairly the constituencies as they then existed, and that an ap- 
peal to the people should be made. The Lieutenant-Governor acted upon the 
suggestion, dissolving the House near the last of January, ISSG.™ The dis- 
solution seemed to be at the time chosen for it by the House itself. The 
Council concurred with the Executive in the move. It seemed likely that an 
appeal to the people would show that the opposition was a minority in the 
Colony. 

A serious breach in the relations of the two branches of the Assembly was 
averted by the timely action of the Executive. Relations had not been cordial 
during two or three sessions, but now the House was wrought up to such a state 
of excitement that any violent proposal against the Executive would have 
received heedless support from the opposition. Under such conditions an 
exercise of the prerogative was desirable. It was important also to give to 
the class just emerging from slavery an opportunity to reiiect upon the re- 
sponsibilities which they would soon be called upon to discharge, in voting for 
legislators."' 

Another Assembly was called as soon as the forms of an election could be 
gone through. The results of the dissolution were manifest in the better spirit 
with which the new body applied itself to legislating for the interests of the 
Colony. More enlightened counsels prevailed. Liberal militia and education 
bills were passed, and provision was made for the incorporation of the Turks 
Islands.'"" The administration of justice was reformed, improved regulations 

''^"Loc. cit., No. 10. 

'">Loc. cit. Also H. v., 1835-6, pp. 138-40. 
'"Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 53 (1836). 

M2 rpjjg g^gj. jqj. jjjjg purpose was disallowed in the following year, H. V., 
1837, 288. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 535 

were made for contracts between employers and laborers and for praedial ap- 
prentices, and prison discipline was mollified/" The leaders in this body were 
active and public spirited. They cooperated with the government in measures 
for the public good. It was gratifying to Colebrooke that the liberated had 
thus been " called into a political existence, and a perception of their real 
position and importance in the community of which the other classes as well 
as themselves (had) remained in a great degree unconscious." "* The electors 
and those who were sent to the now House were disposed to promote measures 
favorable to the public improvement.'"" 

Termination of Apprenticeship System. 

The special magistracy continued in its effective control of the apprentice- 
ship system. The corps of six magistrates was sufficient to attend to all the 
business of the Colony, to preserve order and to promote harmonious relations 
between the classes. The zeal of the magistrates to give justice to all classes 
was such as to inspire and renew confidence in them. They were reluctant to 
allow the infliction of corporal punishment, except in cases where no other form 
of punishment would sirffice. In this respect a greater amount of discretion 
was allowed towards the close of the period. This was almost the sole change 
that was made in the system as instituted by Lieutenant-Governor Colebrooke."" 
The efficient management by the magistrates tended to lessen the need of 
their presence as regulators. A reduction in their number was suggested. 
The establishment was a costly one for this small Colony to support with the 
narrow basis on which it depended for its revenues. This fact alone was suffi- 
cient in the minds of the local legislators to warrant its reduction."' Cock- 
burn was unfavorable to the reduction, unless some other officials than the 
ordinary justices of the peace could be looked to to assume the functions of 
protectors of the praedials."" Quiet continued to reign throughout the 

^'^H. v., 1836, p. 315-17. Also Baliama Statutes, 6 William IV. 

■■"Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 52 (1836). 

'^Loc. cit. 

■'"Cockbiirn to Glenelg, No. 66. 

•""The cost of the six magistrates was £2700 annually. Cockbiirn to Glenelg, 
No. 56. 

•"'* Loc. cit.. No. 56. Cockburn thought if a reduction was made in the number 
of these officers two or three should be retained, and the duties assumed by the 
ordinary justices. This he thought might not prejudice the interests of any class. 
This would serve to bring the negroes to look for protection to the same officers to 
whom they had formerly looked before the abolition. 



536 HISTORY 

Colon}-. The apprentices were contented under the regulations as the special 
justices applied them. The spirit of industry increased. Man)' apprentices 
had become independent, the striving for the attainment of which condition 
had become a great stimulus to them. The near approach of the day when the 
praedials were to be released caused no demonstrations of anxiety. All reports 
were most favorable to the good conduct of the laborers."" 

But as the end of the term of the apprenticeship of the non-praedials ap- 
proached, certain elements in the population of the mother country began an 
agitation for the release of the praedials by action of Parliament. A memorial 
was presented to the House of Commons setting forth as facts many things 
that were not true at all, of this Colony at least, and praying that final action 
be taken by that body to release the praedials from the remaining two years 
of their bondage."" The Ministry made a reply declining to take the lead in 
making any such recommendations to Parliament."' But the Secretary of 
State for the colonies made enquiry of the Lieutenant-Governor as to the prob- 
ability of the local legislature enacting the desired release of the praedials. 
The state of opinion in the Bahamas, following upon the deep wound of the 
abolition, was such that the auspices were unfavorable to the introduction of 
this measure into the local legislature. In addition to this, all parties were 
so well contented with the existing relations that it seemed unjust to the 
owners of praedial labor to obtrude a measure to deprive them of it."'' Cock- 
burn regarded the introduction of this measure as unnecessary."^ 

Nevertheless the question was brought up in the mid-summer session of 
the legislature in 1838."' The House of Assembly elected in 1837 was under 
the control of the opposition."' The Speaker of the House was also of the 
opposition faction."" There had been several resignations from the House, 

«'Sess. P., 1839, 37, p. 487 (12-14). 

""Sess. P., 1837-39, 49, pp. 6-8. Petitions to the same effect signed by 600,000 
women were sent to Parliament. 

'" hoc. cit., p. 6. 

'""Cocliburn to Glenelg, No. 5 (1838). 

'"l/oc. cit., No. 68. 

"'hoc. cit., No. 84. See also Sess. P., 1839, 37, p. 487 (9). 

■"" On the departure of Colebrooke from the Bahamas, President Hunter, of the 
Council, had administered the government until the arrival of Cockburn. He 
dissolved the legislature and called another. Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 86. 

■"' Speaker Meadows was formerly violent in his opposition to the government. 
He was appointed to the chairmanship of this House without opposition. In 1834 he 
was the mover of the resolution to censure the Council which became the occasion 
of the dissolution of the Assembly by Balfour. He introduced the measure in 1S36 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 0"27 

and the elections to fill the vacancies had resulted in favor of the opposition. 
The then recent amendment to the imperial abolition act/" granting rights to 
the praedials and additional powers to the governors of the colonies, was un- 
popular among the employers of praedial labor. It was repugnant to them to 
be subjected to additional regulations from home."' Some of the membei-s of 
the House were doubtless influenced b3' these new regulations to vote for the 
release of the praedials, when the matter was presented to that body. The friends 
of the government were active to strike objectionable provisions out of the 
original bill, and to make it as favorable as possible to the emancipated classes. 
Finally on July 2 the Executive was notified that the bill had been passed. On 
the 3rd of July the two houses were called into the presence of the Lieutenant- 
Governor, who was there to sign the bills to which he would give his assent. A 
very irregular proceeding occurred. The Speaker of the House, witb the con- 
currence of his colleagues, arose and in a confused manner read a long address, 
calling in question the right of the imperial Parliament to legislate for the 
colonies, and arraigning the representative of the Queen for his conduct in 
dealing with the apprenticeship question.'"" This was a last expression of the 
long-confined feelings of the late slave owners, perhaps intended for a revenge 
against the prerogative for fancied wrongs against the rights of the people. 
As soon as opportunity was allowed, the astounded Executive signed the bills 
and dismissed the assemblage. The business of the session was allowed to 
proceed without interruption by the government. The House tendered its 
presiding officer a vote of thanks for his compliance with its wishes, and 
hastened to strike from its journals a minute stating that his conduct was not 
concurred in by its members. The Lieutenant-Governor was urged to dissolve 
the House at once, as a mark of disapprobation of irregular conduct. Cockburn 
preferred to await an authorization from the Colonial Department at London 

that led to the dissolution by Colebrooke. In 1837 he took active part in the meas- 
ures that led to the dissolution by President Hunter. His career in the Colony had 
been begun in the commissariat, from which Sir James Smyth had dismissed him for 
his conduct in the treatment of a gang of slaves while acting in the capacity of 
agent for an absent proprietor. From that probably arose the opposition which 
he so actively followed against the government. He had been quiet on the coming 
of Cockburn, but it was not long before his unbecoming conduct brought his col- 
leagues into difficulty. Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 86. Meadows was appointed to 
the Legislative Council after the separation of the Councils. 

'" Imp. Stats., 1 Vic, 19. 

■'■« Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 86. 

*'" Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 86. This speech also contained some remarks- 
about the abolition act of Parliament. 



528 HISTORY 

altlioiigh convinced of the expediency of an early dissolution."" In the early 
part of the following year this body was sent back to the people who had 
elected it, in order to secure another expression of their will.'"" 

The praedial apprentices were now released from the unexpired portion 
of their term of apprenticeship.''^ Old and infirm persons now coming free 
were to be supported at the expense of the State unless otherwise provided 
for.''^ In order to prevent the praedials and others from being thrown upon 
the public without homes, two months notice was made necessary before an 
ejectment from rented property could be forced. But there was no general 
disposition to take advantage of the negroes in any such way. August 1, 1838, 
passed by with no demonstrations of insubordination on the part of the class 
which was coming into command of itself. The harmonious relations 
that had existed since the latter part of the year 1835 continued to prevail.*'* 
The employers and men acted in the best spirit. Content with their relations 
since the abolition, the negroes wished to continue in the service of their 
former emp)loyers, and the latter were disposed to enter into relations for 
mutual benefit.'"^ In addition to this, the indentures of the Africans were 
cancelled in the autumn of this year (1838). The last of bonded labor as 
a general system was done away with in the Bahamas. It had long been in ex- 
istence here. Henceforth the affairs of the Colony concern freemen. In the 
next chapter it will be necessary to show how the progressive spirit of English 
nineteenth century politics dealt with the negro as a freeman, how unceasing 
were the efforts made to educate him and to further ameliorate his condition, by 
introducing into his very being the seeds of civilization, of morality, and of 
economic well-being. 

the period 1s38 to 1848. 
The Opposition Paktt and the Government. 

The numerous contests with the Assembly during the last decade were not 
calculated to produce harmony between the government and the House of 
Assembly. The small number of those who were likely to be elected to seats in 

^^'' Loc. cit. 

«iCockburn to Glenelg, No. 14 (1839). 
«=2 Vic, 1. 

'^Loc. cit. Also Sess. P., 1839, 37, p. 487 (12). 
™Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 96. Sess. P., 1839, 37, p. 487 (12). 
™Sess. P., 1839, 37, p. 487 (14). hoc. cit., p. 12, report of S. J., for New 
Providence. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXXIV 





'A 

o 



a 

o 
o 






C3 



^ S 



>5 a 



fa 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 539 

the House made it almost inevitable that each House of Assembly would have 
in its number some persons who had sat in former Assemblies. Thus in 1838 
there were members of much influence who had sat through all the stormy 
sessions of the House since 1830. Some of these had been leaders of the oppo- 
sition faction. This party had acquired the habit of unqualified opposition in 
all its contests with the government. Some of its members had voted for the 
release of the apprentices. It now formed a majority in the House, and had 
no disposition to consider favorably any measure that the government might 
propose. Its members made harsh accusations against the government™ 
during the session that occurred in the autumn of 1838. The Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor had long been convinced that a reference to the people would be expedient. 
He acted very deliberately, however, preferring that it should be known tliat 
the anticipated dissolution had been authorized from London instead of from 
the Government House at Nassau. 

The House of Assembly sat and stormed. The land question came up. 
The government proposed a measure to prevent the unauthorized occupation 
of the Crown lands of the Colony.'" The bill was modeled after an Order-in- 
council that had been issued for the Crown colonies. After a heated discus- 
sion of its merits and demerits it was rejected. Some members of the oppo- 
sition took occasion to express want of confidence in any measures the govern- 
ment might propose for passage. It became evident that the carrying out of 
the views of the government must depend on the issue of a new election. The 
majority were expressly hostile to the government program. Eolations be- 
tween the government and the House were at their worst, and the time was 
ripe for an improvement of them.'"* Any longer delay would have given weight 
to the accusations made by the opposition, as it would have appeared to be over- 
looking past misconduct. The dissolution occurred early in 1839. This step 
was taken with anything but haste. Francis Cockburn had been urged to pur- 
sue this course six months earlier. He preferred to consider well the results 
that might be expected to flow from it. The House on its part grew more 
violent with every step, so violent that it was no longer doubtful that it ought 
to he dissolved. 

The business of the Colony demanded the attention of the legislature. 

'^' Cockburn to Glenelg, Ds. of Dec. 22, 1838, Misc. Letter Book of Governors, 
1838-50. 

«' Cockburn to Glenelg, No. o (1839). 
*^ Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 5 (1839). 
34 



530 HISTORY 

The act granting the salarj' list was to expire at the beginning of the following 
3'ear, the regulation of the relations of masters and servants required a new 
adjustment, and, most important of all, the Colony was face to face with the 
duty of educating the ignorant among its population. Another attempt at 
legislation must be made for the sake of these and other interests. Writs for 
a new election were issued without delay. It seemed likely that a majority 
favorable to the government would be returned. It was certain, however, that 
the opposition would make an attemf)t to seat as many members as possible. 
There had been a difficulty in former elections that men of respecta- 
bility, who were favorable to the government, refused to offer themselves for 
seats iu the House. This was not true at this election,"" but there was a 
regrettable lack of zeal for candidates whom the Lieutenant-Governor desired 
to see elected."" Much influence was exerted in this election by the control of 
the salarj' list. The issue of the contest was not certain. Public officers draw- 
ing salaries from the local government were deterred from taking active part 
in behalf of government candidates by the fact that the Assembly had power 
to diminish their incomes. In the previous year the House had reduced the 
salary of the Provost Marshal £100 without previous warning, and, had the 
Council or the Lieutenant-Governor interfered, the whole appropriation for the 
year would have been rejected. The Siirveyor-General had not received a 
salary for several years.'" Other officials were extremely reluctant to give sup- 
port to persons known to Ije in favor of government measures. Violent but 
groundless accusations were made against the representative of the Crown. 
It was alleged that the sacred ordinances of religion had been prostituted to 
subserve the political interests of the government. Objection was raised to the 
voting of Africans whose indei^tures had been lately cancelled. It was ques- 
tioned Avhether they should be placed on an equal footing with the discharged 
apprentices.'"" i\.ttempts were made to turn the liberated Africans against the 
government, and to induce them not to support candidates who would be likely 
to vote for government measures in the coming sessions of the legislatui-e. A 
hard contest was fought at Nassau. One, John Pinder, who had advocated the 
claims of the Africans for naturalization, was strongly opposed by this party. 
Pinder was held up as an enemy of the negroes. The latter, however, voted 

«=Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 9 (1839). 

""Loc. cit., No. 20. 

"'Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 20. 

'■'■ Loc. cit. This despatch intimates that they had been allowed to vote. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 531 

for their benefactor and he was elected.'" The Turks, Crooked and Acklin 
Islands, all of which had formerly been dominated by the opposition, now 
returned government members.™ The election resulted in an almost equal 
division of the membership of the House between the government party and the 
opposition. Among those sent up were several individuals belonging to the 
military forces stationed at Nassau. They were generally Englishmen and 
favorable to the government policy. In this instance they helped to make up 
what became eventually a bare majority for the government party."" 

Electiox of Speakee. 

The legislature was convened on May 6, 1839. The opposition voted 
for the reelection of the Speaker of the last House. Opposed to him was the 
Attorney-General, George Campbell Anderson, wlio liad been a staunch advo- 
cate of government measures for several years preceding.'"" A great 
interest was taken in the contest. It was reported to the Lieutenant-Governor 
that a ballot had been taken and that it had resulted in a tie vote. Each party 
persisted in support of its candidate.'"" The Executive declined to interfere. 
He wished to avoid the appearance of doing anything that was irregular, since, 
in the sensitive state of opinion in the Colony, many were seeking every oppor- 
tunity to make complaints against his conduct. When it appeared that differ- 
ent resiUts were not forthcoming, Cockburn prorogued the Assembly for a 
month in order to allow time for reflection as to the course he should pursue. 
It appeared that the deadlock would continue and that the idtimate choice 
would lie with him. But in the interval of the prorogation, one of the members 
of the opposition sailed for England. This led to the solution of the difficulty. 
The House met again at the appointed time and elected Attorney-General 
Anderson as its Speaker.'"* 

Ilithorto no olijection had Ijeen made to the presence of the military men 

"= Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 14 (1839). 

'" Loc. cit., No. 20. 

"^Cockburn to Normanby, No, 11. The elections to vacant seats after the 
opening of the sessions of this House resulted in the return of government mem- 
bers. Loc. cit.. No. 21. 

"' Anderson had been a supporter of the government since he had come to a 
position of influence in the Colony. He was appointed to the Executive Council in 
1841. At this time he began his services as Speaker of the House in which position 
he continued for twenty-si.x years. He retired from the place with great honor on 
the occasion of the disendowment of the Anglican Church of the Bahamas. 

"' Cockburn to Normanby, No. 2. 

"'Loc. cit. 



532 HISTORY 

who had been elected members of this House. There was no colonial law nor 
any regulation to prevent them from sitting in the House if elected. These 
men had been freely elected by the suffrages of the qualified voters; they were 
subject to the same qualification oaths as to property, etc., a.s the other mem- 
bers; some of them had been in the Colony for many years and had become 
property holders and were certainly not ill-qualified to sit in the legislature."' 
Custom in the colonies seemed to favor allowing them to hold seats in a 
colonial legislature. Attempts were made by the opposition to secure their 
votes against the government, failing which it was charged that their election 
was a wrong against the people. The opposition seized upon their presence in 
the House as the cause of its own defeat in the speakership contest and 
objected to their retaining seats. It was now charged that undue influence 
had been exerted to bring about their election.''"" The Executive had already 
begun to present the government jDrogram for the business of the session when 
a motion was made for the iinseating of the military members. The latter 
withdrew during tlie consideration of this question, but there was still a ma- 
jority of the House in favor of their retention of the seats to which they had 
been returned.''" After this disappointing vote, the jealousy of the discon- 
tented members was shown by their attempts to obstruct legislation and to 
hinder the jjrogress of business. They were unable to cause serious concern to 
the government during this session. The opposition was now defeated. It 
had kept up the feeling against the representative of the Crown since Sir James 
Smytli had first broken with it in 1831, it had hindered business, had impeded 
the changes that were being made in society, and had always been tenacious in 
clinging to and claiming constitutional right and privileges wliich neither King, 
Ministry, nor Parliament would recognize as belonging to the Colony. It had 
gone so far. in many instances, that it was no longer popular with the majority 
of the people. Several of its prominent memhers had emigrated, others had 
become reconciled to the changes and had become supporters of the government. 
A minority remained to contest with the government. Prom this time we 
shall find an improvement in the character of the relations existing between 
the government and tlie Assembly. Opposition did not cease, but for several 
years the situation was witliin tlie grasp of the Governors and their leadership 

*" Cockburn to Normanby, No. 12. 

■■■"> hoc. cit, No. 11. 

^"^ Loc. cit.. No. 12. The return of Lieutenant Nicolls, sitting for Watlings and 
Rum Cay, was found to be irregular. Writs were issued for a new election in that 
district. 



TIIK BAHAMA ISLANDS 533 

was followed in legislation. The results of this dissolution on the politics of 
the Colouj' were far-reaching. 

Government Prevails. 

The margin of the majority in the House was narrow. In this June ses- 
sion the disaffected members voted against almost all measures that were not 
of their own finding. Bills for the regulation of masters and servants, for the 
prevention of vagrancy and the unauthorized occupation of land, and for plac- 
ing the control of the militia in the hands of the Governor, were passed only by 
the casting vote of the Speaker.""' The absence from his seat of one member of 
the majority would have blocked its way in legislation. A fear that such would 
be the state of things seized upon the Lieutenant-Governor before the beginning 
of the next session in December, 1839. Charles B. Nesbitt, the leader of the 
government party, was absent from the Colony.™' His leadership was needed 
in presenting the measures of the government, if the turbulent party was to be 
kept under control. °" The importance of his presence was so great, in the 
mind of the Lieutenant-Governor, that he delayed convening the legislatiire 
as long as it would not cause inconvenience to the public interests,™' awaiting 
Nesbitt's return. 

One of the most vital questions at issue was that of the control of the civil 
salary list. This Colony was always reluctant to vote freely on appropriations 
for public purposes. The number of years for which any annual payments 
were guaranteed was always guardedly limited. Salaries had been relegated 
to the list of expenses regularly provided for in the annual appropriation bill. 
There they could be reduced or otherwise changed at the whim of the House 
of Assembly. This was a thing that was manipulated arbitrarily to suit the 
occasion that offered. The almost absolute certainty that such use would be 
made of it, that salaries would-be scaled down and the incumbents of office be 
made to feel want, had become a menace to officials and a spur to them to 

"- Cockburn to Normanby, No. 12. 

""Nesbitt was in England at the time. Cockburn had the utmost confidence in 
him as a supporter. He had aslced the Secretary ol! State to confer with him during 
his stay in London, to regard him as a thoroughly reliable witness as to the condi- 
tions existing in the Bahamas, and to accept what he might say as indicating the 
views of the local government. After the elevation of Anderson to the Speaker's 
chair, Nesbitt had become the member on whom Cockburn relied. His leadership, 
no less than his vote, was needed. 

"" Cockburn to Normanby, No. 36. 

"''^Loc. cit.. No. 36, and Cockburn to Russell, No. 5 (1839). 



534 HISTORY 

govern their conduct in accordance with the prevailing temper of the majority 
in the House of Assembly. The management of it was as unscrupulous as it 
was vexatious. Its effects were manifest in the election that had just passed, 
and no less in others before this one. It also became a factor in determining 
the attitude of members of the House who were oflScials, towards measures that 
came up for consideration. For five years, however, the imminence of this 
danger had been removed, as a result of the grant of salaries for tliat period 
obtained by Balfour in 1835."' Francis Cockburn now desired to have such a 
vote again, and if possible to secure the grant for the whole reign of the 
Queen.""' He had almost accomplished his ol3Ject when the defection of two 
members of the House, on whose support he liad relied, defeated the plan and 
made the grant for only seven years. °°' The matter was not allowed to rest with 
this. During the same session Cockburn applied for and secured an amend- 
ment by which the grant was changed from seven years to the whole reign of 
the Queen.°" This seems to have been an example of confidence in the Crown 
tliat was almost without precedent in the British West Indies."" There was no 
longer any immediate anxiety as to the control of the salary list. 

Sepakatiox of the Councils. 

The nucleus of the support received by the Executive of the Bahamas from 
the colonial people, lay in the Advisory Council. In all the struggles with the 
local people during the previous twenty years this body had stood with the 
Executive with few exceptions. It was often a lukewarm support that some of 
the members gave, and there was sometimes a determined minority of the 
opposition in it. It usually acted in harmony with the wishes of the Gov- 
ernor, with whom it was closely allied in the affairs of government. After it 
had been remodeled by Sir James Smyth it had become a source of strength to 
the government. In this Colony one body Of men had acted as a Legis- 
lative Council and as a Privy (Executive) Council to the governor, its mem- 
bers being thus excluded from the membership of the House of Assembly. It 
was a custom to appoint to seats in the Council men of the first rank for mod- 
eration and general wortli. There were two vacant seats in the Council in 

, =°° Balfour to Rice, No. 43. The Assembly had been compliant during that year. 
. ™' Cockburn to Russell, Nos. 5 and 8. 
■ ■' ""^ Loc. cit.. No. 8. 

'^'' hoc. cit.. No. 1.5 (Feb. 14, 1840). 
'^'' Loc. cit. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXXV 





I. M 

o 

I ^ 

a 
o 



I?; 



H 
■Jl 






©s fc 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 535 

1840 and another was vacated by the death of the senior member, John Irving."' 
There were two men in the House of Assembh' whom Cockburn desired to have 
in his Advisory Council. These were Charles E. Nesbitt and George C. Ander- 
son. They would have to resign their seats in the House if they should accept 
seats in the Council. Cockburn applied to the Colonial Department for a 
separation of the Councils, vesting the legislative functions in one body and the 
executive functions in another, as had been done in other colonies."" Under 
this arrangement he could have the two members of the Assembly as advisors, 
while they retained their seats in the House. Thus would he have in the 
House men who were closely identified with the government, and that body 
would be the more easily controlled."" Instructions were accordingly sent 
during the following 3'ear by which the executive functions of the Council were 
vested in one body of men and the legislative in another. The maximum of 
membership in each Council was fixed at nine members, three of whom could 
transact business.™ The members of the Council were appointed and were to 
sit during the pleasure of the Crown. The senior member in each was made 
the presiding oiEcer, except when the Governor chose to preside in the Executive 
Council. Seniority was left determinable by rules made by the Crown.°'° 

CocKBUKN" Becomes Governor. 

When Blaney T. Balfour was placed in the government of the Bahamas 
his commission constituted him a Lieutenant-Governor and the governor's 
commission of his predecessor. Sir James Smyth, was continued. The latter, 
however, exercised no authority over the Bahamas after his departure in 1833. 
The authorities, in the Colonial Department at London at that time, had 
planned to grant a governors commission to a person who should reside in 
some one of the West Indian colonies and exercise supervision over the gov- 

°" Cockburn to Russell, No. 28. 

"-Cockburn to Russell, No. 28. 

""Loc. cit., No. 28. 

""Council votes, 1840, pp. 285-6, Mss. Vol. The original document bearing this 
instruction may be found in the office ot the Register of Lands at Nassau. 

"" Council votes. Loc. cit. An additional instruction was sent out at this 
time giving the names of the members of the Legislative Council. They were the 
Chief Justice for the time being, the Bishop of Jamaica (a seat later taken by the 
Archdeacon of the Bahamas), Patriclv Brown. William Webb, Robert Sandilands, 
John Good, William Hield. John Storr and William Hamlyn, ranking in seniority in 
the order in which they were named in the instruction. In all other instances they 
were to rank in the order of their appointment. A change was made in this order 
soon after. 



536 HISTORY 

ernments of the others. The chief executives of the other colonies were to tal<e 
rank as lieutenant-governors, which rank was less expensive to maintain than 
that of governor."" The plan was not put into execution. The Executive of 
the Bahamas ranked merely as a lieutenant-governor until 1840. On the 
death of Sir James Smyth in 1838 his commission as Governor thereby expired. 
Francis Cockburn, then in the government of the Bahamas, made application 
for promotion to the rank of Governor."' With the consent of the Secretary of 
State he applied to the local Assembly to grant a sum as an increase in his 
salary."' The Assembly voted without dissent to grant the addition to his salary 
and a commission was accordingly sent out to Cockburn as Governor of the 
Bahamas, which dignity he assumed early in the summer of 1840."° 

Temporary Administration. 
Francis Goekburn obtained permission for a temporary absence from his 
government in the winter of 1840."° He was almost prepared to depart for 
England when John Irving, the senior member of the Council, who was to 
administer the government during his absence, died in a sudden attack of 
apoplexy."^" This sad event led to a series of embarrassments to the Governor 
which delayed his departure for over two years."'"' The next member of the 
Council in the order of seniority was the comptroller of the customs, who 
was excluded from the temporary administration by the colonial regulations. 
According to these same regulations the second member of the Council in 
the order of seniority would receive the commission to act as temporary admin- 
istrator.""' Arrangements were completed by which Patrick Brown, now 

='" It would seem that there was no reason for this in the Baliamas. The home 
government contrihuted the same amount to the salary of the Executive here, after 
the change, that it had paid before. The additional amount for the Governor's 
salary was made up by the Colony. At the request of the Secretary of State this 
portion contributed by the Colony had been discontinued. 

="Misc. Letter Book, 1838-50, separate Ds. of April 9, 1838, and Sept. 9, 1839. 
The expenses of the chief executive were represented to be such, that it was diffi- 
cult to maintain the dignity of that position at Nassau on the salary that was 
attached to the office. Besides the lieutenant-governor had to pay out of his salary 
for his private secretary and for the stationery for his official correspondence. The 
additional sum for the salary would be sought from the colonial legislature again. 

"•' Ds. S. St., 1838, No. 62. 

'"Cockburn to Russell, Nos. 11 and 39 (1840). 

=-" Cockburn to Russell, No. 6. 

™ Loo. cit. 

''-- He had sought the leave of absence for the sake of his health. 

'" By this the commission would have fallen upon Patrick Brown, with John 
Storr as his alternate. The latter had a dormant commission as temporary admin- 
istrator. Loc. cit., Nos. 130 and 131 (1841). 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS SS? 

senior member, was to administer the government. The customary addresses 
had been presented and the Governor had set the 26th of July as the date on 
which he would sail. Four days before that time the July mail brought a 
commission to Charles E. Nesbitt, the Public Secretary, as Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor, thus placing him next the Governor, and in advance of all other claim- 
ants to the temporary administration in the absence of the Governor. New 
instructions also came for the swearing in anew of the members of the Ex- 
ecutive Council, in which George C. Anderson, the Attorney-General, was now 
to take rank next to the newly commissioned Lieutenant-Governor.""' If the em- 
barrassment to the Governor was great, the disappointment of the older mem- 
bers of his Council was greater. A mere seat in this Council gave weight and 
influence to the holder, but the desirability of holding a seat was greatly 
enhanced by the possibility of eventually becoming administrator of tlie 
government. By this new arrangement the older members were set aside 
and younger men, the most recent appointees, were placed above them in rank. 
The consistent and cordial support given to tlic Governors during so many 
years could not be expected to continue, if the older members were made to 
think that they were of less consequence than the then recent appointees.""" 
This arrangement also threatened to break down the government control of 
the House of Assembly, since the public secretary would be compelled to 
resign his seat in the House on his assumption of the government. It had 
been far from the intention of the Governor, in making recommendations to 
the Colonial Department, to bring about such a state of affairs as this.°°° Such 
tampering with the rank of members of the Council would not have encouraged 
men of high standing in the community to accept the tender of seats in it. 
Nevertheless the embarrassing instructions were followed out. The ceremony 
of swearing in the Council was performed amid the evident mortification of 
the older members."" Cockburn attempted to secure an arrangement by which 
the former senior member would assume the government, suspending the 
application of the new instruction. Nesbitt at first agreed to abide by the 
preexisting arrangement. Afterwards he refused to do so and persisted in his 
determination to follow out the instruction."™ The Governor still delayed to 

'=' Cockburn to Russell, No. 130. Ds. S. St., 1841, No. 107, enclosed instruction 
of May 1. 

-'■' Cockburn to Russell, No. 97. 

''"-" Loc. cit. 

°" Loc. cit., No. 131. 

^^ Loc. cit., No. 130. 



538 HISTORY 

take his departure."'" He insisted that Nesbitt should abide by tlie former 
agreement, and recommended that the Secretar}' of State should lend his influ- 
ence to enforce that agreement, and he determined to remain at Kassau until 
he should receive a reply to his despatch making these recommendations.'"'' 
Lord Eussell refused to make any change in the instruction. 

The Governor might now have hoped to go away from the Colony on his 
leave. But Nesbitt continued to embarrass him. The latter desired the 
use of Government House during his incumbency of the government in order 
that he might perform the social duties of the head of the government. The 
Governor had planned to leave the building vacant and to have it repaired 
during his absence.""" This caused further delay in the Governor's departure. 
He finally sailed in May, 1843, more than two years after the permission to 
leave was granted.""' 

This episode illustrates both the vanity of I^esbitt and the strictness with 
which Francis Cockburn adhered to his business engagements. It was cer- 
tainly mortifying to the older inhabitants to be set aside for the younger men, 
but doing it in this instance did not endanger the public interests. Charles R. 
Nesbitt was an active public man and made an efficient administrator. His 
elevation to the position was made through no mistake of the Secretary of State. 
His ability was perhaps second to that of none of those who administered the 
government of the Colony.""" 

'•'" Nesbitt's and Anderson's names had stood at the head of the list in the in- 
struction for swearing in the Council. In his despatch No. 97, of March 12, 1841, 
Cockburn recommended that they should be placed at the bottom of the list. Lord 
John Russell replied that the appointment of Nesbitt, and the new instruction, had 
been made advisedly, and that no change would be made. Ds., S. St., 1841, No. 
110 (Aug. 28). 

==° Cockburn to Russell, No. 130. 

==' Cockburn had consulted his Council, in which Nesbitt was sitting, on this 
matter and it had not occurred to the latter to raise objections to the vacancy of the 
building during the Governor's absence. The Council had concurred with the 
Governor in his resolve to repair the house. It had not been occupied by former 
temporary administrators. Cockburn regarded this conduct as discourtesy on the 
part of Nesbitt. (Ds, to Russell, No. 132.) On July 31, the Governor wrote further: 
" During the last twenty years it has not been expected that the temporary adminis- 
trator of the Government should with his limited salary give public entertainments 
and it has not been done. ... I am anxious that Government House should be 
vacant during my absence. I solicit your assistance again in sanctioning the 
previous agreement." (Ds. to Russell, No. 136). 

™ Nesbitt to Stanley, No. 1. 

™ After his return from England, Francis Cockburn wrote to the Secretary of 
State as follows: '■ I have much satisfaction in testifying to the zeal and efficiency 
with which he has conducted the various departments of the public trust which 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 530 

ECCLESIASTICAI, AFFAIRS. 

There was an established church in the Bahamas. This church was an 
adaptation of the Anglican Church to the Colony,, but with a very poor equip- 
ment for serving the religious needs of the people. The Colony of the 
Bahamas was in the bishopric of Jamaica.™ The remoteness of the bishop, 
from this part of his see, almost cut off the Colony from the advantage that 
might have resulted to the local church from his ministrations. If he had 
resided in London the church would have derived as much benefit from his 
direction. Tlic Colony was meagerly supplied with clergymen and churches. 
Of thirteen parishes only two had clergymen in 1835 when the parish of St. 
Thomas at Turks Islands was granted a minister.™ The population of the 
Bahamas approximated 25,000 and was much scattered. There were 
a few thickly settled communities. Harbor Island, one of the most 
important of these, had only a Wesleyan chapel. The Assembly voted in 
1835 to supply this place with a church and clergyman.™ At I^ew Provi- 
dence in the parishes of Christ Church and St. Matthews were two poorly 
paid clergymen whose duties inside and outside of their parishes bore heavily 
on them.^^' In addition to their parochial duties they were the com- 
missaries of the bishop, in the Bahamas.™ Some other chapels depended on 
the incumbents of these two places. The rector of Christ Church was also 

he has held. In my opinion in talents and in all other respects he is qualified to 
conduct the duties of any appointment to which you may be pleased to nominate 
him." (Cockburn to Stanley, No. 7 (1843) ). Nesbitt remained in the Bahamas 
until his death in 1867. He administered the government several times. Seniority 
in the Executive Council and the succession to the temporary administration were 
determined in a peculiar way after this time. Lord Stanley of the Colonial Depart- 
ment ruled that the acting public secretary should become (ex-ofjicio) senior mem- 
ber of the Executive Council and entitled thereby to administer the government on 
the death or absence of the governor, or of the temporary administrator (Ds., S. St., 
No. 38, also Nesbitt to Stanley, No. 6). The temporary public secretary, according 
to the ruling of Lord Russell in the previous year, was to be appointed by the admin- 
istrator of the government for the time being, who in this case was the public 
secretary. Before the public secretary vacated his office to assume the government, 
his own office would not be vacant, therefore the governor could not appoint a 
successor to him. (Ds.. S. St., 1841, No. 110.) 

During the summer of 1903, on the absence of the Governor, the public secre- 
tary acted as administrator of the government. 

'=-'Ds., S. S., 1824, circ. of Dec. 8. 

''^ Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. .54. 

'»«H. v., 1834-5, p. 106 and 118. 

^'' hoc. cit. 

=^ Cockburn to Stanley. No. 22 (1842). 



540 HISTORY 

chaplain of the troops at Nassau. Conditions in the Out-islands were very- 
backward in this respect. At Eock Sound a population of 2500 had neither 
church nor minister. The greater part of the remainder of the Colony was 
equally destitute. Some of the settlements up to 1835 were neglected by 
ministers or religious teachers. The Colony supplied of itself almost no 
ministers. It depended on those sent out from the mother country, who 
were better qualified for the duties to be performed here. 

The stipendiary magistrates brought back from their circuits reports of 
religious destitution. Francis Cockburn still found the same state of things 
existing on his tour of inspection in 1840.°" Long Island had appealed for 
assistance in building a church in 1835."° Other islands were calling on the 
government for the same purpose. Repeated and urgent appeals were made 
to the home government and to the Society for the Propagation of the Gos- 
pel, to send ministers to the Bahamas."' In addition to what was received 
from these sources, the Colony was able to make small appropriations for in- 
crease in the church establishment."" The local Assembly was reluctant, 
however, to make appropriations of public money for churches in places where 
the dissenters had already gained a foothold. It had caught some of the 
current spirit of determination to ameliorate the condition of the negroes, 
but it could not keep pace with the needs as they arose. What the local 
established church lacked was in part made up by the various religious socie- 
ties in the mother country. They too were making great efforts for the 
emancipated classes. But these societies had to deal with the whole of the 
West Indies, and the Bahamas were but a small part of that large field. As 
it was in the case of the special justices in the apprenticeship system, so in 
the case of the church, an insirfficient number of men were sent out and they 
were not capable of accomplishing the task that lay before the church. The 
funds available were inadequate to meet the needs of those who were disposed 
to supply them. In 1840 an additional clergyman was assigned to parochial 
duties at New Providence, and two others were provided for the purpose of 
visiting the Out-islands. The superintendent of the Carmichael School acted 
ns a chaplain. This made a total of seven clergymen of the established church 

"=» Cockburn to Russell. No. 20. 

™H. v., 1S35-6, p. 32. 

""Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 54; Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 36 (1837); Cook- 
burn to Russell. No. 20 (1840). 

"" H. v., 1834, p. 118, Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 3G, and Cockburn to Glenelg, 
No. 36 (1837). 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 541 

in the Colony.™ The visits of the bishop were so infrequent that attempts 
were made to secure an administrative officer of the church to reside in the 
Bahamas. This part of the work fell on already overworked clergy- 
men."' The application resulted in the raising of the Bahamas to the ranlc 
of an archdeaconate. An inciunbent of the place was seated in 184-3. 

The Dissenters. 

The dissenters were more active than the established church in meeting 
the religious needs of the people. They had long been working in the Colony, 
but their influence among the lower classes was regarded as a dangerous 
leaven, and restrictions were placed upon them to check their progress. Some 
of these restrictions were removed during the agitation over the slavery ques- 
tion, but some of them remained until long after that time. Dissenting min- 
isters were not allowed to perform funeral ceremonies in certain of the 
public burying-grounds. Even more harrowing restrictions as to marriages 
were retained until 1836.™ By these regulations a dissenting minister could 
not legally perform a marriage ceremony in a community where there was an 
Anglican clergyman. In 1836 a number of marriages that had been cele- 
brated by dissenters at the Turks Islands were legalized by a special act of 
the legislature."" 

The Scotch Church was recognized by the government and was aided by 
the public funds, but it made no attempts to carry on extensive work among the 
negroes. The AVesleyans and Baptists were most active. These two bodies 
sent capable leaders to the Bahamas. The Wesleyans seemed to pursue the 
policy of locating where the established church was already planted."' The 
Baptists struck out into new fields in addition to those which others had occu- 
pied. These sectarians were evangelists, not catechists. The old restrictions 
on the preaching of ignorant persons had been removed, and negroes now 
entered tlie lists of ministers."" Francis Cockburn, himself a churchman 
almost to the point of bigotry, saw in this the most dire consequences threat- 
ening the Colony. He desired the strict licensing of all preachers and teach- 
ers of religion, and inquired of Lord Glenelg as to the expediency of thus 

"' Cockburn to Russell, No. 44. 

"^ Cockburn to Stanley, No. 22. 

'" See account of difficulty in regard to this in H. V., 1835-6, pp. 43-4.5 and 64. 

^^°H. v., 1835-36, p. 64. 

'" Cockburn to Russell, No. 44. 

"* Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 105. 



542 HISTORY 

restraining these dangerous persons. In 1840 came Henr}' Capern, a Baptist 
missionary, preaching freedom of worship and freedom of attendance on relig- 
ious services, and the fear of God, not of man."" On his arrival at Nassau 
he failed to notify the Governor of his coming. Entering at once on the 
work of his mission he was very successful. The negroes flocked to hear him 
and great numbers of them allied themselves with his congregation. Even 
the scholars from the Anglican schools went over to him. His methods 
annoyed the Governor. Tlie latter became much more urgent for an increase 
in the clerical staff of the Anglican body.™ Cockburn thought that Capern 
was discourteous to him, as Governor, and that his teaching was dangerous to 
the public order. The latter refused to sign the indenture for the appren- 
ticeship of a negro girl, objecting that it was " against his principles as a 
Baptist to sign a contract which required attendance on the worship of the 
established church."' He wrote articles for an opposition newspaper at Nas- 
sau, which added to the irritation of the Governor.'" His unlettered negro 
helpers preached in the streets. Cockburn complained that this missionary 
Avas attempting to weaken the gratitude of the negroes to the home govern- 
ment, by insinuating that the Baptist missionary society was largely respon- 
sible for their emancipation. The Governor advised that the society which 
had sent out this preacher should be asked to recall him, and that a warning 
be sent to them as to the choice of his successor.'"" But the insubordination so 
much feared as a result of this man's work never occurred. The public peace 
was not disturbed on account of him. The Governor, loyal to his own cliurch, 
disliked to see the people leave it for the sectarians. After Cockburn's de- 
parture from the Bahamas the dangerous character of the missionary disap- 
peared, for he gave no such anxiety fo Governor Mather-, the next Governor. 
Cockburn disavowed any belief in compulsion in religious matters,""" but the 
course he advised was hardl}' in harmony with this statement. 

In the Out-islands, especially, the sectarians gained among the negroes. 
In many of these places only dissenters came to teach the people. In such com- 

'■"' Cockburn to Russell, No. 104. 

™ Cockburn to Russell, No. 44, and to Stanley. No. 11. In the latter despatch 
he wrote: "Two or three additional clergymen .... are needed. It is lamentable 
to see the lower classes driven into the congregations of the sectarians, more par- 
ticularly the Baptists, which are increasing every hour from the insufficiency of the 
numbers in our own church to afford that moral instruction that is so much needed.' 

"''' Cockburn to Russell, No. 149. McClure, the Scotch minister, was implicated 
in these publications. 

'■''- Loc. cit. 

'^' Loc. cit. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXXVI 




Fig. 1. — VIEW of bay stkekt. xass.vu 




Fig. 2. — view or sisal plantation, new providence 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING GENERAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 543 

miinities almost the whole popiilatiou would attend their places of worship."'^ 
Difficiilties arose in some jjlaces. At Exvima feeling rose high between the 
Baptists and the churchmen. A magistrate exacted pledges of a Baptist min- 
ister not to hold public services. The pledges were not well kept. The magis- 
trates attempted to restrain the minister and to quiet public feeling."' The 
difficulty was not settled at once. At last when it was composed a virtual 
victory had been gained for the dissenters. 

The Education of the Negroes. 

This little Colony made great efforts to educate the classes that were so 
long held in bondage. The wishes of the home government in many respects 
were disregarded, but in this one particular the local people attempted to 
follow the recommendations made to them as nearly as their limited means 
would permit. When the negroes emerged from slavery there were almost 
no means of education in the Bahamas outside of the meager facilities at 
Nassau and on New Providence Island. The local legislature had always 
been as parsimonious in making grants for educational purposes as for other 
things. Nothing like a permanent grant was attempted. In some cases 
grants that had been made were withdrawn after a few years, and the schools 
were allowed to decline. The teaching staff was not kept up and the character 
of the work done was very bad. The better class of the inhabitants placed 
little dependence on these schools. Those who could bear the expense, edu- 
cated their children in England or often in the States. It became a matter 
of regret to the Governors that the latter country was resorted to for the 
education of the children of British subjects, for strange ideas were imbibed 
there, and respect for the institutions of the mother country was not increased 
thereby .''" A great obstacle to the progress of schooling lay in the lack of 
equipment. There were few buildings or other material things adapted to the 
use of schools.'"' Within fifteen years after the emancipation of the slaves 
great strides were made, however, in this respect. The resources 
on which to rely were small, but they were husbanded with great care, 
and these interests were given the preference over all other claims on the 

="Mathew to Stanley, No. 77. 
^'''' Log. cit., No. 42. 
"» Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 16. 

'^"Reports of Special Justices in Sess. P., 1836, 49, pp. 543-5. At the time ttiese 
reports were made some school houses had heen built on the Out-islands. 



544 ■ HISTORY 

public purse. Compared with other colonies, where there were vastl^y greater 
material resources, the Bahamas set an example that was worthy of imitation."''' 
The first efforts in educating the negroes at public expense were 
made by Sir James Smyth, with the liberated Africans, at the settlements at 
Adelaide, Carmichael and Headquarters.™ Buildings were erected at each 
of these places and superintendents were placed in charge of the schools. The 
Assembly was at daggers' points with the Governor and would furnish no 
funds for these enterprises at first.^"" The home government supplied some 
funds,™ however, and special grants were made for educational purposes in some 
instances. In 1835 Parliament made an appropriation of £35,000 to be applied 
for general educational purposes, through the agency of the various societies 
that were undertaking the religious education of the negroes.""" Further appro- 
priations were made by the same body in aid of the schools established by 
the British and Foreign School Society .°°' These schools were continued as 
established, under the control of the Anglican Chrirch, until after the passing 
of the apprenticeship system. 

Question of the Control of the Schools. 

One of the greatest needs of this Colony arose from the scarcity of per- 
sons competent to teach school. There had been no school for the training 
of teachers in the Colony. In many of the Out-island communities there 
were not only no teachers, but there was no one qualified to. read the Scrip- 
tures to the people. The few native teachers were themselves so ignorant as 
to deter parents from sending to them at all.°°' Measures were imperatively 
necessary to provide for the training of teachers. An attempt to supply this 
need was made by the managers of the Mice Charity Fund. A normal train- 

"'^ Governor John Gregory on his arrival in 1849 stated in his first address to 
the Assembly that he " had had more than ordinary opportunity to compare what 
the Bahamas had done for education with what other more wealthy colonies have 
done, and notwithstanding your limited revenue and the heavy expense of the 
various departments of the public service, you have set an example worthy of imita- 
tion in giving the religious and intellectual training of the people a preference over 
all other demands on the public purse." H. V., 1849, 96. Francis Cockburn wrote 
to Lord Glenelg in 1837 that he knew of no colony where the means of education 
had been more liberally supplied than in the Bahamas. Ds., No. 51, to Glenelg. 

''" Balfour to Stanley, No. 28. 

"" Smyth's Ds., Nos. 31 and 72. 

=»I/OC. cit., No. 72, and Ds., S. St., 1831, No. 13. 

™^ Ds., S. St., 1835, No. 32. On the conditions of these grants see loo. cit., 
circ. Ds. of Nov. 16, 1835. 

"'^Loc. cit., circular of Nov. 16, 1835. 

»" Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 5. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 54:5 

ing school was established by them at Nassau. This institution was managed 
independently of the government and of the church.'" The conduct of it by 
its superintendent was far from satisfactory to Francis Cockburn. The 
master attempted to show independence of the government by writing to 
the Secretary of State without sending his communication through the regu- 
lar channel of the Executive/" and schools were established and removed 
without any reference to the government. The school at Nassau was 
well attended/"' but Cockburn feared that the policy pursued by its man- 
agers would not serve to the best advantage the interests of those whoni the 
fund was intended to benefit.""' Perhaps the secret of the Governor's dissatis- 
faction with the conduct of this school was that the teaching of the catechism 
was left out in its courses, and that the rules governing it were calculated to 
meet the wishes of the sectarians.""" 

Before 1835 the Assembly had almost absolutely refused to provide for 
negro education out of the funds at its disposal. In that year an Assembly 
had been secured which was in a working mood and which was possessed with 
a disposition to beneiit the freedmen. At that time began their real efforts 
to educate. Hitherto color lines had existed in the public schools. There 
was now a nominal disappearance of these lines of distinction "™ and a deter- 
mination to work for the common intellectual training of all classes. The 
House of Assembly had at last caught tlie idea that it was in its province 
to provide means of education, jDrimarily with a view of " disposing men to 
the worship of God." °" A general comprehensive system of education was to 
be provided. A board of education was formed with the Governor as its 
president. It was given power to make rules and regulations for the govern- 
ment of all public schools in the Colony."'" Local commissioners of schools 
were authorized. The liturgy and the catechism were to be taught, and the 
books used were to be such as were approved by the clergy of the Anglican 
Church. A certain attendance on the worship of the established church was 
enjoined on all scholars."'" The Governor appointed a commission of over 

°°= Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 51. 
'■'" Cockburn to Russell, No. 135. 
"' Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 90. 
™ Log. cit., No. 44. 
""Log. Git., No. 104. 
^ Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 16. 
'■' H. v., 1835-6, pp. 99-100. 
"= 6 William IV, 17. 
'■'' Log. cit. 
35 



546 HISTORY 

fifty members, composed of persons of different religious persuasions, includ- 
ing ministers both of the established church and of the dissenting congrega- 
tions. ''* The whole Colony was interested in this educating enterprise. Under 
the direction of the Governor a plan was formed for a school to articulate 
with King-'s College at London. Private subscriptions were made for this 
purpose and the legislature made an appropriation to further it.'" 
Tlie King extended his patronage to this institution,""' but the task before the 
Colony was too great to be accomplished at once. Considering the chronic 
low state of the revenues, liberal appropriations were made, but they proved 
entirely inadequate to meet the requirements of those who were interested in 
the educational enterprises of the Bahamas."' 

The board of education began its work under the impulse of the first 
agitation of the school question. Unanimity of counsels, which prevailed at 
first, continued only for a short time. The Governor, as president, had only 
a casting vote in this body of nearly sixty members."'* The church of the 
Bahamas had had control of all the public schools of the Colony up to this 
time; it was not now disposed to relinquish that control, although the dis- 
senters were granted a voice in the too numerous board. The regulations of 
the schools as far as they had been made were such as the churchmen desired. 
The Madras system of teaching, in which the catechism held a prominent 
pilace, was introduced, and churchmeji were planning to conduct the schools 
on strict Anglican Church lines. The dissenters objected to this. They 
opposed motions having this in view, in the meetings of the board. Angry 
discussions ensued and contested points were discussed with increasing ill- 
feeling. The president of the board ceased to attend the meetings."'" The 
stormy sessions continued with no apparent hope of reconciling the opposing 
parties. A contest was here taking form which was to stir up the Colony for 
several years. Attempts to remedy the existing evils were not wanting. A 
change in the constitution of the board was accomplished in 1839. In the 

=■* Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 16 (1836). 

■"'" Colebrooke to Glenelg, No. 49. 

"° King's College school was never very successful, although it had the prestige 
of the King's patronage. After several years of varying success, the premises 
on which it was located were sold by authority of the legislature. This occurred 
in 1849. 12 Vic, 3, Colonial Statutes. 

'■" Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 51. 

■'™ Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 24. 

■■■» Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 24. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 547 

new body the clergy of the Anglican and Scotch churches were made mem- 
bers, and fiye additional members were appointed by the Goyernor. The 
senior members of the Wesleyan and Baptist missions were appointed, together 
TNath others ■n'ho were admittedly fayoraljle to the established church.'"" This 
would have perpetuated the control by the established church. The dissent- 
ers would not submit to it. No pretensions to harmony in the board were 
made this time. Stormy sessions and acrimonious discussions occurred with 
heightened ill-feeling.'" The dissenters had petitioned against this plan when 
it was first proposed. It had passed the legislature in spite of them and 
they were determined that it should not operate as its movers had intended. 
The life of this new board was but two years in length. 

The people were becoming generally stirred up over the control of their 
educational system. The board created in 1839 was even less satisfactory 
than the one before it had been. Agitation for changes in its constitution was 
kept up in order to create a demand for a change. Some proposed to make 
the Goyernor-in-coimcil a supervisory board. The board of education itself 
petitioned against this as a supercession of the Council to its functions. Such 
objection was easily svistained. But a change of some kind had to be made. 
The old board was able to accomplish little; the Colony having entered intO' 
the educating work was not now to be allowed to leave off, after having- 
gone so far. A board more satisfactory to all classes had become a necessity. 
The matter was brought into the House of Assembly. A vacant seat in the- 
House became the occasion of a hard-fought contest at Harbor Island to 
return a member to fill it. Lieutenant Hamilton, a known supporter of tlie 
government, was opposed by a leader of the Wesleyan Methodists. The dis- 
senting congregations joined together in support of the latter, and in strong 
opposition to the former.'" The result of the election was the return of Lieu- 
tenant Hamilton, but this election marked well the character of the contest 
that had come. Public feeling over the education question rose higher than 
ever. The majority in the legislature were favorably disposed to the estab- 
lished church. Proposals to it were likely to be si;ch as the dissenters would 
oppose. They contested every step. The education bill that was finally 
passed was favorable enough to the established church, but it was very differ- 

'^ Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 22. 

'^^ Loc. cit. Cockburn requested a suspension of the royal confirmation of the 
act constituting this board. 

'«= Cockburn to Russell, No. 95. 



548 HISTORY 

ent from the bill with which the discussions were begun.'''' During the debates 
on this measure ilessrs. Capern and MaClure were in constant attendance at 
the House of Assembly, " appearing as most active j)artisans." '" As the bill 
emerged finall_y, the board, for which it provided, differed from that of 1836 
only in that the clergy of all denominations were excluded from this one.""' 
This provision was inserted because it seemed impossible otherwise to recon- 
cile the opposing parties. It was now left to parents to decide whether their 
children should be taught the catechism and what chiirch they should attend. 
After the passage of this measure the two ministers, who had taken such active 
interest in it, memorialized the Queen, protesting against it as a one-sided 
measure. It was as far from pleasing the Anglican clergy as the clergy of 
the dissenters, because of the small deference paid to them.°'° The board fol- 
lowed the general lines of the Madras system of education, with the exception 
of the catechism for those children whose parents objected to it.'^" Agitation 
did not cease for months after the bill became a law. The Baptist missionary 
continued to be sucli a source of annoyance to the Governor, on the education 
question, that the latter repeated his request fr the recall of that gentleman.'" 
Attempts were made to secure the repeal of this act. No further changes 
were made^ however, for three years.''" 

"^^ Cockburn wrote after the contest that " nothing short of being placed on 
a dead level with the established church would suit their (the dissenters') views." 
He was persuaded that there was more ambition than conscience in their conduct. 
Cockburn to Russell. Nos. 95 and 104. 

"'Log. cit. 

=^= 4 Vic, 5. 

°*° Cockburn to Russell, No. 104. A member of the Executive Council thought 
that nothing short of the appointment of Messrs. Capern and MaClure would have 
satisfied the dissenters. Of those who were likely to be appointed to the board of 
education, the great majority were members of the established church. As 
Cockburn was to appoint the members of the board, it could not be doubtful as to 
the complexion of it. He appointed the Chief Justice, the Speaker of the House, 
one member of his Council, the Surveyor-General and the Public Secretary. A 
clergyman at New Providence refused to accept the tender of the Governor to make 
him a visitor of the schools. Loc. cit., No. 146. 

■"*' Cockburn to Russell, Nos. 86 and 146. 

^'^ Cockburn to Russell, Nos. 104 and 149. 

"^'Nbte on Cockburn and Capern. Capern's conduct from his first arrival in 
the Colony was objected to by the Governor. His failure to notify the Governor 
of his arrival was perhaps a discourtesy which could not escape the notice of the 
latter. Cockburn objected to Capern because he did not confine himself to spirit- 
ual instruction but meddled in politics. (Ds. to Russell, No. 95.) His teaching 
among the ignorant people at Carmichael was objectionable. He professed to have 
been sent out by the Queen for the special protection of the negroes. He disturbed 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 519 

A Contest for Eeligious Equality. 

This contest was cnterccl into by the dissenters with a deterinined spirit. 
Their conduct was a part of the nineteenth century protest against a state 
church system, transferred to a small corner of the British Empire. It had 
its significance for the Bahamas. Some such contests had been fought out 
in the British colonies on the continent, before they won their independence 
from the British Crown. The Anglican Clnirch had long been established 
in the Bahamas. It had the prestige of the support of the government backed 
by a great church system in the mother country. It had intrenched itself in 
the very life of the Colony; it had acquired control not only of the schools 
but also of other things as well. State and church went hand in hand, and 
through the latter the former controlled much in the life of the Colony. The 
majority of the upper classes of society attended its worship. The dissenters, 
on the other hand, had become very active only with the emancipation of the 
negroes, and gained influence chiefly among the lower classes. Their teach- 
ing had become so widespread that at this time they were able to begin 
taking privileges from the established church. The contest was now only 
fairly begun. The sectarians were here contending for recognition in the 
Colony of equal rights to all denominations of Christians. This partial vic- 
tory was only a step in the long contest to deprive the established church of 

the contentment of the Carmichael pople. These and other things were reported 
to Cockburn. The latter deprecated the tone of a letter that was written to these 
people as filled with " designing insinuations and misrepresentations." ( Ds. to 
Russell, No. 104.) This letter enclosed in this despatch is in substance as follows: 
" Do not be terrified by authorities into attending this or that place of worship. Go 
wherever your heart inclines you. No man can interfere with you. If I cannot 
obtain justice for you at Nassau I will in England. Do not fear that the Queen 
will sanction your persecutors' conduct. You have the same rights as any white 
man in the West Indies. If you can be compelled to attend to religious matters, I 
can be also. Fear God and you have nothing else to fear." 

Capern's methods in enticing the negroes away from the established church 
were odious to Cockburn. " The blacks of this island," he wrote, " are with few 
e.\ceptions his followers." The Governor also charged that the missionary was 
misleading the people as to their duty to the state. " He seems to tell them that 
they are not to be controlled by any opinion expressed by the authorities or by 
recommendations from them, for Her Majesty had sent him out for their special 
protection." 

Cockburn does not appear to have been justified in making so many com- 
plaints against the conduct of this man. The secret of his feeling would appear 
to be that the mission which Capern was conducting flourished at the expense of 
the established church, of which in his own words, the Governor had " always 
been a warm supporter." Ds. to Russell, No. 146. See also Ds. to Stanley, No. 
11. See also above, note 550. 



550 HISTORY 

its control of the Colony. They saw in the state church a danger to religious 
equality. At this time when the negroes were coming to command them- 
selves as free subjects, it seemed meet to the dissenters to break up this survival 
of an old order of things before the new citizenship became adjusted to it. 
Thus would future generations be spared the necessity of throwing off a 
vexatious system, tliat would in their day become more securely fastened on 
the Colony. The churchmen had been so accustomed to the control of the 
schools, dictating their policies and imposing their spirit on them, that they 
were reluctant to surrender that privilege. They could not regard lightly 
such agitation as this. It caused serious concern to them that the movement 
had arisen. They resisted with a determination second only to that of those 
who were assailing their church. The old prejudices that had existed in 
former times in the mother country were here to control the conduct of men. 
The Governor, though not active in the contest, was as filled with prejudice 
as any man within the confines of the Bahamas. Only slight advantages were 
gained at this time, but the grasp of the church was shaken. The contest was 
to be kept up until the Church of England in the Bahamas was disendowed 
and denied a preference in claims on the public purse. 

Upon the location of an archdeacon in the Bahamas the incumbent of 
that position was made a member of the school board and chairman of the 
body.™ In the following year the nuinljer of the commissioners was changed 
to seven, exclusive of the archdeacon. They were all laymen and appointed 
annually by the Governor."" Changes were made in response to representa- 
tions of the dissenters that their clergy were excluded from membership on 
the board. Whether Francis Cockburn was partially responsible for the dis- 
sensions in the board, during his administration, is not easily determinable. 
It appears, however, that that body was less disturbed after his departure from 
the Colony. It is probable that the excited feelings of the people had liad 
time to grow calm, when his successor arrived. On the expiration of the 
education act of 1844 objection to it was so strong that it could not be re- 
newed. An attempt was made to give the new board a more exclusively 
Church of England formation. This was met by more extensive demands 
on the part of the dissenters. The new board was created as a committee of 
the Executive Council. The board could regulate the religious and secular 
■work for the schools, but any minister had power to protest against any Iwoks 

™7 Vic, 14. 

•™ 8 Vic, 13 and Mathew to Stanley, No. 100. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXXVII 




Fig. 1. — SISAL fiber exposed for drying 




-^- - '.S^A' 



Fig. 2. — sisal factory, new providence 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING GENERAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAilA ISLANDS 551 

or methods employed that were objectionable. Agricultural and mechanical 
subjects were introduced into the curriculum. An inspector of schools was 
created.'"" The execution of these acts was beset with difficulties. At New 
Providence conditions were more favorable than in any other part of the 
Colony. Here the schools were most successful in operation. But there was 
by no means a well-developed system on this island. In the Out-islands the 
conditions were still very discouraging. There were almost no buildings, 
there were no competent teachers. The ignorance of the people was deplor- 
able in an atmosphere in which children were growing up and coming to 
maturity without even the rudiments of an education. The funds of the 
Colony were so low that it seemed impossible to make rapid progress in improv- 
ing conditions. A drouth cut off the crops in the summer of 184-t, the debt 
of the Colony seemed to increase rather than diminish, and, in 1848, the 
Turks Islands, which had furnished a large portion of the revenues, were cut 
off from the Colony. Such were the conditions against which those who were 
trying to lift this veil of ignorance had to contend. A letter written by a 
schoolmaster at Eock Sound, Eleuthera, gives an idea of the prevailing con- 
ditions : " We opened school in this district on the 6th September in a house 
hired from the Wesleyan mission in this place, as no other could be found. 
No repairs have yet been attempted to bo made on the premises, which the 
board of education agreed to hire from Mr. Sands, and I am inclined to think 
that nothing will be done to them. There were 85 children admitted to the 
school when it was first opened, and I regret to say that as many more were 
refused admission for want of room. The house we have hired is 18 by 31 
feet, the only one we could get on the settlement for the purpose, and it is 
far too small. We have scarce room to form a class in it. It is much to be 
regretted that the youth of this settlement have been so long neglected. There 
is scared}' one in twenty of the inhabitants of New Portsmouth who can read 
and write. This is the case with man, woman and child, yet there is not a 
finer looking set of people than the young ones of this settlement. They all 
seem very anxious to be taught, and I have partly promised the young adults 
to attend two or three times a week when we have a larger schoolhouse and 
instruct them in the evening in a new and larger house on the commence- 
ment of the new year." °™ 

'" 10 Vic, caps. 1 and 26. Also Mathew to Grey, No. 12. It should be ob- 
served, that in all these schools, rates were paid by all patrons except a few poor 
persons whom the visitors in each district designated as non-rate-payers. This 
■was the rule, the observance of it was not strict. 

'"'Nesbitt to Grey, No. 49 (1847). 



552 HISTORY 

In spite of the adverse conditions, efforts to educate the poorer classes 
of the Colon)' were unremitting. With ever low revenues a steady increase 
in the appropriations was made, in order to keep pace with the growing needs 
of the educational establishment. A complete change had taken place in the 
attitude of the legislature towards those who had lately been slaves. For- 
merly the members of that body had excused themselves from working to 
ameliorate the condition of this class, and had attempted to lay the respon- 
sibility for that condition on the mother country; now on the other hand 
the responsibility was assumed by the colonists, and there came an ever- 
increasing determination to place before the negroes the best opportunities 
for amelioration which the Colony, with the limited resources at its command, 
could furnish. 

Land System. 

• While efforts were being made to educate the Jiegroes, it was not for- 
gotten that provision must be made for their material welfare. As agricul- 
ture was the principal source of wealth in the Colony; it was necessary to put 
land into the hands of the emancipated classes. Looking at the whole group 
of the Bahamas it would appear that hero woiald be a large surface for culti- 
vation. The Islands are, in places, too barren for profitable cultivation. The 
coral rock, of which they are formed, is at best covered with only a thin veneer 
of soil, while in many places it has been washed bare by the rains. The 
surface of this rock is full of so-called " pot-holes " in which the soil collects. 
Into these openings plants are set as in flower pots. This thin soil was 
seriously injured and in many places exhausted, through the over-production 
of cotton by American royalists who came to the Colony after the American 
Eevolution. Long before the emancipation of the slaves, these exiled planters 
had exhausted the best soils of the Colony, after which many of them had 
emigrated to places where they could carry on more profitable farming. 
After the emancipation, a new citizenship had arisen and the authori- 
ties determined to settle them on these same waste lands. A great deal 
of the land that had been occupied formerly was again in the hands of 
the Crown, owing to lapsed titles, and was thus available in that sense 
for settlement. The authorities in the government evidently knew not 
the experience of former attempts to cultivate these unproductive wastes. 
Especially was this true of William Colebrooke, who made such exten- 
sive plans for the settlements of these Africans. Some means had to be 
provided by which these poor people could maintain themselves. Colebrooke 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 553 

thoiight he saw what was needed in the vacant lands. He would let down a 
helping hand to the people, and place them in a position where with a little 
exertion they conld prosper. 

The special magistrates under the apprenticeship system had, as an im- 
portant dutj', to take account of any vacant lands in the Colony that were 
favorable for settlement."" They reported several places that seemed suitable 
for this purpose.™" But it was not intended to throw these lands open 
suddenly for settlement at the pleasure of the negroes, for whose benefit 
they were to be granted. Precautions were necessary to prevent danger to 
the value of property, and the more permanent interests of society. The 
progress of the occupation of the lands was to be held in check, the 
negroes to be guided into the production of staple crops, and not allowed to 
go where there was promise of immediate but merely temporary gains. The 
facility of obtaining lands was diminished and only cautious distribution on 
proper terms was to be allowed. The squatter was to be fought at every turn. 
The price of land was put so high that it was out of reach of the poorest 
class, and indeed of all who had not saved some capital."'" Thus it was hoped 
to keep all the lands under the control of the government and promote a 
sound moral and economic state. The disposal of any lands otherwise than 
by public sale was forbidden.™' Thorough cultivation was to be promoted 
and the possession of land made an object of reasonable desire to all. The 
granting of land to families and gratuitous grants were no longer permitted.™' 

Quit Eents. 

Most of the Bahama lands that had been cultivated had been held under 
the quit rent tenure. The regulations governing these holdings had not been 
strictly applied. Very loose methods had prevailed in the management of 
them. Quit rents had fallen into arrears and the holders were careless in 
paying what was due.°™ Many holders were unable to pay. Even at the rate 
of a penny or a half-penny per acre rents were left unpaid, the lands on 

™ Sess. P., 1836, 49, p. 512. 

"'Loc. cit., pp. 543-5. 

'" Ds., S. St., 1836, circ. of Jan. 20. This was the general outline of the land 
policy that was to be followed. The details were worked out afterwards. 

™' Loc. cit. This forbade the granting of lands under the quit rent tenure. 
See this circular in Sess. P., 1836, 48, p. 49 (10-11). 

'™Ds., S. St., 1833, No. 106. 

'■" Smyth's Ds., No. 178. 



554 HISTORY 

which they were owing often selling for no more than 2cl. or 5d. per acre.™ 
On many of these vacant lands not more than one acre in ten was tit for cul- 
tivation."" It is not to be wondered at that the payment of quit rents was 
difficult to secure. The practice of remitting to delinquents also had gone so 
far that it would seem that arrears were allowed to accumulate, the holders 
anticipating that there would eventually be another remission of all they 
owed. In many instances the arrears amounted to more than the value of 
the land. If pressed for payment, the holders of such lands would prefer to 
surrender their titles rather than undertake to pay arrears in full. In 1831 
the total arrears amounted to nearly £5000.™' A remission was petitioned 
for,™ but was not secured until 1833.™ In 1833 was begun a more diligent 
application of the regulations of these holdings. Instructions were sent 
from home for a more strict collection of rents together with arrears due 
from June, 1830, up to which time they had been remitted. The lands were 
not dear enough to cause all holders to respond to the demands of the col- 
lector. By 1835 the arrears were so great that over 100,000 acres of land 
from these holdings had reverted to the Crown."' A better collection was 
secured from this time forward. No more lands were granted under this 
tenure, and a more determined policy was followed as to those already held 
under it. 

Failure of Close Settlements. 

While the apprenticeship system was in operation, it was determined to 
settle the negroes on vacant lands whenever they were able to make pur- 
chases. Hitherto, alienation of land in fee simple had been very limited in 
amount. The demand for such possession must have been very small, since 
so mueli land could lie obtained under the quit rent tenure, payments on 
which were badly collected.""" The abolition of slavery and the creation 
of new freemen, who were possible purchasers of. land, greatly enhanced its 
value. Competition in some of the new settlements was very strong.""' Meas- 
ures were adopted wliicli were calculated to promote the appropriation of land 

"" Loc. cit. 

«" H. v., 1831, p. 101. 

°»= Smyth's Ds., No. 82. 

™ H. v., 1831, pp. 101-2. 

™H. v., 1825, p. 92. 

""H. v., 1835, pp. 92-94. 

"" Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 27. 

""'Z/Oc. cit., No. 27. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 555 

under proprietary titles. Townships and close settlements were formed and 
Crown lands outside of these places were not put up for sale."" Inside of these 
settlements onl}' small lots were sold, thus tending to concentrate the popu- 
lation in them. A portion of the proceeds of sales was devoted to the build- 
ing of roads, digging public wells, and making other improvements for the 
public good. A desire was thus created for the possession of these tracts. 
A scale of prices was adopted which was graduated according to the size of 
the lots. Prices Avere enhanced above what the permanent values warranted. 
Lands that could hardly have been sold for 3s. per acre sold here in some 
instances for £5 or £6 per acre."" Some of the purchasers labored by the 
day on the public works in order to pay for their allotments. At Pitman's 
Cove on Eleuthera, all the land that had been surveyed was soon disposed of 
and there was a considerable demand for more.°'° Eligible sites were selected 
wherever they could be found in the Colony, and the people were settled on 
them. But this kind of settlement continued only for a short time. The 
first flush of success carried it much farther than its permanent value Justi- 
fied, owing to the lack of virtue in the land itself. Colebrooke continued to 
form tliem while he remained in the Colony. Soon after his successor had 
assumed the government, the folly of his plan was demonstrated in the 
failure of these settlements. The plan was abandoned under the administra- 
tion of Cocklnmi. 

Changes Made by Cockbuen. 
Some other plan for the alienation of land had become a necessity. More 
and more of the apprentices were becoming free, and lands on which to locate 
them were needed. Adhering to the circular of 18.36, Lord Glenelg ordered 
that no more Crown lands should he offered for sale for less than £1 per acre."' 
Lieutenant-Governor Cockburn objected, with good reason, that that price 
was too high for the Bahama lands and that the apprentices would be pre- 
cluded from making purchases.'"' On application Cockburn was granted dis- 
cretionary power to fix the price according to the value of the land."" Most 

™-'' Sess. P., 1840, 33, p. 69 (115). Report of Colonial Land and Emigration 
Commissioners on the Bahama lands, made in July, 1840. 

°°°Sess. P., 1840, 33. p. 69 (115). Also Colebrooke to Glenelg. No. 79. 

'^"Loc. cit., Ds., No. 79. 

"" Ds., S. St., 1838, circ. of Nov. 12. 

''■'- Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 5. 

'■" Sess. P., 1840, 33, p. 69 (112). The Marquis of Normanby. now Secretary 
of State for the Colonies, wrote to Cockburn to fix the minimum price at the average 
price for lands fit for agricultural purposes. See also Ds., S. St., 1839 (Nor- 
manby), No. 39. 



556 HISTORY 

of the lands that were at the disposal of the Crown in 1839 were such as had 
been allowed b}- their holders to revert, in place of paying up the quit rents 
due on them."" The Executive-in-council fixed two scales of graduated 
prices, one for town lots and the other for agricultural lands, the prices vary- 
ing in inverse ratio as the size of the allotments. A new schedule of fees 
was adopted. The whole plan was based on the results of the experience of 
men in all parts of the Colony.""" In the graduated scale of prices the Gov- 
ernor had almost exceeded his authority as granted by the instruction. It 
was objected to his plan that the graduated scale seemed to place a premium 
on the purchase of large tracts, and that small tracts were not necessary for 
agricultural purposes, that forty acres was as small a tract as the government 
ought to deal with."" In the following year Lord Eussell authorized the 
granting of tracts of twenty acres at a price of 12s. per acre."" This was 
better suited to the conditions of farming in the Bahamas. The average 
negro farmer could not well cultivate a tract of forty acres, and it was more 
convenient for those with small capital to buy small tracts. The execution 
of the terms of the grants was satisfactory to the people."" 

While on a tour of inspection, Governor Cockburn called a meeting of the 
people at the Turks Islands, and adopted a separate plan for the sale of the 
land there."" Separate schedules of prices were fixed for Grand Cay and 
Salt Cay.°"° At Harbor Island a change was made in the tenure of the 
agricultural lands. The use of the Common there had resulted in increasing 
difficulties to the planters. A tract of 6000 acres was sold to the people 
for $1000 and the grant was made to a magistrate as trustee for the whole 
settlement."" Other settlements desired grants on similar terms, but the 



'" Sess. P., 1840, 33, p. 69 (112), report of Surveyor-General in May, 1839. 

"= Cockburn to Russell, No. 62. Sess. P., 1840, 33, p. 69 (114). Here is given 
the schedule of fees and prices. These fees were exorbitant, in many cases almost 
equalling the cost of the land without them. The Governor, his Private Secretary, 
the Public Secretary, the Attorney-General and the Surveyor-General each received 
a fee from every purchase of land. Such was a part of the plan to supply land to 
the poor people at small cost. There were at least two unnecessary fees in this 
list. 

™Sess. P., 1840, 33, p. 69 (117). 

"" Ds., S. St., 1841, No. 48. 

™ Cockburn to Russell, No. 62. 

'^'Loc. cit, No. 30. Sess. P., 1840, 33, p. 69 (118). 

"'"hoc. cit. (119). These schedules were subsequently ratified by the Colo- 
nial Land and Emigration Commissioners. Loc. cit. (120). 

•"" Sess. P., 1840, 33, p. 69 (120). 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 557 

Colonial Land and Emigration Commissioners took exception to such an 
arbitrary manner of granting land, altliough the Harbor Island people 
expressed satisfaction witli the method. 

The best of these plans for granting land gave no .permanent satisfaction 
to the holders. The prices were too high for lands of such poor quality. 
Squatting prevailed both under the apprenticeship system and afterwards. 
In 1839 the House of Assembly threw out the Governor's bill for preventing 
the unauthorized occupation of land.""' The attempt of the government to 
put a check on this manner of occupation was thus defeated. Squatting had 
become such an abuse that it caused a deficiency in the supply of labor avail- 
able for hire."'' The existing law against the practice was rendered useless 
by its own provision, that a magistrate could not eject a squatter until lie 
had had possession for twelve months. The process of ejectment in the 
courts was long and tedious. Offenders were not discouraged by this fact.°" 
Public and private property alike suffered depredation. The renting of pri- 
vate lands was so unsatisfactory as to engender disputes, which often ended 
by the tenants occupying Crown lands without title.""^ The occupation of the 
Out-island lands had not resulted in successful farming ventures. A great 
deal of the land was held by large proprietors, who cultivated but small tracts 
and offered no continuous employment for wage labor. The difficulty of 
cultivating the rocky surface was also a great deterrent to cultivation. 
Orchards flourished in some places, and a little corn and a few 'vegetables were 
produced.""" On Eleuthera and some of the other Out-islands pineapples were 
produced for the American market. But none of these yielded lucrative 
returns for capital invested, except the pineapples in a few small districts. 

Commutation of Quit Bents. 

The burden of tlie quit rents remained as onerous as it had been. There 
was the same disposition on the part of the people to neglect the payment. The 
House of Assembly hoped to gain a reduction in the amount of quit rents, or 
a grant to itself of the disposal of the funds arising from them."'' Failing 

«"Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 9 (1839). 
™ Cockburn to Russell, No. 20. 
==* Cockburn to Stanley, No. 46. 
«=°Sess. P., 1843, 29, p. 1.5 (28). 
''-' Nesbltt to Stanley, No. 18. 
«='H. v., 1834, pp. 92-94. 



558 HISTORY 

to attain this, it discussed the question of commuting the whole of them in a 
lump sum. As these were the sole revenues of the Colony which were not 
at the disposal of the House of Assembly, it was not expedient for the Crown 
to part with the conti;ol of them without the guarantee of a fair equivalent. 
The House of Assembly was long unwilling either to accept the terms offered 
to it for a commutation, or to make any just offer. By 184:5 the amount of 
the arrears had reached several thousand pounds, the amoimt falling due 
annually being nearly £800. Not more than one-fourth of them, it 
was estimated, could have been collected. Owing to the financial straits of 
the Colony in 1845, the Assembly was unable to offer any consideralile sum 
to purchase the Crown's right in the lands. The Secretary of State author- 
ized Governor Mathew to accept ten annual payments of £300 each as full 
commutation, if the Assembly would vote for that."" The Assembly took up 
the matter and disposed of it finally in 1846. The offer made by the Colonial 
Department was accepted. All arrears due on lands outside of New Provi- 
dence, some of them dating back to the time of the accession of William IV, 
were remitted."^ Provision was made for the collection of future rents by 
the Colony. Individual commutation was also provided for. 

Salt Ponds. 

One of the most permanent sources of wealth in the Bahamas was salt ponds. 
Salt was called by some the staple of the Bahamas. The warm waters sur- 
rounding these low islands contain much salt in solution, and conditions 
are favorable for the evaporation of them. There were adverse conditions, 
however. The labor of raking salt was very severe, and doubly so on account 
of the heat of the tropical sun. It was difficult to get laborers to work at it 
constantly. As long as the slave system continued, masters could apply their 
slave labor to it. After the emancipation the laborers were reluctant to do 
this severe work, and in order to induce them to engage in it, higher wages had 
to be paid.™ But the salt crop itself was a precarious one at best. A few 
hours' rain would destroy the results of months of labor. Fortunately there 
was a season in the year when rains were less frequent and when salt raking 
could be carried on. Besides these things there was a difficulty in disposing 

«« Ds., S. St., 1845, No. 87. 

^ 9 "Vic, 10. Exception was made for New Providence because it was thought 
that the enforcement of payment there woultl not worlv to the detriment of the 
holders. 

"^ See Balfour to Rice, No. 39. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXXVIII 




D 
< 



"A 

« 

EH 

o 

H 

O 
u 



O 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 55!) 

of the salt product. Most of it was sold to American carriers, and commercial 
regulations interfered with their comino- to tiie Islands. In tlie production 
of salt, the labor was directed to the introduction of sea water into 
shallow ponds, b}' means of canals, and after it had evaporated the raking 
began. The canals and ponds were constructed at the public expense. The 
difficult part of the labor was in the raking of the salt deposits. The means 
by which this was carried on were most primitive, and the tenure on which the 
ponds were held was such as to discourage the introduction of machinery 
adapted to raking.""' The salt produced at the Turks Islands was of the 
best quality. According to reports it was preferred in the American markets 
for the packing of meats. More than 96 per cent of all the salt produced in 
the Bahamas was produced in the Turks Islands.""' The entire laboring 
population there was engaged in it. 

Eegulations of 1781. 

Tip to the year 1837 the salt ponds of the Turks Islands were regulated 
by the provisions of an Order-in-council, which had been enacted into a law 
of the Colony almost without alteration in 1824."'''" According to its pro- 
visions all residents in the Turks Islands were allowed to rake salt in tlie 
ponds. The ponds were taken possession of and operated in the name of 
the Crown. Tliey were divided into shares which were distributed annually 
to those having head-rights. A master of slaves was entitled to a share for 
each slave he owned, excepting banished criminals. After the abolition of 
slavery, an apprentice was entitled in his own right to one-sixth of a share.°"^ 
Five commissioners were annually elected by the inhabitants of Grand Cay, 
and three by those of Salt Cay, who regulated the ponds and apportioned the 
shares to those who were entitled to them. Persons intending to rake salt 
were required to appear before these commissioners " with their companies " 
within twenty days after the annual election. The commissioners opened 
canals at their discretion; appointed measurers of salt and personally super- 
vised the measurement of the product; and together with the commander, 
they heard complaints of misconduct of rakers and imposed penalties on 
offenders against the regulations. No person engaged in the industry was 
allowed to work on both cays during tlie same year. All work was required 

"' Balfour to Rice, No. 39. 

«'"H. v., 1848 (app.), pp. 22-23. 

™ See 4 Geo. IV, 5. This Order-in-council was sent out in 1781. 

'^'Loc. cit., and Ds., S. St., 1843, No. 127. 



560 HISTORY 

to be done by daj'light; no Sundaj' labor was allowed; no slave could rake 
salt until he was i^roved to be the propert}' of a British subject. Penalties 
were imposed for removing marks in the ponds, for leaving sails on board a 
vessel in the harbor at night and for other offenses. The most common pen- 
alt}' was the deprivation of the privilege of raking for the remainder of the 
year. All shares thus forfeited were at the disposal of the commissioners to 
be applied for the defense of the Islands. The regulations were annually 
read in public by the commissioners.""'' In the other islands the salt ponds 
were not held by the Crown. They were worked under one general system, 
under regulations made by statute. Commissioners enforced the regulations 
just as in the Turk Islands. Each holder of shares was required to furnish 
laborers in proportion to the number of shares he held."'" None of the other 
islands outside of the Turks attained any considerable importance in the salt 
industry. 

The regulations of the salt ponds at the Turks Islands were never satis- 
factory to all classes in the community. Although petitions had gone up for 
the continuance of them, discontent was frequently manifested and diffi- 
culties were constantly arising. These regulations imposed limitations on 
the production of salt. The annual distribiition of the shares precluded the 
application of machinery to the raking and handling of the product. As no 
holder would make improvements which he would be obliged to surrender to 
the enjoyment of another at the end of the year, the work was still carried 
on in the most primitive manner. The probability of losing the whole or a 
part of the crop was not lessened.*"' Capital and skill were thus denied their 
natural advantage.""'' The one-third of the ponds distributed gratis for the 
benefit of the poor conferred no real benefit on them. Idle and indigent 
holders regularly sold their shares to larger producers or to speculators. 
Head-rights valued at $25 to $40 were often disposed of in this way for $4 
or $5. The speculators furnished the sellers clothes, provisions or rum in 
lieu of money. These things were sold to the shareholders in advance, thus 
keeping them indebted to the speculators while the latter reaped an enormous 

^^ 4 Geo. IV, 5. These regulations, sent out first in 1781, were enacted into 
law by the legislature in 1824. Petitions were sent in to the Assembly to make 
them into a law of the Colony in 1802. 

°=" See 4 William IV, 45. 

'^' Ds., S. St., 1844, No. 35, memorandum on the salt ponds enclosed in this 
despatch. 

■="1.00. cit., 1843, No. 127. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 561 

profit.""' These regulations further produced and fostered disputes between 
holders of allotments. Jealousies existed between those on Grand Cay and 
those on Salt Cay. Objections were made to being subjected to commission- 
ers who were local men. The position of the commissioner became unde- 
sirable and odious."" Complaints were made that the number of the shares 
was too great. New arrangements were necessary. The liberated classes 
were entitled to come into the possession of head-rights in their own name, 
and justice demanded that they should be allowed to have their right. 

Changes were undertaken in 1837 in order to meet the demands of the 
day. All free persons above the age of twelve years were given rights to 
full shares, those under twelve to half shares. Apprentices were each granted 
one-sixth of a share. The tenure of the holdings was increased to five years."' 
At the second quinquennial distribution the negroes would receive full shares 
■with the rest of the inhabitants. The commissioners were authorized to 
appropriate the proceeds of 10 per cent of the shares to the general improve- 
ment of the ponds."'" 

Introduction of Long Leases. 

Discontent with these regulations was general. The people at the Turks 
Islands were not content with the government given them by the Colony of 
the Bahamas. They liked the regulations of their salt ponds no less than 
their whole connection with the Bahamas. Complaints were so general that 
changes occurred again before a redistribution of the ponds, under the five 
year tenure, was allowed to take place. It was desirable to institute some 
regulations by which the shareholders would be induced to make some outlay 
of capital on improvements. The increased subdivision that had occurred in 
the old system was most objectionable. Experience with the longer lea.ses in 
the other islands had been satisfactory,*" and the Colonial Land and Emigration 
Commissioners recommended in 18-10 that two-thirds of the improved ponds 
should be granted for twenty-one years, and that the remaining one-third be 
.granted in smaller lots on leases not exceeding ten years. They recom- 
mended that a minimum price be fixed for lots of the same size, and that the 

«™ Ds., S. St., 1843, No. 127, also Cockbiirn to Stanley, No. 127. 
" 4 Vic, 20 preamble. Cockburn to Russell, No. 29. 
"' 7 William IV, 11. Ds., S. St., 1843, No. 127. 
■»= Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 2 (1838). 

«Ds., S. St., 1844, No. 35. Also Sess. P., 1840, 33, p. 69 (143). Report of 
the Colonial Land and Emigration Commissioners. 
36 



563 HISTORY 

funds derived from the sale of the leases be expended upon public works for 
the improvement of the ponds, and further that these regulations should 
applj' to all ponds in the Colony."' A new act of the legislature was passed 
adopting the first recommendations as to the long leases, but it continued 
for a limited period the gratuitous distribution of one-third of the shares. 
It provided for a temporarj' appropriation of the proceeds of the leases to the 
improvement of the ponds."° In making the grants, however, no minimum 
price was fixed and a systematic distribution was not attempted.'"" Great 
abuses resulted. Shares that had great value were disposed of at low prices. 
The fault in this lay with the Governor and the magistrate who arranged for 
the granting. But the people of the Turks Islands objected to the long lease 
system. They began to clamor for a change, even before the new system had 
been introduced. Thej' feared a ruin of their interests, and the agitation was 
begun which led to the separation of this small group of islands from the 
Colony."''' But they Avere unable to secure a favorable hearing from the 
authorities who were responsible for the new system. At the expiration of 
the short term leases in January, 1848, the ponds held imder them were again 
disposed of, but on leases for twenty-one years. They received an enhanced 
value when put up for sale, the people being very anxious to secure them on 
the terms now offered."" This seemed to vindicate the policy of the long 
leases even with this short experience. 

Adverse commercial conditions added to the diflficulties of the salt pro- 
ducers. They were dependent on the American market for the disposal of 
their crop, and the regulations imposed by the mother country on colonial 
commerce were often injurious to the interests of these exporters of salt. The 
Free Ports Act of the preceding century °" had allowed American vessels to 
come in ballast and take away salt from the Turks Islands. The ponds of 
the other islands were not put on the same footing.'^™ The American em- 
bargo had wrought disaster to their interests. After its removal they had 
been able to dispose of their product regularly. But the people of the 
Bahamas were unable to furnish the bulky vessels that were necessary for 

""■' hoc. cit., Session Papers. 

"° Ds., S. St., 1844, No. 35, enclosed memorandum. 

"" Mathew to Stanley, No. 25. 

"' See next chapter. 

"* Sess. P., 1847-8, pp. 26 and 69. 

""Imp. Stats., 28 Geo. Ill, 6. 

"■■'•» H. v., 1802, 86, ff. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 563 

carrying salt cargoes. Thus the profit of carrying the product, together 
with that of importing it into the States, was taken by Americans. These 
carriers were reported to have taken Bahama salt to Canada as well as to the 
States."" A greater vexation to the inhabitant of the Turks Islands lay in 
the local regulations of the salt shipping. The Bahama government con- 
sistently exacted the payment of the old-time duties on the export of the 
product and took from the producers a great part of the profit of their in- 
dustry. In 1845 the market price of salt at the Turks Islands was 3Jd. per 
bushel. The same export tax was then collected that had been collected when 
salt was selling for Is. 3d. per bushel."'' AVhat made it all the more vexing 
to the salt producer was the fact that so small a portion of the revenue that 
was collected in the Turks was expended there, or in any way that would 
benefit the Turks Islands. Eemonstrance against it was without avail.™ 
The pressure of this biirden was removed only on the imminence of tlie sepa- 
ration of the Turks Islands from the Bahama government. 

Enslavement of Bahama Negroes. 

After the slave system had passed away in British territory it continued 
in the neighboring States and the colonies belonging to other nations. Inter- 
course with these territories was now beset with difficulties, owing to the con- 
tinued application of the old regulations against the introduction of free 
negroes, ilany of the sailors, on the vessels Ijelonging to the Bahamas, were 
negroes and it was perilous for them to visit the neighboring ports. In 1835 
William Forster, a Bahama negro, was seized in Florida and sold as a slave, 
under a law of that state forbidding a free negro to visit its territory."" 
The seizure was brought to the attention of the British minister at Washing- 
ton, and Forster was released by the courts of the state of Florida."" 
Rumors were afloat that other seizures of the same kind had been made in the 
same state. The ignorant people of these Islands were not unlikely to he- 

"'Nesbitt to Stanley, No. 11 (1847). 

'"H. v., 1848 (app.), p. 27. Letter of Smith, agent of the Turks Islands in 
London. 

■"^ Ds., S. St., 1849, Ds. of Nov. 30, and enclosed memorial and petition. 

"-'The law under which proceedings took place provided that any negro who 
might come to that state should be sent away with a warning not to return. 
Forster had received the warning, but on his return he had not landed. He was 
seized on board a vessel in one of the harbors. The seizure was thus illegal 
H. v., 1835-6, pp. 88-91. 

"° Cockburn to Russell, No. 37. 



564 HISTORY 

come entrapped iu this way, as there was much commerce between this 
Colony and the ports of the States. As a warning for the exercise of care in 
visiting such ports, Lieutenant-Governor Cockburn secured a copy of the 
Florida law and issued a proclamation, calling attention to the provisions of 
it that seemed to endanger the citizens of the Bahamas."'" As a further pre- 
caution the Assembly gave the Governor additional powers for the control 
of the negroes. He could now prevent the removal of a negro from the 
Colony except on a strict compliance with certain formalities."" It was 
rumored that Bahama whites had been engaged in purposely carrying negroes 
to slave territory in order to' sell them into slavery, but an investigation failed 
to sustain any such report.""* During the absence of Governor Cockburn from 
the Colony in 1842, Lieutenant-Governor Nesbitt gave much attention to the 
return of citizens of the Colony who were held in bondage elsewhere. He 
secured the release of two negroes from Cuba "° and one from New Orleans."" 
He sent the superintendent of the Carmichael school to southeastern Cuba to 
obtain the release of others who were reported to be held in slavery there. 
The Lieutenant-Governor of the province of Holguin seized him and sent 
him under escort to Havana. His mission resulted in no benefit to these 
negroes.""' Governor Mathew continued these efforts in behalf of those whose 
freedom it was necessary to make secure. It was also reported that Bahama 
vessels were being wantonly wrecked off the coast of Floiida, for the purpose 
of selling their colored crews into slavery.""' The mission to Florida in 
behalf of these persons was regarded as dangerous, owing to the reputed 
hostility of the slave owners there to those who interfered with this ill-gotten 
property, and it was difficult to get any one to undertake it,""'' as the arbitrary 
law of Florida continued to be applied. It threatened to interfere seriously 
with the shipping between the Bahama ports and that state.""^ Retaliation 
by the liljeration of slaves that were brought into Bahama ports was sug- 

"'•'Loc. cit. 

*■"' Loc. cit., and 3 Vic, 14. 

"'-' Cockburn to Russell, No. 68. 

™Nesbitt to Stanley, Nos. 34 and 74. 

«» Loc. cit., No. 44. 

"^Loc. cit., No. 46. 

"■ Governor Mathew tells in his despatches of three wrecks of this character. 
They were the Three Sisters, crew of twelve; the Alexander, crew of six, and the 
Jane, crew of five and one passenger. Mathew to Stanley, No. 84 (1845),. 

"^ Loc. cit. 

'•"Mathew to Grey, No. 74. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 565 

gested, but it was not resorted to. No palliation of the evil could be .socui-ed, 
as it was not possible to treat with the state of Florida, and the United States 
government refused to regulate slaver}' in the States. 

Condition of Labor. 

The Bahamas had long since been abandoned by producers of cotton and 
there Avas nothing remunerative which could be grown to any considerable 
extent, on the exhausted soils of the Colony. In 1845 the Governor wrote 
that there were no means of employment in agriculture except in a few favored 
locations."" The salt industry which was chiefly confined to the Turks Islands, 
offered employment to the laborers in that group, but in other parts the male 
portion of the population were engaged in such agriculture as there was, and 
in fishing, shipbuilding, and many in the uncertain industry of wrecking."" 
Meager returns, at best, came from any of these occiTpations. There was, how-' 
ever, no considerable depletion of the population. Some did emigrate. The 
stern dealing with the colonists on the slavery question had caused such discon- 
tent, as to lead to the emigration of discontented persons who found it " impos- 
sible longer to live here in peace." The restrictions on commerce im- 
posed by the British Parliament caused others to contrast their o'mi 
position with that of the freedom of the neighboring States. Some 
left because of this. American traders coming to Eleuthera enticed away 
some from that place.°°' Those who left the Colony in this manner were mostly 
white men. As for the negro laborers, not many of them had sufficient means to 
enable them to emigrate. There was, however, a demand for labor in the sugar- 
producing colonies, and the people of the latter learned that there were un- 
employed laborers in the Bahamas. As early as 1838 speculators from Damarara 
and Guiana began coming to the Colony to make contracts with Bahama 
negroes for work on sugar plantations elsewhere."™ They offered increased 
wages and pecuniary advances in order to induce the laborers to engage their 
services. To the annoyance of the government, some of the inhabitants were 
thus taken away. Others from Berbice later undertook the same kind of 
ventures.""" These- traders wanted only the men, and left their families 
behind. Some families were thus left destitute of support. Gover- 

""Mathew to Stanley, No. 135. 
""Loc. cit. 

™' Colebrooke to Aberdeen, No. 62. 
""'Cockburn to Glenelg, No. 75. 
'" Mathew to Stanley, No. 135. 



566 HISTORY 

nor Mkthew attempted to prevent this evil. He secured the passage, in 
the Assembly, of an act to compel the exporters of labor either to choose men 
vifithont families, or to embark wives and children together with the men.°'° 
This act was disallowed at home but it acted as a temporary check on this 
practice."'^ 

Quiet Ebigns in the Colony. 

Comparative quiet had now come to the Bahamas. The freedmen had 
gained a certain recognition as having civil rights, and the old difficulties of 
the Executive with the legislature had passed. The influence of the govern- 
ment was paramount in the House of Assembly. The good results that had 
been anticipated from the separation of the Councils had been attained in 
part, at least, and the last dissolution of the Assembly had thrown the opposi- 
tion out of power. In the new House, while some disappointments were suffered 
at its hands, the government was able to accomplish in the main the objects 
of its program. This House was the first to live out the full term for which 
it had been elected since 1830. 

On the arrival of Governor Mathew the members of both Councils were 
united in action. The number of members in the Legislative Council had 
diminished to seven. The Governor appointed to the vacant seats Gahan 
and Meadows, the respective leaders of the government and opposition par- 
ties in the House of Assembly. From both he dared to expect support for 
his government."'' The reception to the new Governor in IS-ii had been 
cordial on the part of all classes, parties, and sects. It betokened for 
him the support of all classes, in promoting measures for the public good. 
The Turks Islands almost alone were discontented. Some attempts were 
made to organize a black man's party and to stir up partisan feeling along 
racial lines. The Governor asked the cooperation of the legislators in dis- 
countenancing the movement, and impressing upon the new citizens that 
their best interests lay in the attainment of " personal character and industry 

°'° Loc. cit. 

°" Governor Mathew and Earl Grey corresponded in 1847 about a proposed 
settlement of emigrants from England, on the vacant Bahama lands. No employ- 
ment offered except salt-raking, and white men were not well suited to it in this 
latitude. No emigrants came as a result of it. (See e. g. Mathew to Grey, No. 28.) 
Both Cockburn and Mathew recommended the Bahamas as a suitable place for a 
convict settlement for the West Indies. The employment that offered for the 
criminals was salt-ralcing. (Cockburn to Governor Metcalf of Jamaica, letter of 
February 24, 1841, and Mathew to Grey, No. 28). 

»'= Mathew to Stanley, No. 6 (1844). 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE LXXXIX 




Fig. 1. — VIEW of limestone quaeby, nassau 




te£"^ '■ "^'M'^^^im^^. 



Fig. 2. — building coxstructiox at Nassau 



VIEWS ILLUSTK.\TING GENERAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 567 

and not in the force of numbers." °" Fortunately for the peace of the Colony 
these things were only significant of individual disaffection or ambition. ISTo 
organization appeared to give cause for concern. Some violence occurred 
on the part of a body of Americans and others, during the negotiations over 
the disputed boundary between the United States and Canada, l)ut there was 
no serious outbreak."" 

GOVERNOK MaTHEW AND ARCHDEACON TrEW. 

Governor Mathew was not allowed to go througli his whole administration 
in quiet. His private character was irreproachable, but it was on this side 
that he was attacked. Archdeacon Trew of the Bahamas was his chief 
assailant. Angered by a fancied personal slight, he set to work to secure the 
downfall of the Governor. He complained to the Colonial Department in 
London, published a letter in the London Times falsely representing the 
Governor's position,"' and was joined by unprincipled persons in spreading 
infamous reports connecting the Governor with a fallen woman.'™ A plot 
was formed, and the Eeceiver-General's ofRce became the meeting-place of the 
parties, where invectives were loudly declaimed against Governor Mathew.°" 
Petitions were sent to London and to the bishop of Jamaica praying for his re- 
call. The archdeacon called a meeting of the local clergy, and rushed through 
it without discussion a set of previously prepared resolutions denouncing this 
alleged misconduct of the head of the government."™ Accusations were kept 
up until the autumn of 1848. But the evidence in the affair was not all 
against the Governor. The bishop,"™ the local clergy, both Anglican and 
sectarian,'^" the members of the two legislative bodies, and the general public,"" 
refused to believe in the accusations. The bishop reprimanded the archdeacon, 
and refused to admit him to holy orders. Finally the haughty ecclesiastic was 
humbled. He could gain no general credence for his accusations. He re- 
pented of his unprovoked course, but bhmdered again in attempting to make 

'" H. v., 1846-7, p. 117. 

»'■' Mathew to Gladstone, No. 43. 

""Mathew to Stanley, separate Ds. of Jan. 10, 1846; also of Dec. 19, 1848. 

<"" Mathew to Stanley, separate Ds. of Sept. 9, 1848. 

"' Mathew to Grey, No. 14. 

""See Mathew to Grey, separate Ds. of Dec. 19, 1848, Nos. 1 and 2; also Ds. 
No. 148 (1848); also letter to the Bishop of Jamaica of Sept. 23, 1848, in Misc. 
Letter Book of Governors, 1838-50. 

"™ Mathew to Grey, separate Ds. of Dec. 19, 1848. 

"'"Loc. cit. Ds. of Sep. 25 and Dec. 19, 1848. 

"'' Enclosures in Ds. of Mathew to Grey. No. 14 (1849). 



568 HISTORY 

denials of his own misconduct to the bishop. It was too late to retract. His 
desire to get revenge had brought him only disrepute. To some of his ac- 
complices, participation in this affair was only an added act of baseness. 
Such were the associates in iniquity of one who should have been an example 
to the people of the Colony. 

This affair caused the removal of George B. Mathew from the govern- 
ment of the Bahamas. The Colonial Department in London acquitted him 
of the charges but would no longer intrust to him the administration of 
the government.™' Earl Grey, the Secretary of State for the colonies, 
had evidently thought that the woman, with whom he was accused, 
had some claims on him, for he had used his patronage to help her 
husband. On the discovery of this fact Earl Grey decided to recall him. On 
November 16, 1848, he wrote: "The confidence of Her Majesty in the admin- 
istration of your patronage would be absolutely destroyed by the discovery that 
you are using it to provide for an unworthy woman. Nor would it be possible 
after it became known, for you to enjoy the respect of the colonists necessary 
to your due influence in the government for a proper exercise of the duties of 
your office." """^ He was further informed that his successor would be sent out 
as soon as possible, and that he might retire from the Colony as soon as he 
desired."''' Governor Mathew left the Bahamas in February, 1849. 

This administration marked an advance in the progress of the Colony. In 
many lines there had been improvement. The Governor's solicitude for the 
welfare of the community became the subject of remark in the address of the 
Executive Council, which was nearest to him in the government.'*" The House 
address was eloquent in praise of his efforts for the good of the Colony. It 
acknowledged the business ability of his administration, his accessibility to all 
. classes, and expressed its appreciation of his efforts " to carry out every measure 
calculated for the advantage of the Colony and the community." His success 
therein was manifest on every side, in every department of the public service, 
and in every establishment at Nassau .*"" The people acknowledged the ad- 
vances made in the educational establishment. On his assumption of the gov- 
ernment, wrote the Governor, " the statute book was suited to the eighteenth 
century; a poll-tax on strangers impeded trade, the poorhouse at Nassau 

!»= Ds., S. St., 1848, separate Ds. of Nov. 16. 

'^ Log. cit. 

'"Log. Git. 

"■"^Mathew to Grey, No. 14 (1849), enclosure No. 1. 

™°Loc. cit., address of the House. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 569 

was the sole public institution and the militia was but a name." °" In spite of 
the famine and depression in trade during his administration of four years the 
colonial debt had been reduced and a surplus revenue secured ; the poor estab- 
lishment was enlarged and a hospital and dispensary established; a public 
library was added to the equipment for education; the militia was placed on a 
substantial basis; the civil list was adjusted to the existing needs of the Colony 
■ and the efficiency of the officials was increased ; salt ponds were everywhere 
wcg-ked, fruit growing extended and the tariff schedules readjusted; in every 
department the colonial ser^nce experienced the touch of an administrator.™ 
It was a hard fate that this man who had done so much for the Colony, the first 
Governor in the nineteenth century who had been able to secure harmony in 
the government service, should have become the mark of all the calumnies that 
were heaped upon George B. Mathew. " A prophet is not without honor save 
in his own country." 

LATER HISTORY OF THE BAHAMAS. 
During the latter half of the nineteenth century the people of the Bahamas 
have remained contented under British rule. The slavery question passed out 
of men's minds and the control of local affairs was taken into other hands than 
those of the radical, former slaveholders. The Colony now entered upon a 
period of internal quiet, which with a few temporary interruptions has contin- 
ued to the present time. Some of the more important topics in the recent 
history of the Colony will now be discussed briefly. 

The Separation of the Turks Islands from the Bahamas. 

Before the close of Governor Mathew's term of office in 1849, the territory 
of the Bahamas was decreased by the separation of Turks Islands. This small 
group of islands, situated 500 miles from the capital of the Colony, had never 
been contented under the Bahama government. The people of Turks Islands 
claimed that they did not belong to the Bahamas, and after refusing to partici- 
pate in the government, submitted to it only by the order of a proclamation 
from the Crown. Still it was odious to them to accept the government of a 
Colony in whose interests they shared so little. While the Bahamas were 
almost wholly agricultural, the Turks Islands produced nothing but salt. When 
the former legislated to protect agricultural interests, the regulations often 

™" See Mathew to Grey. No. 71. 

"•* Mathew to Grey, No. 71, and the addresses above referred to. 



570 HISTORY 

bore with grievous weight on the latter. Tlie Tiirlcs Islands were also so far 
removed from the seat of government as to gain little benefit from connection 
with the Colon}'. Comnmnication with Nassau was hindered bv a long stretch 
of treacherous seas, swept with tides and full of dangerous rocks. Contrary 
winds added to the difficulty of navigating here. Intercourse with London was 
regular and far more frequent than that with Nassau. The evil results of this 
were, that little was done to preserve public order in this community; that 
the people here were practically denied recourse to the higher courts of *he 
Colony ; that they knew little of the conduct of the government ; and worst of 
all, that for many years they neither participated in, nor exerted influence 
upon, the affairs of that government. But all these things might have been 
borne with, had it not been for the careless financial treatment accorded them. 

Although the Turks Islands consisted of but two small islands and some 
insignificant cays they nevertheless contained one-tenth of the population of 
the Colony, and were the most important industrial community in the 
Bahamas. Their contribution to the public revenues was far out of proportion 
to their population. In the twenty years from 1837 to 18J:7 they yielded nearly 
one-fourth of the whole income of the public treasury, but their interests were 
left out of consideration in making up the budget of the Colony. And only 
about one-half of the money collected in these islands was expended in any way 
which would benefit their people. In 1845, when the price of salt was low, the 
same duty was collected on its exportation that had been taken at the beginning 
of the century when salt was much higher. The protective duties frequently 
imposed on food products, although benefiting other interests, operated preju- 
dicially to the Turks Islands, whose people imported all their necessaries except 
salt. 

The Turks Islands had remonstrated repeatedly against these evils, and as 
often prayed for relief. But this had proved to be of little avail. To many 
complaints a deaf ear was turned; to others the Bahama Assembly had re- 
sponded with futile measures of relief. At Nassau those who controlled the 
government knew little and cared less about the interests of the Turks Islands, 
and matters grew worse instead of better. In IS-t-t, a new set of regulations of 
the salt ponds was introduced. Tlie old short term leases that had prevailed 
for many years were superseded by a system of long ones. The people feared 
ruin from these new measures. Burdened as they were in other ways they 
could not submit to what they considered to be a new imposition. They pro- 
tested against it. They seized upon their connection with the Bahama gov- 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 571 

ernment as the cause of this new difficulty and clamored for a separation from 
the Colony. The agitation beg'un over this really wise change in" the conduct 
of the salt ponds led to a long series of complaints, and in urging the question 
of the separation, the people reiterated all their past grievances. 

The authorities at London and the Governor at Nassau investigated the 
conditions and found that there were legitimate causes of complaint. Chief 
among these was the financial grievance, already mentioned. Attempts were 
made to remedy the evils and to reconcile the people to the Colonial govern- 
ment. They were not, however, to be thus diverted from the real oljject of 
their petitions. They fl-ere not discouraged by the refusal of a hearing to their 
agent in London or by the rejection of their petition for the separation. 
They were determined, if possible, to be severed from the oppressive Colony. 
They never lost the confidence that their object would he attained if the actual 
conditions could be l)rought to the attention of the authorities. 

Governor Mathew at first minimized the importance of their grievances 
and represented that the agitation was due to a few disaffected individuals. 
But upon a thorough investigation of the conditions he admitted the existence 
of the evils, and in 18-1:7 recommended the separation. The Turks Islands did 
not cease, however, in their efforts to secure the great object they desired. 
Earl Grey, who took charge of the Colonial Department in 1846, was the 
third Colonial Secretary to whom they had applied for this purpose, and at 
last in 18-48, lie sent to the Governor plans for the separation. The latter 
framed a bill embodying the terms on which it was to be allowed, secured its 
passage through the reluctant legislature, and the connection of the Turks 
with the Bahamas was severed. The Caicos Islands, which lie near the Turks, 
were placed with them. The two groups were henceforth to be ruled by a 
President and Council, directed by orders of the Crown-in-council, and under 
the supervision of the Governor of Jamaica. 

This division of the territory of the Colony relieved the Turks Islands of 
the burdens under which they had been laboring. They were now to be free 
to manage their own affairs. To the Bahamas the principal result was that of 
causing a temporary depletion of the public revenue, together with a slight 
decrease in the expenditures on account of the withdrawal of the Turks Islands. 
But a few years later the puldic revenues were as large as they had ever been. 

The Public Burial-Grodnds. 
The established church of the Bahamas continued to exist. The contest 
over the control of the public schools, noticed in the preceding chapter, was 



572 HISTORY 

only a first step in the contest for religious equalit}'. Other things pertaining 
to the state church remained as before. But now that the dissenters had suc- 
ceeded in snatching this important privilege from it, they were encouraged to 
attempt other I'cforms when an opportunity offered. Although the established 
church failed to keep pace with the dissenters in strength of numbers, no one 
attempted, or desired, to sweep away the whole system at once. Among the 
privileges remaining to it in 1851 was the custom according to which dissent- 
ing ministers were denied the right to conduct funeral ceremonies in the 
public burial-grounds. A concrete example of the results of this custom 
brought the evil prominently to the attention of the people and aroused public 
sentiment. At one of the public cemeteries in New Providence a disturbance, 
almost amounting to a riot, occurred when an attempt was made to enforce the 
observance of the custom above referred to. The dissenters decided to submit 
to it no longer. In order to avoid further difficulties, they applied to the church 
wardens of the several parishes on the island to remove this discrimination 
against their ministers. The wardens of Christ Church parish laid the petition 
before the Governor. He ignored it and the wardens refused to consider it 
further. 

This was only a temporary check on the dissenters. They were determined 
to bring about a change. They regarded the necessity of employing Anglican 
ministers at all funerals as a restriction on their rights of conscience. In a 
public meeting they resolved to appeal to the legislature to remove the griev- 
ance. They adopted resolutions declaring their position, and their leaders pre- 
sented to the House of Assembly a petition signed by about 800 names, in which 
they represented that the public mind was deeply agitated over the matter and 
expressed fears, that unless a change soon occurred, ihe discontent would result 
in further disorders. On the other hand the members of the established church 
were not inactive. They were as firmly convinced of the injustice and ille- 
gality of the conduct of the dissenters as the latter were of the existence of the 
same things in this invidious custom. Eegretting the partisan agitation they 
prayed that no law should be passed permitting the invasion of the long- 
established rights of their clergy. The House of Assembly hesitated to act on 
the matter, and referred it to a committee which was instructed to report on 
it at its next session. 

In the interval between the meetings of the legislature the Governor re- 
ferred the question to the bishop of Jamaica. The latter favored the views of 
the dissenters. Not only did he approve of the removal of tlie restriction, but 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 573 

he also advised the government to take the initiative by submitting to the 
legislature a bill to carry out the reforms. Such n bill was accordingly laid 
before the Assembly. The House readily passed it, the Legislative Council only 
with reluctance. Its passage was sufficient to quiet the minds of the sectarians. 
The agitation ceased at once. The following year the Governor reported that 
although a " lamentable amount of sectarian animosity " had been aroused, the 
change from the old usage had operated beneficially to the state of social feeling 
in the Colony. 

The Bahamas a Bishopric. 

In 1861 the Bahamas were separated from the diocese of Jamaica and 
themselves erected into a bishopric, and the then archdeacon of the Colony 
was promoted to the seat of bishop. The established church continued to 
receive support from the public treasury until 1869. The disendowment came 
at that time as a result of the financial depression following the American 
Civil War. The discussion of this question of disendowment will thei-efore be 
deferred until later. 

Commercial Conditions. 

The Bahamas have never had a permanent trade of any great magnitude. 
It was long hoped that Nassau might become the center of such a commerce, 
and these hopes seemed about to be realized when in 1843, the Royal Mail Steam 
Packet Company made this port the distributing point for its West Indian 
mails. This arrangement, while it lasted, added greatly to the ease of com- 
mxmication with the outside world, but it was destined to continue only a few 
years. Several things contributed to lead the company to remove its base from 
Nassau. The harbor -nas not suitable for vessels carrying the mails. The 
route through the Bahama waters was unsafe owing to the great number of 
banks and projecting rocks, and other ports in the AVest Indies offered better 
anchorage and better facilities in other respects. After its removal the trade of 
the Colony relapsed into the old channels. The ports were less frequently 
visited by carriers of commerce, and the Islands again suffered from that same 
isolation which they had felt before. At times it was difficult even to keep 
up regular communication with the outside world by mail. 

Blockade-Running. 

A great change in commercial conditions occurred during the American 
Civil War. Owing to the extraordinary circumstances existing in the neigh- 



574 HISTORY 

boring States, the trade of the Bahamas assumed extraordinary proportions. 
Although the ports of the Confederacy were blockaded by American vessels 
of war, there was a constant intercourse between them and the Bahamas. As 
soon as the closure of these ports was attempted, a trade by blockade-running 
sprang up. Cargoes of supplies of various kinds were carried inside the lines 
of the hostile fleet, and exchanged for cotton grown in the South. ISTassau, being 
only a few lumdred miles from the coastline of the continent, figured conspic- 
uously in this forbidden commerce. 

Early in the war the British Foreign Office proclaimed the neutrality of 
the British possessions. On January 31, 1862, the Governor of the Bahamas 
was instructed not to allow the Avar vessels of either belligerent to enter or 
remain in any of the harbors of the Colony except under stress of weather, or 
by special leave of the government. The ports were not to be allowed to 
become bases for warlike supplies; and further belligerent men-of-war were 
not to take supplies in these ports, except such as were necessary for the subsist- 
ence of their crews. About the same time, another proclamation from tlie 
Crown called upon the colonial legislature to prohibit the exportation coast- 
wise of arms, ammunition, military and naval stores. The local government, 
perhaps, regulated its conduct according to the letter of these instructions, but 
if reports are to be trusted, deliberate infractions of their spirit were allowed 
to take place. There was always an apparent attempt at a stern enforcement 
of the regulations, on the approach of the warships of the United States. On 
the other hand, there was a certain indulgence shown towards violations of tlie 
same, whicli turned out to the profit of tlie rebels. 

Early in the 3'ear 1863 the Flambeau, an American vessel, came to Tvassau. 
Her captain desired to come into the harbor to fill her coal bunkers from a 
collier which attended her. Governor Bayley denied the request and was up- 
held by the authorities at London. Soon after this Charles Francis Adams, the 
American minister at London, protested to Lord Russell against the employ- 
ment of Nassau as an entrepot for contraband trade and a refuge for blockade- 
runners. Although a strict enforcement of neutral regulations did not require 
the prohibition of these practices. Lord Eussell did warn British ship owners 
and merchants, that Great Britain would not protect their vessels against 
search and seizure by the American nav}' ; and advised that the true course 
for them as neutrals was to refrain from the forbidden traffic, as it could only 
cause irritation in the relations between the United States and Great Britain. 
However great the inconveniences of the probable interference with this com- 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XC 




Fig. 1. — VIEW of salt pans at rum cay 




Fig. 2. — mew of salt tiles at him cay 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING GENERAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 575 

mevce, it was engaged in entirely at the risk ol' its carriers. But reports of real 
violations of ne^^tralit3^ which were undispnted, came to the American author- 
ities. Mr. Adams also complained that the same port was being used as a place 
of deposit for munitions of war for the rebellious .states, and that a gunboat 
built in England had resorted to Nassau to receive a crew of Confederate sailors, 
and thence to prey upon American commerce. 

Severe treatment was accorded to vessels and crews that fell into the 
hands of the blockading squadron. One-half of the vessels that tried to make 
the trip in 1862 were captured. In Ma}', 1863, the Margaret and Jessie, 'ply- 
ing between Nassau and Charleston, was fired upon and sunk near the island 
of Eleuthera by the man-of-war Rhode Island. Her commander claimed that 
she was engaged in legitimate trade and that she was fired on within one mile 
of the shore line of British territory. These claims were not sustained by the 
findings of the American prize court and no redress was given. In spite of the 
frequency of the captures the trade increased. The profits to be derived from 
a successful trip were so great that many were willing to undergo the risks. 
Great quantities of supplies were carried to Nassau from British and even 
from American ports, which were destined for the use of the Confederates. 
Trade from Liverpool and Cardiff, that could not otherwise have hoped to reach 
the southern States, was conducted «'itli comparative safety through the port 
of Nassau. The customs officers at New York required security for the good 
faith of certain shipments made from there to the Bahamas. Great Britain 
protested against the bonding of British carriers in this way. 

In the latter part of the war, the frequenting of Bahama ports by United 
States warships formed the subject of protests from London. Aljaco, Inagua, 
the Biminis and other places were visited, and complaint was made that a 
virtual blockade was maintained at some of them. But the Bahamas were not 
the sole transgressors. Other parts of the British West Indies were also 
used as bases of the same kind of semi-hostile operations against the United 
States. Both sides were guilty of infractions against proper conduct. The 
British islands, however, profited more by it than did the American navy. 

Nassau flourished. Her prosperity was altogether due to the part which 
her harbor and geographic position played in this commerce with the south- 
ern cities. Both imports and exports rose to a high point. The imports 
amounted to £374,581, in 1861, to £1,250,322 in 1862, and to £3,368,567 in 
1863. The exports had stood at £141,896 in 1860. In 1861 they rose to 



576 HISTORY 

£195,584, in 1862, to £1,007,755, and in 1863 to £3,368,567.°" Tlie profits of a 
successful venture were only enhanced as tlie Union troops drew their lines 
more closely on the Confederacy and other sources of supply were cut off. 
Prices of necessaries became very dear in parts of the South. Trading through 
the blockade reached its highest point about the close of the 3-ear 1864. The 
imports at Kassau for that year amounted to £5, 346, 11-2, the exports to £4,672,- 
398. But in March, 1865, the American consul at that place reported that 
blockade-running had become a thing of the past. This sudden decline was 
doubtless due to the reopening of the southern ports after Sherman's march to 
the sea. 

While this commerce was so flourisliing, Nassau reached the high tide of 
her prosperity. Mercantile and professional pursuits made fortunes rapidly; 
but persons with fixed salaries suffered on account of the great rise in the prices 
of necessaries. The value of lauded property at Xassau was increased to 300 
and 400 per cent. Wharf space on the harbor front became so valuable that 
the harbor along the shoreline was filled in and several new blocks thus added 
to the city. GLi-eat was the profit at the expense of the belligerents. These 
were the halcyon days of the Bahamas, and the inhabitants still think of the 
days of the war as the " good old times " of prosperity and plenty. 

The people were exultant over their good fortune. In 1863, Governor 
Bayley addressed the Assembly, dwelling on this new commerce as a principal 
theme in his speech. He congratulated the people that under British protec- 
tion they could have commercial relations with either belligerent. On the 
other hand he lamented that this commerce was exposed to frequent losses at 
the hands of the naval power predominant in the neighboring waters. He fur- 
ther lamented that American publicists were insisting that the conduct of tlie 
people of the Bahamas was not consistent with relations of friendship and 
amity with the United States. He gloried in this prosperity, although it was at 
the expense of a nation struggling for self-preservation. In 1864 the Governor 
went still further in the same tone, but his speeches to the legislature did not 
meet with approval at London. The Duke of Newcastle, of the Colonial De- 
partment, refused to approve of the Governor's reference to the practice of 

°'° A slight difference appears between tlie report from wliicli these figures are 
taken and that given by Northcroft in his " Slietches of Summerland " (p. 303), 
In the item of exports for the year 1860. The figures here given are talien from 
the reports of Governor Rawson on the state of the colony for the years 1S62 and 
1863, as printed in the Session Papers of Parliament for 1864, vol. 40, p. 11, and 
1865, vol. 37, p. 16. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 577 

bloekade-riuining. He admitted, with the Litter,, that international comity did 
not bind Great Britain to repress the practice, but he warned him that blockade- 
running was a breach of the belligerent's right of Ijlockade, and that the power 
sinned against could properly complain that the representative of the Crown 
of Great Britain was speaking officially and encouragingly of a practice that was 
injurious to its interests. It might sound well to the Bahama ear, but by 
doing it the Governor laid himself. open to the charge of conduct unfriendly to 
a neighbor, thus impairing the position of the government he was serving. 
The Governor attempted to justify himself on the ground that eminent jurists 
and publicists admitted the right of rianning through the blockade of a belliger- 
ent. But his attempted justifications failed to remove Newcastle's objections 
to his speech. He was advised that whatever opinions he might hold, he was 
not expected, without authority, to express them respecting the relations of 
Great Britain and other powers; and that the spirit and tone of his address 
could not but be injurious to the United States. The removal of Governor 
Bayley from the Bahamas took place before the end of the year. 

The new Governor, Eawson W. Eawson, reported that in the months of 
January and Februarj', 1865, twenty vessels reached Kassau from within the 
blockade lines, and twelve others were run down by American cruisers. After 
February, only three such vessels arrived. A very sudden conclusion to a large 
trade. Some activity in commercial lines continued after the downfall of the 
Confederacy, but trade relapsed quickly into ordinary channels, and a period 
of stagnation followed. The great commerce was entirely due to the extraor- 
dinary set of circumstances, as Nassau was not a port to attract a large per- 
manent trade. 

State of Finances. 

The revenues of the Colony had grown great without the imposition of 
any additional tax on imports or exports. Increases were made in the regular 
expenditures, the debt of the Colony was paid oif, and a surplus accumulated 
in the treasury. These were extraordinary financial conditions. With the 
falling off of commerce after the close of the war, the revenue inevitably failed 
to keep up to the point which it had reached. Expenditures again overbalanced 
revenues. Before this change took place, the Colonial Department at Loudon, 
noting the increase in revenue in the Colony, gave notice that it must 
provide out of its own funds for the salary of the Governor. Such an instruc- 
tion, however, could not have been based upon a study of the permanent 
37 



578 HISTORY 

finances of the Bahamas. Retrenchments now became necessary in order to 
keep salaries and expenditures adjusted to the depleted state of the revenues. 
A hurricane accompanied by an enormous destruction of property occurred in 
1866, and added to the embarrassment. By 1868 the deficits had become so 
great as to threaten the credit of the Colony, and some diflBculty was experienced 
in securing a readjustment of the finances. 

DiSENDOWMENT OF THE ESTABLISHED ChUECH. 

Convenient methods of reducing public expenditures were now sought for. 
Some of the members of the House of Assembly found an expedient in a 
proposal to withdraw the public support from the established church. The 
majority of the people of the Colony were not favorable to that church, and the 
double tax for church jjurposes on the members of dissenting congregations 
was viewed with displeasure. The process of disestablishment had been begun 
already, and in the then low state of the revenues it seemed to be an opportune 
time to begin the agitation for disendowment. A great reduction in expendi- 
tures would be effected if the cost of the church establishment were saved to 
the Colony. 

During a session of the legislature in March, 1868, a member of the 
House brought up the question without previous warning. He introduced a 
set of resolutions embodying a scheme for the disendowment. His proposals 
were carried by a majority of four, and a committee was at once appointed to 
bring in a bill in accordance with them. • Such a bill was readily passed in 
the House. But in the Council it was rejected. When this intelligence reached 
the House, Sawyer, the leading advocate of the bill, proposed to call upon the 
Governor to dissolve the Assembly and order a new election. The same 
majority that had carried this bill for the disendowment carried this proposal 
also. The Governor, however, regarded such a call upon him as an attempted 
infringement of the prerogative. He expressed his ignorance of the alleged 
discontent on the part of the people as to the church question, and refused to 
dissolve the Assembly. The House now unearthed a number of precedents for 
its request for the dissolution, caused the resignation of its presiding officer 
and adjourned for three months. Before the expiration of that period 
a dissolution occurred. On the meeting of the newly elected representatives in 
June of the same year, a disputed seat in the new House occupied first place 
in the deliberations of the session. According to the returns. Sawyer, who 
had led the attack on the established church, had failed to be elected. He 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 579 

made charges of imfairuess at the polls and petitioned the Honse to allow him 
to occupy the disputed seat. Counter charges, and petitions were oit'ered in 
behalf of his opponent. A House committee secured information and made a 
report on the matter. This report may have been impartial and the suljsequent 
action of the House just, but it was a strictly partisan vote that rejected the 
petitions of the Anglican candidate and allowed Sawyer to take the contested 
seat. Both his leadership and his vote would have been lost if his application 
had failed. Again he jnoved for a consideration of the disendowment question. 
Loyal churchmen attempted to postpone the evil day. But the old partisan 
vote carried a new bill to " amend the ecclesiastical laws of the Colony." Tlie 
Legislative Council repeated its action of the preceding session and the measure 
was again rejected. 

Such obstacles could, ho^vever, only temporarily check the progress of the 
dissenters. In March, 1869, the same leader pressed for the passage of the 
same proposal, even more importunately than before. The Council no longer 
stood in the way. It merely modified the sweeping character of the language 
of the House bill and passed it. This did not effect an immediate withdrawal 
of the salaries paid to church officials. The cost of each of these livings was 
only borne by the public until it became vacant. Then the salary was with- 
drawn. This effected only a gradual disendowment, but it gained the object 
of the dissenters and secured the retrenchment in public expenditures. 

The Anglican church was not yet free. It had been given control of its 
property in 1869, but was still dependent on the state in other respects. On 
an appeal to the legislature in 1875, it was made a self-governing, voluntary 
religious body with privileges of holding a synod, making rules for its own 
government, regulating its membership and prescribing its rites, discipline, 
etc. At the same time some old ecclesiastical legislation was repealed. The 
legislature dealt with the question in a liberal and impartial spirit, and the 
church was relieved of an anomaloiis position in which it had been since the 
passage of the act of 1869. The disestablishment was thus completed. 

The Educational Establishment. 

The careful efforts in behalf of education that were begun in the decade 
1830-1840 were continued. The Assembly was impressed with the need of 
providing adequate means of instruction, and in this it was encouraged and di- 
rected by the governors who acted with it. Since the control of the schools 
was "wrested from the established church, uo serious efforts had been made to. 



580 HISTORY 

return to the old state of things. Therefore the public schools became non- 
sectarian, and religious dissensions no longer stood in the way of the develop- 
ment of the ediicational S3-stem. All classes of the people joined in the moYC- 
ment for popular education. The finances of the Colony were straitened, and 
continued to be so, but in spite of that fact a gradual expansion in the educa- 
tional establishment had taken place, requiring increased appropriations from 
the public funds. Under the stress of financial difficulties the public grant was 
greatly reduced in 1869. From that time up to the present, appropriations for 
school purposes have been growing, these interests still being given claim to 
first consideration, in making up the budget of the Colony. 

In the extension of the educational system great discouragements had to 
be met. In most of the communities that were to be served there was nothing 
pertaining to a school but children. In some places they were so scattered 
that it was difficult to bring them together. Foundations had to be laid. In 
1859, there were twenty-six schools in the Bahamas ' employing thirty-nine 
teachers. All of these schools did not occupy Ijuildings that were public school 
property, or that had been erected for educational purposes. Some of the 
houses were in a dilapidated condition; while others that were almost worth- 
less cost the Colony exorbitant rents. The teachers were not all of the iDCst 
character; while some of them were of a fair order of intelligence, and were 
diligent and devoted to their work, others on the other hand were very poorly 
equipped. In many instances teaching became a refuge for persons who were 
otherwise destitute of means of subsistence. The complaint was common that 
the teachers neglected their own intellectual advancement, thus rendering 
themselves unfit for efficient school work. Another difficiTlty was that parents 
showed a lack of appreciation of the advantages that were before their olfspring. 
The veil of igiiorance could only be lifted slowly. 

Existing conditions were studied, however, and an attempt was made to 
bring them to the attention of the public. An inspectorship of schools 
was created. The incumbent of this position visited the schools through- 
out the Colony, examined them and tlieir teachers, and made annual 
reports of his findings. Methods employed and progress made in other col- 
onies were studied. Such funds as were available were applied to the execu- 
tion of plans resulting from the consideration of these things. The schools of 
the British and Foreign School Society were taken as the model for the schools 
that were established. But the public treasury could not supply funds to 
create schools in all places where they were needed. A new system of founding 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 581 

schools was introduced, whicli was attended with results that were most en- 
couraging. This was the Grant-in-aid System. Under it communities that 
originated schools by local effort were aided by the public funds, on condition 
that the schools established would be non-sectarian; that they would be con- 
ducted on lines laid down by the Board of Education, and subject to the 
examination of the public inspector. This extended the benefits of education to 
a number of settlements, that might otlierwise have continued without schools, 
and served to promote a more intelligent appreciation of the advantages of 
education. 

A serious drawback to the progress of the schools lay in the low estimate 
of their value, on the part of their patrons. Many seemed indifferent to the 
opportunity afforded their children. The attendance was consequently poor. 
Some of the school rooms were reported to he a half to two-thirds empty. The 
schools, to be sure, could not accommodate all children of school age in the 
Colony, but there was room for more than were in attendance. The enervating 
climate, the natural indolence of many of those who were to be served, and 
the desire of many parents to have their children occupied in remunerative 
employments; these things militated against the success of the schools. The 
inspector, noting these conditions, repeatedly recommended the passage of a 
compulsory education law. After twenty years of such recommendation, the 
legislature at last gave attention to this apathetic indifference to educational 
advantages, and enacted a law requiring attendance at the schools on the part of 
all children between the ages of six and twelve. At first this applied only to 
the island of ISTew Providence. But its salutary results there influenced the 
legislature to extend its provisions to certain settlements in the Out-islands. 
Increased attendance and an increased number of school days resulted. There 
were mimerous instances of the application of the penalties for disregard or 
neglect of the law in the districts to which it applied. In 1889, this law was 
made applicable to every school district in the Bahamas. This regulation was 
not, liowever, without evil results. Parents were more careful to send child- 
ren that came within the age limit of the law, but on the other hand, they took 
them from the schools as soon as they passed that limit. The attendance of 
those over twelve years of age was very irregular. In 1897, the age limit was 
raised to fourteen years with a corresponding increase in favorable results. 

The payment of fees for attendance at the public schools was retained 
until 188(3. In 1885 the inspector recommended the abolition of them. 
They had been difficult to collect throughout the history of the schools. The 



583 HISTORY 

desire to enforce a better collection took the form of making the teachers the 
collectors, and adding a jDcrcentage of the amount received to their salaries. 
This did not have the desired effect. It did produce a slight increase in 
the salaries in some instances, but no noticeable improvement in the character 
of the schools. On the other hand it imposed a needless burden on the 
teachers whose function was other than that of collectors of school taxes. 

For a long time there was no training school for teachers in the Colony. 
Not onh' did this cause a deficiency in the recruiting of the ranks of the 
teachers, but it allowed a deterioration of those already employed. The 
inspector insisted on the necessity of providing a normal school, repeating 
the recommendation from year to year, until at last, in 1892, such a school 
was established at Nassau. 

Although determined efforts have been made to educate the negroes of 
the Bahamas, the results have not always been encouraging. But conditions 
have been adverse; finances have been low; the climate is decidedly against 
strenuous mental activity; the majority of the population is of a race that 
is not characterized by vigorous intellect; the people are poor for the most 
part; and many of the islands are cut off from frequent communication 
with the outside world of intellectual acti^dty and culture, and even the 
knowledge of the existence of such things is beyond many of the population. 
Still the means of acquiring the ri^diments of an education are here; the" 
efficiency of the teaching staff has perhaps increased in recent years, and the 
schools are in a condition that augurs well for the good of the Colony. In 
1888 the inspector reported that "all parents within the reach of these 
schools who choose to relinquish small inconveniences can secure for their 
children the benefits of a sound and nsefiil education." This can with as 
much reason be said of the schools to-day. 

CON-CLUSION. 

Within the last two decades the culture of the sisal (fiber) plant has 
become an industry in the Bahamas. It furnishes employment for an increas- 
ing number of laborers, and even in the short period in which it has been cul- 
tivated a substantial income has accrued to those engaged in its production. It 
remains to be seen whether this new enterprise will afford a more permanent 
source of wealth than other expedients that were tried before it. There are 
several other industries through which the inhai)itants gain a livelihood. The 
more important among them are fruit-farming, especially that of pineapples. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XCI 







H 

H 
O 

-A 

hH 

!g 
o 

o 
o 

o 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 583 

fishing, sponge-fishing, salt-raking, and the gathering of guano and marine 
curiosities. Cotton-planting barely survives, and the old, alluring industry of 
wrecking has almost passed away. Besides these things some of the inhabitants 
depend largely upon the hotel business, for Nassau, with her salubrious climate, 
is a health resort of importance. ISTot only private individuals but even the 
Colony itself has engaged in affording attractions, and providing comforts for 
tourists in the winter season. The local government made very liberal con- 
cessions to the present owner of the two largest hotels in Nassau in order to 
induce him to locate here. If finances are an index, the Colony is now enjoy- 
ing a period of comparative prosperity. In the ten years up to 1902 the public 
revenue increased more than 32 per cent, imports nearly doubled and exports 
increased by one-third. In the^same period the public debt increased consid- 
erably. A cable now joins Nassau with the coast of Florida, thus, as it were, 
bringing the place much closer to the outside world. Gradually the Colony is 
gaining improvements, that tend to make its island capital a more desirable 
place in which to live. But the emigration to the States of many of the more 
active spirits in the population often engages the attention of those who have 
local interests at heart, fearing lest it be taken as evidence of the lack of oppor- 
tunity for the pursuit of attractive careers in this Colony. 



SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS RELATING 
TO THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS RELATING 
TO THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 

BY 

GEORGE BURBANK SHATTUCK, Ph. D., 

Associate Professor of Physiographic Geology in the Johns Hopkins University. 



INTRODUCTION.- 



Nassau, the capital of the Bahama Islands and chief port of entry, is situ- 
ated on the north shore of ISTew Providence and protected from the open sea 
by Hog Islands^ a long, narrow strip of coral rock which acts as a natural 
breakwater. Between this breakwater and the town is the harbor of Nassau. 
It is in reality a channel between New Providence and Hog Island, about 
half a mile wide, and deep enough to accommodate large vessels. The value 
of the harbor is, however, impaired by a small island known as " Potters Cay." 
This cay so impedes the channel that vessels of over 200 feet in length are 
deprived of swinging room. Toward the eastern end the channel opens to 
shallow banks frequented only by small boats, and toward the western end 
the entrance is impeded by a dangerous bar, impassable "when a heavy sea is 
running. 

No words can describe the beauty of Nassau as one approaches the harbor 
from the sea. The ocean of deep sapphire suddenly changes to a lagoon of 
emerald green, surrounded by shores of snow-white coral sand. Beyond, the 
white limestone houses of the town, intermingled with groves of graceful 
palms, and half concealed by gorgeous poincianas, rise on a gentle slope 
against a sky of purest blue. The green, transparent water; the intense 
blue of the sky; the blotches of blood-red poincianas; the snow-white drifts 
of coral sand; the vivid green of the foliage — all these unexpected and yet 
harmonious contrasts strike the eye together, and stamp on the memory a 
picture of rugged beauty which nothing can efface. The impression thus 
received does not suffer when later the tourist wanders about the quaint old 
town, to examine at leisure the details of this picture. Nassau is a village 



588 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

of picturesque homes and pretty gardens (Plate LXXXIII, Fig. 2). Every 
house has its flower garden where the pawpaw, datura, palm, oleander, banana, 
poinciana and bougainvillea grow and bloom together in careless beauty. As 
one strolls along the clean white streets, a surprise is in store at every turn ; 
now it is the graceful drooping bells of the datura, a little later the delicate 
perfume from a hedge of oleanders, in the distance the brilliant crown of a 
poinciana, and in almost every garden the bougainvillea can be seen in all its 
glory (Plate I). 

There is probably no cleaner or more wholesome town in the West Indies 
than Nassau. Its streets, built out of coral rock, are kept scrupulously clean 
(Plate LXXXVI, Fig. 1). They are smooth as asphalt, and being white do 
not absorb heat, a quality which well adapts them to a tropical country. 

For the ent^tainment of tourists, two large and well-conducted hotels 
have been erected. One of these, the Eo3'al Victoria, an old landmark of 
Nassau, was purchased by Mr. H. M. Flagler in 1898 and completely reno- 
vated. In addition to this he built on the water front another hotel, the 
Colonial (Plate XCI), large enough to accommodate six hundred guests. It is 
provided with every modern convenience, and forms a part of the vast hotel 
system which Mr. Flagler has built up along the eastern coast of Florida. There 
is also another hotel, the Clifton House, neat and well managed, l)ut not so 
pretentious and less expensive than those just mentioned. 

The former Governor of the Bahamas, Sir Gilbert T. Carter (Plate 
LXXXI), was an enthusiastic botanist, and devoted much time and atten- 
tion to the gardens about Government House. Here may be seen brought 
together in one place, and artistically arranged, many of the most interesting 
of the native plants and some of the most beautiful exotics (Plate LXXXII). 
Nassau has none of the attractions which are frequently associated with 
many winter resorts, such as piers, stores of bric-a-brac, casinos, etc., but it 
has many attractions in which other resorts are lacking. One of the objects 
not to be overlooked is the huge silk-cotton tree, Ceiba pentandra (Plate 
LXXXVIII), which stands immediately behind the Postoffice. Aside from the 
striking appearance of this tree, it has an additional interest in that a sketch of 
it, which now hangs in the Public Library at Nassau, was made over a hundred 
years ago, in 1802. This drawing shows that the tree at that time had the same 
figure as to-day, and approximately the same proportions. It is difficult to 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 589 

estimate the age of this tree, but it is said that it was the first silk-cotton 
tree brought into the Islands, and that it is the parent of all the others in 
the Bahamas. Beautiful and interesting nooks which give one an idea of the 
beauty of tropical vegetation are found among the ocean-holes in the estate 
of ]\Iount Vernon. In the shad}' recesses of tliis quiet spot one can sit 
and sketch by the hour amid orchids, huge ferns, palms and other tropical 
plants (Plate LXXXIV, Fig. 2). New Providence is well supplied with 
good roads either for walking, riding or bicycling (Plate II, Fig. 2). And_ 
for one who likes to explore there will be found no end of diversion. 
Another delightful experience, which the tourist should not miss, is a 
visit to the celebrated Sea Gardens. These gardens, which are situ- 
ated about five miles from Nassau in the channel between Hog and Athol 
Islands, is in reality a small coral reef. On looking down into the clear 
water, one sees the most gorgeous fishes (Plates LII-LXI) dart in and out 
amongst the various colored coral heads and waving plumes of gorgonias like 
butterflies in a garden of brilliant flowers. Other points of interest are the 
picturesque forts Charlotte and Fincastle (Plate LXXXIII, Fig. 1), which 
are located on the highest points of Nassau, and command a flne view of 
the harbor and the surrounding country. Nassau is also provided with a 
public library. 

AREA AND POPULATION.^ 

According to Governor Eawson^ the total area of the Bahama Islands 
amounts to 4434 square miles. This area is divided among 29 islands, 661 
keys and 2387 rocks. Most of these islands are long and narrow, forming in 
reality little secondary archipelagoes. Andros, the largest of these island 
groups, consists of three islands, 146 keys and 355 rocks, and has an area of 
1600 square miles, which is equal to about 36 per cent of the total area of th'- 
Bahamas. 

The estimated population of the Bahamas for 1902 was 55,190. This 
would give an average of 12.5 persons to the square mile for the dry land area 

' Many of the tables and much of the material for this and the following sec- 
tions have been taken from the " Annual Report " of Governor Carter for 1902, 
published in March, 1904. This paper is one of the official documents of the Ba- 
hamas and has the title " General Descriptive Report of the Bahama Islands," in 
which is included the Annual Report for 1902. 

= Bahama Blue-Book for 1866. 



590 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

of tlie Islands. The births during the same j'ear amounted to 2131, and the 
deaths 1299, showing a total increase of poiDulation of 838. The average birth 
rate per thousand was 38.6, and the average death rate per thousand, 23.5. 
About three-fifths of the entire population is colored. 

CURRENCY AND BANKING FACILITIES. 

Both English and United States money pass as security in the Bahamas. 
The British sterling silver money was declared the currency of the colony in 
1839, but of late years American money is common and passes at its face value. 
In addition to this, the BarQv of Nassau has a note issue of £6500. These bank 
notes are in circulation throughout the Islands, but especially in ISTassau. 

There are two banks in the Bahamas, both located in Nassau. The Bank 
of Nassau fills the place in the Bahamas that a national bank does in the 
United States. It has a capital of £10,000, with power to increase to £25,000. 
As just stated, its note issue amounts to £6500. The following statement of 
the liabilities and assets will give a good idea of the standing and the amount of 
business transacted by this bank : 

GENERAL BALANCE SHEET OF BANK OF NASSAU FOE YEAR ENDING 
DECEMBER 31. 1902. 

LIABILITIES. 

Capital— fully paid £10,000 

Reserve fimtl 12,500 

Due by the bank on current accounts and deposit accounts 35,271 10 1 

Note issue 6,500 

Profit and loss— amount brought forward £ 19S 12 71/2 

Net profit lor the year 2,631 13 41/2 

2,830 6 

£67,101 16 1 

ASSETS. 

Bahama, government debentures £7,600 costing £ 7,819 

Bills of exchange for remittance ,. 2,864 9 GV2 

Loans and discounts 27,037 3 2 

Other debts due the corporation 4,518 3 9% 

Due from other banks ' 18,002 11 5 

Cash in hand 6,860 S 2 

£67,101 16 1 

The second bank is a savings institution. It is a government enterprise 
attached to the general PostofEce at Nassau. Deposits are limited to £200 
for any one person, and £40 for a single year. This bank had in 1902 a vested 
interest of £17,886 12s. lid. The rate of interest is 2-^ per cent. The follow- 
ing table illustrates the volume of business conducted by this bank : 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XCII 




Fig. 1. — CHARACTERISTIC HOMES OF SPONGE FISHERMEN 



;■ NiJiC 




Fig. 2. — group of sponge fishermen 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING GENERAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



591 



TRANSACTIONS OF THE POSTOFflCE SAVINGS BANK FOR THE FIVE YEARS, 

1898-1902. 



Year. 



1898 . 

1899 . 

1900 . 

1901 . 
1902* 



No. of De- 
positors. 



1,107 
1,240 
1,330 
1,421 
1,480 



Deposited 

during 
the year. 



£ s. a. 

4,806 11 11 

7,205 1 

7,591 S 3 

7,664 15 11 

4,145 4 7 



Withd 


raw 


als. 


£ 


s. 


d. 


4,144 


5 


5 


4,822 


12 


10 


5,752 


15 


7 


6,846 


4 


2 


4,166 


9 


11 



Interest 
added to 
accounts. 



£ 

230 5 
270 11 
323 8 
378 10 
195 18 



s. d. 



Balance 

due 

December 31, 



£ s. a. 
10,415 17 
13,068 16 3 
15,237 17 1 
16,434 18 11 
16,607 12 1 



Assets. 



£ s. d. 
10,523 9 8 

13,277 10 

15,525 11 9 

16,842 4 6 

17,886 12 11 



*N. B.— For period, 1st January, 1902, to 30th June, 1902. 
FACILITIES OF COMMUNICATIONS. 

As there are no railroads in the Bahamas, the means of communication 
are confined to sailing boats, steam vessels, cable and postoffice service. The 
only means of travel among the various islands of the archipelago is the sail 
boat. Those which are confined to Bahama traffic and do not wander far 
away from the archipelago are small and of light draft. The necessity of 
this will at once be understood when the shallow nature of most of the Bahama 
waters is taken into consideration. During the winter months Nassau is con- 
nected with Miami, Florida, by means of steamships which sail every other 
day, and with New York with a similar line of steamships which sail about 
every two weeks. At the close of the winter outing season the Nassau-Miami 
line is discontinued. There is also a steamship service between Nassau and 
England. 

There is a government cable service between Nassau and Jupiter, Florida. 
The volume of business transacted by this cable is indicated in the following 
table : 

NUMBER AND CLASSIFICATION OF MESSAGES SENT AND RECEIVED ON THE 
GOVERNMENT CABLE FOR THE YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1902. 

United Kingdom 424 

Other points 2,835 

Service 240 



Total 3,499 

Mail is delivered to the Out-islands by means of small sailing boats which 
cover their routes about every fortnight. The revenue received through the 
Postoffice for the twelve months from April 1, 1892, to March 31, 1903, 
amounted to £4303. The custom duties on packages passing through the 
Postoffice amounted in the same period to £G3S 18s. 3d. The total number 



592 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 



of money orders issued and drawn were 2228, representing an amount of 
money equal to £3299 7s. 6d. The following table will indicate the amount 
of business conducted by the Kassau Postoffice : 

STATEMENT OF LETTERS RECEIVED AND DESPATCHED AT NASSAU POSTOFFICE 
FROM 1st APRIL, 1902, TO 31st MARCH, 1903. 





Received. 


Despatched. 




CO 

s 

Hi 


to 

6 

o 




3 

o 




u 

O 

o 

Ph 




"3 
1 


United Kinsdom 

United States 


32,694 

86,587 

152 

24,017 


911 

2,006 

4 

96 


31,751 

44,428 

12 

700 


65,356 

133,021 

168 

24,813 


19,539 
63,100 
13,197 
24,795 


827 
5,497 
1,055 

285 


6,014 

6,327 

2,911 

20,183 


26,380 
76,924 
17,163 
45,263 


Other Countries 




Total 


143,450 


3,017 


76,891 


223,358 


122,631 


7,664 


35,435 


165,730 







Total number received 223,358 

Total number despatched 165,730 



Total 389,088 

IMPORTANT INDUSTRIES. 
As there are no mines in the Bahamas and no manufactories, 
aside from small pineapi^le preserving interests, the people of the Islands 
depend principally on the sponge-fisheries aud agriculture for their livelihood. 

The Sponge-fishery. 
This is considered the most important industry in the Bahama Islands. 
In order to gather the crop of sponges during the fiscal year of 1901-2, 265 
schooners of from five to forty-three tons burden and 322 sloops of from one 
to sixteen tons burden with an aggregate tonnage of 5952 tons were engaged. 
Attached to these there were 2517 open boats, while 291 in addition were 
engaged in the industry along the shores of the Islands. The large sea-going 
vessels were manned with 5517 men and bo3's, and the smaller boats along 
the shore with 445. In clipping, sorting and packing the sponges for export 
258 men and women were employed. The method of securing and preparing 
the sponges for market is simple. A sponging schooner cruises over the 
shallow banks where the sponges grow and sends out its small boats with a 
man and boy in each. The man lies in the bow of the boat with a water-glass 
in one hand and a long sponge hook in the other. The boy stands in the 
stem to scull and guide the boat. As soon as a sponge of the proper quality 
and size is discovered on the bottom, the fisherman drops his hook, and by 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 593 

a dexterous movement of the 'vrrist and arm detaches the sponge and lands it 
safely in the boat. At intervals the boatmen land on unfrequented keys and 
throw the sponges on shore where the organisms are killed and decayed by 
the heat of the tropical sun. They are then rinsed out thoroughly in sea 
water, dried, sorted, and packed in bales for shipment (Plates XCIII and 
XCII, Fig. 2). The following table will give a good idea of the quantity 
of sponges shipped from the Bahamas to various countries during 1902 : 

TABLE SHOWING EXPORTATION OF SPONGES FOR 1902. 
Country. Quantity. Value. 

lbs £ 

United Kingdom 179,797 8,867 

United States - 752,382 50,339 

Canada 3,872 792 

Holland 126.693 11,566 

France 100,455 13,865 

Germany 182,710 11,184 

Russia 12,361 991 

AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS. 

The chief agricultural interests of the Bahamas are confined to the 
cultivation of pineapples, citrus fruits and sisal hemp. As the details of 
the production of these crops has been discussed in the chapter on " Soils 
of the Bahama Islands,"- they will not be reconsidered here; but a few sta- 
tistics showing the relative importance of these three crops may be of interest. 
During 1902 pineapples to the amount of 521,482 dozens, at a value of 
£36,957, were shipped to the United States; in addition to this 47,892 cases 
of canned fruits were shipped, at a value of £9,515. Most of this canned 
fruit was pineapples. The following table gives the statistics of the pro- 
duction and value of the crop of citrus fruits for a longer interval: 

TABLE SHOWING QUANTITY AND VALUE OF CITRUS FRUITS FOR THE YEARS 

1898-1902. 

Total 
Year. Grape Fruit. Price per Jf. Oranges. Price per M. Export 

Value. 

No. £ s. d. No. £ 8. d. £ 

1898 215,339 9 4 6 2,258,478 17 6 5,049 

1899 87,799 4 15 9 482.628 2 14 6 1,600 

1900 300,905 2 9 6 1,264,057 112 2 2,777 

1901 470,426 4 10 3 3,001,173 19 2 5,011 

1902 728,100 2 19 1 1,534,038 18 10 3,597 

The production of citrus fruits is one of growing importance in the 
Bahamas, and it will be interesting in this connection to quote the observa- 
tions of Governor Carter: 

" It will be observed that prices show a considerable variation. So far 
as quality is concerned, it is doulrtful if any adjacent country can produce 
38 



594 GENERAL CONSIDEEATIOIfS 

finer grape fniit than those grown in the Bahamas. Of late years Florida 
has been a keen competitor, and Jamaica and Cuba also send shipments to 
the United States market, but a tropical climate is not so suitable for the 
production of a good class of citrus fruits as a more temperate latitude, and 
the soil of the Bahamas seems to be specially adapted to their culture, espe- 
cially in the more northern islands, where climatic conditions are also more 
favorable. In regard to oranges it barely pays to ship them; large quanti- 
ties come from California and Florida, and there can be no doubt that the 
duty of one per cent per pound levied in the United States on foreign supplies 
places the Bahama growers at a disadvantage.- 



, " = 



SALT. 
In former years the salt industry was one of the most important of the 
Bahamas. Inagua, Salt, and Eum Cays were large producers of this 
article until competition in the United States and lack of capital caused the 
industry to wane until at the present time it is of little importance. The 
manufacture is extremely simple: large reservoirs are constructed in the low 
lands, and canals dug connecting them with the ocean outside. Sea water is 
then admitted until the reservoirs are flooded, when the gates are closed and 
the imprisoned sea water allowed to evaporate. The salt is then raked into 
heaps, bleached in the sun, and sold largely for preserving purposes (Plate 
XC). It is estimated that 100 acres of salt ponds yield, under favoral)le con- 
ditions, 1,500,000 bushels of salt annually. 

VOLUME OF TRADE. 
It will be seen from the above discussion that the volume of trade of the 
Bahama Islands is not great. The nationalities taking part in the shipping 
industry embrace British, American, German, Spanish, Norwegian, Russian, 
Dutch, Cuban, Haitian and Dominican vessels. The following table gives a 
comparative statement of total shipping in and out of the Islands for the last 
five years : 

TABLE SHOWING TOTAL SHIPPING IN THE BAHAMAS FOR YEARS 1898-1902. 

Total Number of Vessels. Total Tonnage. Total Vessels and Tonnage. 

^^^'■- Inwards. Outwards. Inwards. Outwards. Vessels. Tonnage. 

1898 595 597 371,878 369,644 1,192 741,522 

1899 657 655 489,749 490,670 1,312 979,819 

1900 623 619 557,211 556,653 1,242 1,113,866 

♦ 1901-2 757 754 648,049 645,631 1,511 1,293,680 

1902 566 564 522,035 522,553 1,130 1,044,588 

* 15 months. 

'Loc. Cit., 36. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



595 



Great Britain and the United States furnish most of the supplies and 
are the chief markets for the Bahamas. The amount of exports and imports 
shown in the following tables is in proportion to the restricted number of 
vessels which enter and clear from Bahama ports : 

TABLE SHOWING PKINCU'AL IMPORTS FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM AND THE 
UNITED STATES DURING THE YEAR 1902. 

Imports. 

Cotton, woolen, lineu and 

silk goods 

Earthenware, glassware, &c. . 

Tinware, hardware 

Preserved fruits, &c 

Ale and porter gallons 

Whiskey 

Wines 

Linseed and other oils 

Rice lbs 

Sugar (refined) 

Sugar (unrefined) 

Iron nails 

Copper and yellow metal . . 

Candles 

Soap (common) 



United Kingdom. 


United States. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Quantity. 


Value. 




£ 




£ 


j'nenumerated. 


20,844 


Unenumerated. 


23,190 


" 


6.345 


" 


33,395 


" 


2,233 


" 


7,414 


" 


3,732 


" 


11,810 


8,068 


1,184 


3,958 


683 


2,978 


1,345 


547 


294 


1,437 


565 


1,2.35 


536 


5,184 


683 


124,812 


8,908 


2,046,072 


9,051 


207.154 


965 


87,944 


435 


304,867 


2,645 


739,257 


4,129 


60,086 


363 






109.234 


745 


16,650 


353 


4,306 


129 


7,904 


176 


5.439 


138 


16,711 


245 


259,705 


2,146 



TABLE SHOWING PRINCIPAL EXPORTS TO THE UNITED KINGDOM AND THE 
UNITED STATES DURING THE YEAR 1902. 

Exports. 



Bahama hemp lbs. 

Cascarilla bark " 

Sponge " 

Turtle-shells 

Sea shells barrels 

Conch shells No. 

Canned fruit cases 



United K 


ingdom. 


United States. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Quantity. 


Value. 




£ 




£ 


8,814 


92 


2,336.497 


37,482 


18,036 


227 


150.921 


1,837 


179,797 


8,867 


753,382 


50,339 


16,773 


6,707 


3,886 


1,979 


678 


481 


2,007 


1,399 


51,544 


108 


171,502 


1,102 


16 


6 


46,095 


9,323 



GOVERNMENT. 

The Bahama Islands are governed as a Crown colony of Great Britain. 
The Governor, who is appointed by the Crown, serves six years, unless his 
term is shortened by removal or by death. To assist the Governor in the admin- 
istration of the Islands, a legislature of twent3'-nine members elected by 
the people of the Bahama Islands constitutes an Assembly. The representa- 
tion in the Assembly is as follows : 



596 GENERAL CONSIDEKATIONS 

TABLE SHOWING REPRESENTATION OF THE VARIOUS DISTRICTS IN THE 

ASSEMBLY. 

Districts. Members. 

New Providence, City District 2 

New Providence, Eastern District 2 

New Providence, Soutliern District 2 

New Providence, Western District 2 

Harbor Island 3 

Eleuthera 3 

San Salvador 2 

Exuma '. 2 

Long Island 2 

Crooked Island 1 

Watlings Island and Rum Cay 1 

Inagua 1 

Abaco 3 

Biminis and Grand Bahama 1 

Andros Island 2 

Total 29 

In regard to the actual representation of these eleven districts, a state- 
ment of Governor Carter is most significant : " I do not hesitate to say that 
at the present time there is not suitable material in the Bahamas to make 
29 members of a properly qualified Assembly representing the various islands 
comprised in this Colony. In the last Assembly not a single Out-island 
constituency was able to send its own representative, and it followed that the 
whole of the members were recruited from the island of New Providence, 
which in itself sends eight members to the Assembly." ' 

The public debt of the Bahama Islands amounts to £104,926 Os. 2d. In 
this connection it will be interesting to examine the following table, which 
gives the total revenue and expenditures of the Bahama government for five 
years : 

TABLE SHOWING REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES OF THE GOVERNMENT FOR THE 

YEARS 1S9S-1903. 

Year. Revenue. E.vpenditure. 

£ £ 

1898 74,382 64,148 

1899 76,697 68,748 

1900 78,651 82,837 

1901-2 77,780 81,135 

1902-3 72,442 74,614 

In the next table will Ije seen a statement of the assets and liabilities of 
the Colony on March 31, 1903: 

* hoc. cit., p. 13. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



597 



TABLE SHOWING ASSETS AND LIABILITIES OF THE BAHAMA GOA'EUNMENT 

ON MAHCH 31, 190:3. 



Assets. 




Liabilities. 






£ s. d. 
2,167 5 3 

328 18 1 
1,995 9 7 

5,720 8 5 

8,177 6 10 
1,026 2 

17,631 15 7 

74 1 7 

180 15 9 

8,130 11 1 

13 9 




£ 8. d. 
1,420 (> 


Balance in hands of Out-island 
Collectors and in transit 


Savings Bank (due to 
depositors) includ- 
ing: interest to SOth 
June. 1902 £16,607 12 1 

Advance from 
Treasury 800 


Balance in bands of Crown Agents. 
Investments on account of Surplus 




Investments on account of Hotel 
Fund 

Cash on deposit of Hotel Fund 

Savings Bank, invested to SOth 
June, 1902 






17,407 12 1 


Crown Ag-ents, invested to SOth 




Income Ta.\ invested to SOth June. 
1902 




Savings Bank balance, cash in- 
vested to SOth June, 1902 

Cable Kepair Fund— Invested 

Cable Repair Fund— Cash 




Total 


45,433 16 1 


18,827 IS 1 







The government institutions, such as hospitals and asylums, have been 
discussed at length in the chajDter on " Sanitary Conditions." They will not 
be considered here further than to give the following two tables : 

TABLE SHOWING PATIENTS RECEIVED AND TREATED IN THE GOVERNMENT 
HOSPITAL BETWEEN APRIL 1 AND DECEMBER 31, 1902. 

Males. Females. 

Number in hospital, 1st April 62 43 

Number admitted 202 111 

Daily average in hospital 49 47 

Patients discharged cured 106 53 

Patients discharged relieved 49 22 

Patients discharged not improved 9 5 

Number who died in the nine months 32 21 

TABLE SHOWING PATIENTS IN THE GOVERNMENT INSANE ASYLUM ON 

DECEMBER 81, 1902. 

Males. Females. 

Maniacal and dangerous 11 7 

Quiet chronic 5 5 

Melancholy 1 — 

Idiotic 4 2 

CONDITION OF PEOPLE. 
From an examination of the charts which have been given in the pre- 
ceding discussion it will be correctly inferred that the people of the Bahama 
Islands as a rule are not wealthy. The scale of living is not high and an 
individual in the possession of what would be considered a moderate income 
in the United States would in the Bahamas be regarded as rich. In 



598 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

such towns as Nassau, Governors Harbor and Georgetown the inhabitants 
represent probably the most influential classes in the Islands. The people 
are, as a whole, well housed and well clothed. In many of the Out-islands 
the inhabitants live in cabins built of limestone and covered with plaster. 
This is the condition of many of the people who are emploj'ed in the sponging 
industry (Plate XCII, Pig. 1). In the larger towns limestone blocks are 
cut from quarries by means of common log-saws and wood axes. These are 
trimmed to the desired shape and constitute the only building stone in the 
archipelago. Plate LXXXIX shows one of these limestone quarries in opera- 
tion, and a building in process of erection. Although the majority of the 
colored people and a great many of the white inhabitants are able to provide 
themselves with few of the ordinary comforts of life, yet there is no occasion 
for an able-bodied man or woman to be without the necessities. In the Out- 
islands, where medical attendance is wanting, there is frequently much misery 
on account of the neglect of ordinary sanitary precautions. Taken as a 
■whole, it may be said that the people are contented but not prosperous. 

Criminality. 

In regard to criminality, the following statistics for the year 1902 are 
of interest. During this period there were committed to jail 254 people, of 
whom 156 were men, 86 women, and 12 juveniles. 

The following table gives the criminal statistics for the years 1899, 1900 
and 1902: 

TABLE SHOWING CRIMINAL STATISTICS FOE YEARS lSfl9, 1900 AND 1902. 

1899. 1900. 1902. 

Apprehended by the police or summoned before the magistrates.... 2.308 2,636 2,827 

Number of summary convictions : — 

For offenses against the person ■ 246 237 290 

For praedial larceny 37 31 35 

For offenses against property other than praedial larceny 80 76 101 

For other offenses 1,460 1,600 1,7.56 

The number of convictions in the Superior Courts : — 

For offenses against the person 10 7 10 

For praedial larceny . . . . 1 

For offenses against property other than praedial larceny 15 12 16 

For other offenses 1 2 6 

The number of persons acquitted : — 

In the Inferior Courts 464 438 385 

In the Superior Courts 21 8 20 

Eeligious Conditions. 
Nassau is the seat of a bishopric, and the Bahamas are well supplied with 
churches of Episcopal, Presbyterian, Wesleyan and Baptist denominations. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF BALTIMORE 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, PLATE XCIII 




■^s*5^r: 



FlO. 1. — VIEW or SPONGE EXCHANGE AT NASSAU 




Fig. 2. — view of a sponge yard at Nassau 



VIEWS ILLUSTRATING GENERAL CONDITIONS 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



599 



Education. 

It has been shown in the chapter on " The History of the Bahamas " 
that the educational requirements in these Islands has been constantly in- 
creased. Under the present law all parents are required to send their chil- 
dren to school between the ages of six and thirteen. Education is non- 
sectarian, and no catechisms or sectarian exercises are permitted in any of 
the public schools. 

There are two classes of public schools in the Bahamas, those which are sup- 
ported by the government, known as " Board Schools," and those which are 
assisted by the government, known as " Assisted Schools." No fees for edu- 
cation are charged at any of the public schools. The following table shows 
the number of schools of both classes with their attendance for the years 
1899-1902: 

TABLE SHOWING SCHOOLS AND ATTENDANCE FROM 1899 TO 1902. 



Number of schools wholly maintained out of the 

annual grant 

Number of schools which received grants in aid 

Number of pupils who attended Board Schools during 

some portion of the year 

Number of pupils who attended the Assisted Schools 

during some portion of the year 

Number of names on the rolls ( Board Schools) 

Number of names on the rolls (Assisted Schools) 

Average attendance (Board Schools) 

Average attendance (Assisted Schools) 

Total number of schools 

Number of scholars present during some portion of 

the year 

Average number of names on the rolls 

Average attendance 



1899. 


1900. 


1901. 


44 


43 


44 


11 


11 


12 


7,074 


6,935 


6,940 


1,061 


1,020 


1,122 


5,772 


5,776 


5,848 


952 


919 


992 


4,001.4 


3,917 


3,984 


575 


569 


614 


55 


54 


56 


8,090 


7,955 


8,102 


6,724 


6,695 


6,840 


4,577.4 


4,486 


4,598 



1902. 



45 
15 

7,432 

1,434 
6,243 
1,296 
4,416 
887 
60 

8,866 
7,534 
5,223 



The total cost of the Department of Education for the year ending 1902 
is £5001 12s. 2d. 

In addition to public schools there are facilities for higher and sectarian 
education at Nassau. Queen's College, a Methodist institution, takes pupils 
of both sexes. St. Andrews Hall is under Presbj'terian management. The 
Eoman Catholic Church is also represented by an academy for higher edu- 
cation and by two schools for elementary education. In regard to the edu- 
cation of the Bahamas as a whole, there is no one who can speak with better 
authority than Governor Carter. It will be interesting in conclusion, therefore, 
to read what he has to say on this subject : 



600 GENEEAL CONSIDERATIONS 

" I fear that in this Colony the type of education provided under the 
auspices of the government is not that which is best suited to the needs of 
the masses, and if any real progress is to be effected, a radical alteration must 
be made in the present system. It may be said that none of the boys reached 
by the Education Act proceed with their studies after leaving school. As a 
rule the main object of the parents is to get them away from school, so that 
their services may be utilized on board a sponger or in some form of manual 
labor. In the very unlikely event of a boy showing an aptitude for book 
learning, and making the best use of his training, his great ambition is to 
become a clerk in a store, or possibly to enter the government service. But 
the demand for this form of labor is extremely limited, and very poorly 
remunerated, whereas there is need for a good class of artisans. At present 
there is not one master carpenter, blacksmith or mason in the Colony, and no 
means of training these and possible exponents of other industrial arts. There 
are men who build houses and small craft, and fashion wood and iron into 
various shapes; but it is the 'rule of thumb' which reigns, and there is little 
of the precision which comes of the trained hand and eye in conjunction witli 
a trained mind. What is wanted here is a system based on that so ably con- 
ducted by Mr. Booker Washington at Tuskegee, Alabama, United States of 
America, and until that or some similar scheme based upon industrial training 
as the main factor in the educational method is adopted, I fear that no im- 
provement in the condition of the large native population in this Colony will 
be manifested. It is easy, however, to make destructive criticism, but although 
an alternative system may be advocated, it is almost impossible in a Colony 
like this, where the revenue is never sufficient for the calls upon it, to make 
the radical change which would be necessary in order to place this question 
upon a proper foundation, and unfortunately so far little disposition has 
been shown by the legislature to assist the government in its efforts to en- 
courage practical agriculture, which, after all, is the industry upon which 
the mass of the people must rely, and about which at present they know next 
to nothing." ° 

' Loc. cit., p. 45. 



GENERAL INDEX 



GENERAL INDEX 



Abaco, 16, IS, 42, 102, 103, 120, 162, 191, 19S, 196, 
198, 199, 200, 206, 207, 209, 241, 245. 
249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256. 
257, 25S, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264. 
265, 266, 296, 297, 298, 301, 303, 319. 
320, 321, 322, 333, 33S, 347, 349, 359, 
360, 361, 363, 304, S65, 367, 389, 395, 
405, 407, 409, 410, 411. 
Great, 41, 123, 338. 
Little, 40, 3S0. 
Abena jamaicensis, 234, 263. 
Abrus precatorius, 255. 
Abutilon crispum, 259. 
Acacia cboriophylla, 197, 218, 220, 226, 227. 22S, 

229, 231, 232, 238, 242, 254. 
Acanthacese, 204. 
Accipiter velox, 362. 
Acetabulum crenulatum, 244. 
Achirus inscriptus, 321. 
Acliras sapota, 212. 
Ackley, Lieut, 100, 102, 104. 
Acklins Island. 40, ISS, 197, 200, 203, 224, S4S, 

S62, 364, 367, 374. 
Acmtea punctulata, 27, 44. 
Acrosticbum aureum, 249. 
Actitis maeularia, 361. 
Actodromas fuseicollis, 361. 
maculata, 361. 
minutilla, 361. 
Adelia segregata, 199, 261. 
Adiantum capillus-veneris, 190, 248. 

melanolucum, 232, 248. 
Aedes smithii, 282. 
iEgialitis meloda, 362. 
niTosa, 362. 
semipalmata, 361. 
iEoIian deposits, 14, 23. 
Agaricia, 24, 43. 

Agassiz, Alex., 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 24. 
Agave rigida, 191, 229, 230, 234, 269. 351. 
Agaves, 232. 

Agelaius pboeniceus bryanti, 351. 367. 
Ageratum muticum, 265. 
Agricultural pursuits, 593. 
Ainbum or ring-toe, 406. 
Aizoacese, 253. 
Ajaia ajaja, 359. 
Akee, 211. 
Akule. 303. 

Albatross, Steamer, 269, 297, 298, 299, 301, 302, 
303, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 314. 
315, 316, 317, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323. 
324, 383. 



Albizzia lebbek, 214. 

Albula vulpes, 297. 

Albulida;, 297. 

Albury, " Old " .lobn, 410, 411. 

Albury, W., 411. 

Alcadia minima, 42. 

Alcobolism, 416. 

Alectis ciliaris, 304. 

Aletris bracteata, 191, 195. 

Alg«, 194, 243, 266. 

AlismaeeK, 249. 

Allen. G. M., 298. 

Allen, H., 380. 

Allen, J. A., 349, 350, 373, 375, 381. 

Almond, 212. 

Almond tree, 368. 

Alsopbis angulifer, 337. 

vudii. 337, SoS. 

Alternantbera maritima, 195, 109, 253. 
repens, 253. 

Alutera scripta, 294, 323. 

Alverez, L., 400. 

Amanitopsis farinosa, 246. 

Amansia multlflda, 345. 

Amarantacete. 253. 

Amarautbus tristis, 190, 253. 

Amaryllidaceoe, 191. 251. 

Amazona leucocepbala bahamensis, 352, 356, 

363. 
Amber-flsb, 294, 303. 
Ambergris, 39. 

Ambrosia hispida, 215, 217, 227, 230, 235, 236, 
241, 266, 269. 
artemisiffifolia, 266. 
Ameiva auberi, 332. 
maynardii, 338, 341. 
tboracica, 338. 
Amentales. 191. 
America, Tropical, 199, 207. 
American Mediterranean, 7. 
Ammauia latifolia, 254. 
Ammocallis rosea, 262. 

Ammodramus savaunarum passerinus, 368. 
Ampelis cedrorum, 365. 

Amyris elemifera. 220, 227, 237, 240, 256, 267. 
AnacardiaceDe, 25S. 
Anadyomene stellata, 244. 
Ananas sativus, 210. 
Anas boscbas, 360. 
Anastrapbia northropiana, 221, 266. 
Andrews, Dr., 296. 
Andropogon, 219. 
tener, 199, 249. 
virginicus, 199, 249. 



604 



GENERAL INDEX 



Andros, 5, 11, 16, IS, 40, 41, 42, 152, 102, 171, 
189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 
198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 
207, 208, 209, 223, 242, 243, 244, 246, 
247, 24S, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 256, 
268, 259, 260, 262, 264, 266, 276, 283, 
234, 285, 287, 302, 305, 312, 324, 328, 
331, 333, 334, 388, 347, 34S, 349, 358, 
359, 360, 361, 363, 364, 365, 368, 373, 
881, 38S, 405, 589. 
Anegada Cbannel, 350. 
Anemia, 416. 
Angel-fish, 294. 
Black, 312. 
French, 359. 
Spanish, 312. 
Yellow, 313. 
Angelichthys eillaris, 313. 
Anglers, 324. 
Angler, black, 324. 
Anguilla, 361, 865, 366, 367. 
Anguis lumbricalis, 835. 
Angnria keitbii, 19S, 265. 
Ani, 303. 

Anisotremiis virginicus, 308. 
Annularia scabrosa, 42. 
Ancles, 334. 
Anolis. 338. 

brunnens, 839. 
carolinensis, 332, 340. 
cinnamomeus, 334. 
distichus, 338. 
leucophipus, 388, 341. 
moorei, 334, 333, 341. 
ollgaspis, 338. 

ordinatus, 332, 333, 334, 342, 343. 
porcatus, 338, 339, 340. 
brunnens, 382, 338. 
sagrei, 334. 
Anomalocardia ciineimeris, 27, 44. 

leptalea, 45. 
Anona muricata, 210. 

palustris, 218, 224, 232, 253, 209. 
aquamosa, 210. 
Anonaceoe, 253. 
Anopheles. 273, 394. 
nigerrimus. 397. 
Anous stolidus, 361. 
Anseriformes, 360. 
Antennariidse, 324, 
Antennarius nuttingi, 324. 

principis, 324. 
Anthacanthus acicularis, 228, 229, 242, 204. 
Anthony, A. C, 189. 
Antigon leptopus, 214. 
Antigua, 203, 206, 335. 
Antilles, 41, 42, 338. 
Antirrbcea lucida, 264. 
myrtitolia, 225, 264. 
Antrostomus carolinensis, 265. 
Apocynaceoe, 262. 
Apogon pigmentarius, 305. 
Apogouicbthys stellatu, 305. 
Apoplexy, 416. 
Apparatus for atmospheric exploration, 129. 



Apparatus for collecting fishes, 295. 
Apprentices, legal status of, 495. 

Maintenance of, 483. 

Marital and Family rights of, 497. 

Other rights of, 500. 

Personal rights of, 495. 

Prohibitions on, 502. 

Rights and privileges of, 495. 
Apprenticeship system, operations of, 509. 

Period of, 462. 

Termination of, 525. 
Apsilus dentatus, 310. 
Aqueous deposits, 15, 23. 
Araliacete, 19S. 
Aramns giganteus, 360. 
Area, 28. 

(Barbatia) reticulata, 46. 

occidentalis, 26, 44, 46. 

reticulata, 29. 

(Scapharca) transversa, 24. 

umbonata, 28. 44. 
Archdeacon Trew. 567. 
Arcyria cinerea, 248. 

a?rstedtii, 243. 

punicea, 243. 
Ardea herodias, 359. 
Ardetta exilis, 359. 
Area and population, 589. 
Arenaria morinella, 362. 
Argythamnia candicans, 257. 
Aristolochiacefe, 193. 
Arnillo, 310. 
Arning, 400. 
Arthonia cinnabarina, 247. 

spectabilis, 247. 
Arthrostylidium capillifolium, 250. 
Arthurs Town, 41, 233, 244, 247, 249, 251, 252, 
253, 254, 256, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 
278. 
Artocarpus incisa, 210. 
Asclepias paupercula, 196. 
Asclepiadaceoe, 262. 
Asclepias curassavica, 262. 
Ascyrum hyporicoides, 220, 259. 
Asplenium dentatum, 190, 248. 
Assets and liabilities, 597. 
Assiminea auberiana, 45. 

concolor, 42. 
Assisted schools, 599. 
Association, Cocoa-plum, 236. 

Distichlis-Ambrosia, 225, 235. 

Erithalis-Reynosia, 218. 

Inodes-Lantana, 236. 

Ipomea pes-caprse, 217. 

Pitbecolobium-Salmea, 217. 

Silver-Palm, 218. 

Tournefortia-Suriana, 235. 

Uuiola-Tournefortia, 217. 
Aster tennuifolius, 216, 222, 242. 
Astralium imbricatum, 26, 44. 
Asymmetron lucayanum, 296. 
Atherina arfea, 301. 

laticeps. 300. 

stipes, 800, 303. 
Atberinidoe, 300. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



605 



Athol Island, 5S9. 
AtUinsou, G. F., 1S6, 245. 
Atlantic Ocean, 248, 2-(4. 
Ati'iplex ci'istata, 253. 
Auchenopterus afEnis, 320. 
AulostomidtE, 321. 
Aulostomus maculatus, 321. 
Aurainyillia longicaulis, 243. 

nigricans, 244. 
Auricularia nigi-a, 245. 
Australia, 246. 
Aricennia, 224, 234, 235. 

nitida. 216, 237, 203, 270. 
Aviciila atlantica, 45. 
Avocado pear, 210. 
Aythya americana, 300. 

B 

Baccharis angustifolia, 190, 190, 223, 265. 

dioica, 227, 22S, 234, 235, 238, 265. 
Bahama Blacl; Loam, 157, 103, 165, 179. 

Meclianical analyses of, 180. 

Principal constituents of, 161. 

Principal plant food of, 160. 
Bahama Islands, Character of surface of, 12. 

Classification of, 12. 

Distribution of, 11. 

Eleration of, 19. 

Geological features of, 14. 

Physiographic features of, 7. 

Position and extent of, 3. 

Public debt of, 596. 

Structure and age of, 17. 

Submarine division of, 7. 

Sul)sidence of. 19. 

Topographic history of, IS. 
Bahama Red Loam. 163. 

Mechanical analyses of, 165. 

Principal plant food of, 100. 
Bahama Marl, 167. 

Mechanical analyses of, 108. 

Principal constituents of. 169. 

Principal plant food of, 168. 
Bahama Stony Loam, 161. 

ilechanical analyses of, 162. 

Principal constituents of, 163. 
Bahama White Marl, 171. 

Agricultural value of, 171. 

Gravimetric analyses of, 172. 

Chemical analyses of, 171. 
Bahama Platform, Surface of, 9. 

Contour and slope of, 8. 

Relation with surrounding regions of, 7. 
Bahia, 313, 310, 321. 
Balanus, 27, 28, 43. 
Baldpate, 360. 

Baldwin, A. H., 284, 317, 325. 
Balfour, Lieut.-Gov., 483. 
Balistes. 293. 

carol inensis, 322. 

vetula, 322. 
Balistida;, 322. 
Ballagh, Dr. J. C, 420. 
Balloon-vine, 258. 



Bamboo, 251. ^ 

Bamboo tree, 209. 

Banana, 210. 

Banaua-iish, 290. 

Banana-holes, 12, 13, 153, 153. 

Bananaquit, Bahama, 307. 

Banara reticulata, 260. 

Bangs, Outrani, 348. 

Bank of Nassau. 590. 

Banking Facilities and Currency. 590. 

Barbados, 42, 306. 

Barbatia, 27. 

Candida, 26, 44. 

reticulata, 20, 44. 
Barbour, T., 298, 330, 330. 
Barbula agraria, 248. 
Barnett, E., 102, 104. 
Barracuda, 294, 300. 
Bartramia longicanda, 361. 
Bat-fi.sh, 325. 
Batbystoma aurolineatum, 307. 

rimator, 307. 
Batidea?, 193, 253. 
Eatis maritima, 237, 253. 
Batrachians, 329, 330. 
Bats. 379. 
Bayhop, 207, 262. 
Bead-vine, 255. 
Beau, B. A., 293. 
Beasley, E. B., 388, 395. 
Becuna, 380. 
Bed-grass, 249. 

Beef-wood, 218, 220, 237, 201, 340. 
Bemiui, 290, 348, 359, 361, 362, 363, 364, 305, 306, 
367, 368. 

South, 190, 191, 199. 
Bench mark, 19. 

Description of, 51, 52. 

Tablet on, 52. 
Benedict, J. E., 382, 383. 

Bermuda, 39, 41, 42, 198, 203, 246, 298, 299, 300, 
305, 306, 308, 310, 312, 313, 314. 316, 
317, 319, 321, 322, 323, 324, 351. 
Bermuda grass, 155, 230. 
Bernardia Ijernardia, 257. 

carpinifolia, 257. 
Berry Islands, 195, 196, 200, 348, 359, 300, 302, 

363, 304, 365, 360, 307. 
Bidens leucantha, 234, 239, 200. 
Bifidaria servilis, 41. 
Bigelow, 122. 
Big-eye, 311. 
Bignoniacea?, 264. 
Big Wood Key, 11. 
Bird Rock, 362, 365, 300. 
Birds of Prey, Diurnal, 362. 

Nocturnal, 363. 
Bishopric of Bahamas, 573. 
Bittern, American, 3.59. 

Least, 359. 
Bitter-sweet, 202, 203. 

Wild, 220, 227. 
Bitter-wood, 200. 
Bittium varium, 28, 44. 



G06 



GENERAL INDEX 



Bisacere, 259. 

Blacicus bahamensis, 353, 357, 364. 

caribteus, 353. 
Black torch, 217, 21S, 229, 236, 237, 264, 265. 
Blake, Sir. H. A., 3S2, SS3. 
Blanquillos, 318. 
Blauneria pellucida, 42. 
Blecbnum serrulatum, 249. 
Bleunies, 319. 
Bleuniida?, 319. 
Blenny, Dismal, 319. 

Hemphill's, 320. 

Nape-finned, 320. 

Ocellated, 319. 

Variegated, 319. 
Bletea verecunda, 220, 252. 
Blighia sapida, 217. 
Blockade-running, 673. 
Blodgettia confervoides, 194, 247. 
Blolly, 217, 218, 222, 226, 228, 235, 240, 253. 
Blossom Channel, 11. 
Bluebeard's Tower, 265 266. 
Blue holes, 10. 
Blue Hole Point, 11. 
BluCE Settlement, 169. 
Blume, 214. 
Boa melanura, 336. 

pardalis, 336. 
Bobolink, 367. 
Bob-white, Bahama, 363. 
Bodianus fulvus, 306. 

ruber, 306. 
Bcerhaavia paniculata, 253. 

scandens, 253. 
Boils, 408. 

Bonamia cubana, 192, 199, 257. 
Bone-fish, 297. 
Bonhote, J. L., 349, 380. 
Bouito, 294, 302. 
Booby, Blue-faced, 359. 
Booby Rock, 349, 361. 
Boraginaceae, 193, 262. 
Borrichia, 229, 265. 

arborescens, 270. 

argentea, 215, 217, 265. 

glabra, 215, 217, 229, 265. 
Botanical explorations, 186. 
Botanical formations, 214. 
Bostrychia moutagnei, 245. 
Botaurus lentiginosus, 359. 
Eougainvillea, 268. 

spectabilis, 214. 
Boiirreria havanensis, 207, 218, 219, 221, 228, 
231, 234, 237, 2.58, 239, 241, 242, 262, 
267, 270. 

thymifolia, 197, 263. 
Brace, L. J., 188, 191, 193, 194, 200, 209, 210. 
Brachiolejeunea corticalis, 266. 
Brachygenys chrysargyreus, 308. 
Brackish Swamp, 169. 

Gravimetric analyses of, 171. 
Mechanical analyses of, 170. 
Bramidae, 304. 
Branchiostomatidfe, 296. 
Brass-wood, 2.54. 



Brazil, 201, 246, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 308, 
309, 310, 811, 313, 316, 317, 320, 321, 
322, 323, 324. 

Braziletto, 255, 299. 

Breadfruit, 210. 

Brier-tree, 254. 

British Admiralty, 4. 

British Guiana, 338. 

British Museum, 333. 

Britton, J. C, 147. 

Britton, N. L., 186, 189, 190, 194. 

Britton, Mrs. N. L., 186, 190, 248. 

Bromeliaceffi, 191, 251. 

Broom-bush, 228, 265. 

Brougham, Lord, 428. 

Broughtouia lilacena, 252. 

Bryant, H., 348. 

Bryophyllum pinnatum, 207, 231, 254. 

Bryopsis plumosa, 243. 

Buccaneering, 423. 

Buchnera elongata, 264. 

Buellia disciformis, 247. 

Buenavista Cay, 362. 

Bulimulus, 40. 

(Drymffius) bahamensis, 40. 

Bulla striata, 25, 27, 28, 29, 44. 

Bulhi?, 400. 

Bullon, 316. 

Bumelia loranthifolia, 197, 199, 209, 218, 226, 

227, 234, 241, 242, 261. 
microphylla, 218, 222, 226, 228, 229, 231, 

234, 237, 238, 240, 261. 
Bunchosia glandulosa, 209, 231, 240, 256. 
Bunting, Indigo, 367. 

Painted, 367. 
Bureau of Fisheries, 293. 
Bureau of Soils, 16, 154. 
Burial-grounds, Public, 571. 
Burns, P. H., Ill, 130. 
Burr-flsb, 324. 
Bursera simaruba, 207, 220, 221, 224, 226, 227, 

228, 231, 238, 240, 242, 257, 267. 
Bustic, 205. 

Buteo borealis, 351, 362. 
Butter-bough, 220. 
Buttercup. 207. 
Butter-flsh. 306. 
Butterfly-fish. 312. 
Butorides virescens, 351. 

bahamensis, 356, 359. 
Buttonwood, 170. 
Buxus bahamensis, 197, 237, 257. 
Byrsonima lucida, 200, 209, 219, 221, 227, 237, 
242, 256. 

c 

Cable Office, 119. 
Cactacea;, 193, 200. 
Cactus, Dildo, 234. 
Ciereha bahamensis, .367. 
Cfesalpiuia, 255. 

bahamensis, 255. 

lucida, 197, 255. 

ovalifolia, 197. 

pulcherrima, 212. 

vesicaria, 201, 240, 267. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



607 



Caicos Banks, 33. 

Islands, 9, 330. 359, 360. 
Ca.1anus cajan, 230, 23S, 239, 255. 
Cakile tequalis, 192, 230. 
Calamus bajonado, 311. 

calamus, 310. 

leucosteus, 310. 

penna, 310. 
California, 354. 
Calkins, W. W., ISO. 
Callicbelidon cyaneoviridis, 35-1, 368. 

hiematomma, 237. 
Calonyction bona-nox, 234. 
Calothrix teruginea, 243. 
Cal.Tiuperes disciforme, 248. 
Cameron, Removal of Gov., 436. 
Camplyoneuron phyllitidis, 248. 
Canary Islands, 299, 307, 311. 
Canavalia obtusifolia, 234, 255. 
Candlewood, 235. 
Cauella winteriana, 206, 259. 
CanellaceiB, 259. 
Cantherines pullus, 322. 
Canthidermis maculatus, 322. 
Cape Cod, 297, 299, 301, 302, 303, 304, 307, 324. 
Cape jessamine, 214. 

Cape Hatteras, 302, 303, 304, 305, 307, 322, 324. 
Capparis jamaicensis, 199. 
Capromys ingrabami, 373. 
Capsicum baccatum, 263. 
Captives from slave ships, 515. 
Carangida;, 302. 
Caranx bartholomei, 302. 

latus, 302. 
Carbonero, 302. 
Carbuncles, 408. 
Carcbarhiuus obscurus, 296. 
Cardiospermum balicacabum, 231, 258. 
Cardita (Glans) dominguensis, 28, 44. 
Caribbean Islands, 338. 
Caribbean Sea, 303.' 
Carica papaya, 211. 
Carmichael, D. A., 402. 
Carnegie Institution, 274. 
Carolinas, 297, 302, 305. 
Carter, Sir G. T., 52, 588, 596, 599. 
Cascarilla, 206, 229. 
Casearia bahamensis, 197. 
Cassada, Wild, 205, 221, 261. 
Cassia aspera, 195, 199, 231, 255. 

babamensis, 234, 255. 

caribcea, 197. 

choriopbylla, 241. 

lineata, 199, 225. 

occidentalis, 255. 
Cassiaces, 192. 
Cassicefe, 255. 
Cassytha, 222, 238. 

flliformis, .219, 221, 225, 241. 
Castalia ampla, 192, 199, 233, 254. 
Casuariua, 216, 230. 

equisetifolia, 316, 252, 268. 
Cat Cay, HI, 190. 

Island, 12, 40, 41, 147, 155, 163, 168, 174, 
175, 189, 191, 192, 195, 196, 197, 198, 



109, 200, 201, 202, 200, 207, 209, 233, 
244, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 
255, 256, 258, 260, 201, 262, 263, 264, 
278, 285, 299, 301, 334, 338, 349, 359, 
362, 365, 477. 
Catesbaea fasciculata, 225, 265. 
paniculata, 198. 
spinosa, 228, 239. 
Catesby, Mark, 186, 205, 208, 323, 347, 348. 
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus, 361. 
Caulerpa compressa, 243. 

cupressoides ericifolia, 243. 
paspaloides, 243. 
racemosa uvifera, 243. 
Caulerpas, 224. 
Caves, Tbe, IS. 

Cay Lobos, 359, 360, 362, 364, 365. 
Cay Sal, 361, 363, 364, 365, 368. 
Cay Verde, 359. 
Cedar, 203. 
Bay, 256. 
Spanish, 213. 
Ceiba pentandra, 213, 588. 
Celastracese, 192, 258. 
Cenchrus tribuloides, 226, 230, 234, 236, 238, 

241, 230. 
Centella repanda, 218, 233, 261. 
Central America, 195, 198, 202, 205, 206, 246. 
Centroceras elavulatum, 245. 
Centurus nyeanus, 381. 
superciliaris, 352. 

babamensis, 352, 363. 
blakei, 352, 363: 
nyeanus, 352, 363. 
Cepbalaeantbidte, 317. 
Cephalaeautbus volitans, 317. 
Cepolis agassizii, 27. 

babamensis var. holostoma, 39. 
duclosiana var. Columbiana, 47. 
(Eurycampta) bryanti, 39. 
(Hemitrochus) agassizii, 39. 
constantior, 39. 
exumana, 39, 47. 
gallopavonis, 39. 
maynardi, 39. 
milleri, 39. 
multifasciata, 39. 
xanthophaes, 39. 
inaguana var. subandrosi, 39. 
multifasciata var. poiytieniata, 39. 
(Plagioptycha) abacoensis, 39. 
agassizii, 46. 
androsi, 39. 
babamensis, 39. 
gregoriana, 39, 47. 
inaguana, 39, 47. 
indistincta var. disculus, 39. 
pbarcida, 39, 46. 
sargenti, 39. 
smirna, 39. 
varians, 27, 28. 
Ceramium byssoideum, 245. 
Cercbneis sparveria, 362. 
Cereus swartzii, 200. 



608 



GENERAL INDEX 



CerioD agassizii, 27. 
blandi. 2S. 

(Diacerion) bryanti, 41. 
dalli, 41. 
duplodon, 41. 
lieterodon, 41. 
glans, 26. 

cinereum, 41. 
coryi, 41. 
gi-iseum, 41. 
obesum, 40. 
Tarium, 41. 
oweni incisum, 41. 
vermiculum, 41. 
ritcbei grayi, 26. 
(Stropbiops) abacoense, 40. 
agassizii, 40, 46. 
agrestinum, 41. 
album, 40. 
bendalli, 41. 
■blandi, 41. 
browni, 40. 
brunneum, 40. 
calcareum, 40. 
columna, 40. 
eburneum, 40. 
eximium, 41. 
fraternum, 41. 
felis, 40. 
fordii, 41. 
glans, 40. 
giibernatorium, 40. 
inflatum, 40. 
lentiginosum, 40. 
marmoratum, 41. 
marten.si, 41. 
maynardi, 40, 41. 
mllleri, 40. 
multistriatum, 41. 
nortbi'opi, 40. 
nudum, 40. 
oweni, 41. 
pillsburyi, 40. 
plegmatum, 40. 
regiua, 40. 
regium, 40. 
ritcbiei, 40. 

vannostrandi, 40. 
rbyssum, 40, 46. 
sarcostomum, 40. 
sculptum, 40. 
stevensoni, 40. 
vai'iabile, 40. 
pupilla, 40. 
saurodon, 40. 
weinlandi, 40. 
Ceritbidea tenuis, 45, 46. 
Cei'itbium algicola, 29. 
degeneratum, 46. 
(Pyrazus) rawsoni, 45. 
semiferrugineum, 29, 44. 
Ceryle alcyon, 363. 
Ceylon, 246. 
Cbtetocbla imberbia, 249. 



Cbietodon capistratus, 312. 

ocellatus, 312. 
CbKtodontidas, 312. 
Cbajtodonts, 293. 
Cbama gymnopus, 244. 
maceropbylla, 44. 
sarda, 29, 44. 
variegata, 29. 
Chamoedoi-is peniculum, 244. 
Cbapman, F. il., 349, 350. 
Chara foliolosa, 244. 

zeylanica, 244. 
Cbaraceae, 244. 
Cbaradrius dominicus, 361. 
Charles II, 422. 

Charleston, S. C, 307, 310, 316, 317. 
Cheilodipteridse, 305. 
Cheilolejeunea i)hyllobola, 248. 
Chen hyperborea niyalis, 360. 
ChenopodeEe, 263. 

Chenopodium spathulatum, 199, 253. 
Cherna de lo Alto, 305. 
Cherry, West Indian, 209. 
Chew stick, 25S. 
Chicharro, 303. 
Chili, 301. 

Chilomycterus spinosus, 324. 
Chilonatalus tumidifrons, SSI, 3S4. 
China tree, 212, 257. 
Chiococca parvifolia, 23S, 240, 264. 

pinetorum, 264. 

raeemosa. 264. 
Chiodecton spbserale, 247. 
Chione cancellata, 25, 28, 44. 
Chloricbtbys, 293. 

vitasciatus, 316. 

nitidus, 315. 
Chlqris barbata, 234, 239, 250. 

petrffia, 219, 230, 234, 236, 238, 250. 
Chlorostoma, 27. 
Chondria dasyphylla, 245. 

sedifolia, 245. 
Chondropoma bryanti, 42. 

revinctum. 42. 

watlingense, 42. 
Chopa blanca, 307. 
Chordeiles Tirginianus vieinus, 352, 356, 358, 

363. 
Choryditis, 395. 
Chriodorus, 295. 

atherinoides, 300. 
Chrysobalanus, 192. 

fellocarpus, 208, 227, 236, 254. 

icaco, 208, 227, 236, 254. 
Chrysophyllum, 261. 

cainito, 207. 

oliviforme, 207. 
Chub, 307. 

Bermuda, 307. 
Chuck-will's widow, 363. 
Church, Baptist, 598. 

Episcopal, 598. 

Presbyterian, 598. 

Wesleyan, 598. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



609 



Chyti-aculia pallens, 237, 260. 

Ciguatera. 302. 

Cinnamon, Wild, 206, 259. 

Cinnecord, 218. 220, 224, 226, 228, 229. 232. 241. 

Circus Iiudsonius, 362. 

Cissus. 192. 2.58, 259. 

acida, 258, 259. 

microcarpa, 259. 

sicyoides, 22S, 258, 259. 
Cltliarexylum quadraugulare, 199, 238, 263. 
Citrus aurantium, 211. 

decumana, 211. 

fruits, 259, 178. 

limosum, 211. 

racemosus. 211. 

spinosissima, 211. 
Cladium effiusum, 218, 222. 224, 232. 238, 239, 
251. 

jamaicense, 250. 
Clailronia, 304. 

Clangula clangula amerioana, 360. 
Clarence Harbor, 15. 40, 228, 239, 243, 246, 252, 
254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 262, 263, 
264, 265, 278, 297, 299, 300, 302, 306, 
307, 311, 312, 313. 315, 316, 317, 318, 
319, 321, 322, 323. 324, 380, 382, 394. 
Clarence Town, 100, 102, 103. 
Clark. H. L., 320. 
Clarke. Robert, 422. 
Clear, W. L., 102. 
Clethra tinifolia, 193. 
Clifton Hotel, 53, 588. 
Climate, 111, 112, 151. 
Clinus ocellatus, 319. 
Clitoria, 227. 

Clouds and sunshine, 117. 
Clupeidas, 297. 
Clutsam, S. H. O., 420. 
Coccocladus occidentalis, 224, 244. 

laxus, 244. 
Coccolobis, 192. 

diversifolia; 252, 267. 

krugii, 232, 237, 252. 

laurifolia, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 226, 227, 
228, 229, 231, 237, 240, 242, 252, 269. 

retusa, 252. 

UTifera, 208, 223, 226, 227, 236, 252, 267, 269. 
Coccothrinax jucunda, 191, 195, 201, 219, 222, 

225, 227, 238, 251. 
Coccyzus americanus, 351. 363. 

minor maynardi, 351, 358. 363. 
Cockburn, Gov., 535, 555. 
Cockburn Town, 101, 103. 299. 
Cock-eye pilot, 294. 
Cockerell, 210. 
Cock's-spur. 214. 
Cocos nucifera. 209, 269. 
Codakia orbicularis. 28, 44, 46. 
Codiseum, variegatum, 214. 
Codium tomentosum, 244. 
Coenog'onium disjunctum, 247. 
Coereba baliamensis, 355, 356. 

caboti, 355. 

sharpei, 355. 

tricolor, 355. 

39 



Coffee. Wild, 234, 258. 

Coffin, T. H., 273, 274, 27.5, 405. 

Coker, W. C, 185. 

Cole. H. P., 388. 

Colebrooke, Lieut.-Gov., 511. 

Collnus virginianus bahamensis, 3C0. 

Collins. F. S., 243. 

Colobostylus glabratus, 42. 

bjalmarsoni, 42. 

inagueusis, .12. 

semilabris, 42. 
Colon, 42. 

Colonial Hotel, 51, 52, 129, 588. 
Colonization of Bahamas, 422. 
Colubrina colubrina. 225, 234, 258, 267. 

reclinata. 258. 267. 
Columba leucocephalia, 357, 362. 
Columbella mercatoria, 28, 44. 
Columbigallina passerina bahamensis, 352, 
357, 362. 

pallescens, 352. 
Columbus, Christopher, 13, 147, 371, 375. 

Landfall of, 420. 
Colymbus dominicus, 351. 
Combretacea?, 260. 
Commeliuaceo?, 251. 
Commercial conditions, 573. 
Communication. Facilities of, 591. 
Composita?. 193, 210, 265. 
Compsothlypis americana, 365. 
Concepcion Island, 12, 200, 349, 358, 362. 
Conchyliastes varipes, 280. 
Confervales, 243. 
Conifera;, 190, 249. 
Conjugate, 243. 
Conocarpus. 222, 224, 234, 237. 

erecta, 226, 260. 

sericea, 222, 236, 260, 267. 
Couocarpus-JIangrove formation, 237. 
Convolvulaceae, 262. 
Cook, O. F., ISO 
Cooper, Wm., 187. 
Coot, American, 360. 
Cope, E. D., 332, 336. 
Coquillett, D. W.. 274. 
Coraciiformes, 363. 
Coral Sand, 155. 

Mechanical analyses of, 1.56. 
Principal constituents of, 1.56, 157. 
Corallina subulata, 245. 
Corchorus hirsutus, 218, 219, 225, 227, 231, 234. 

259, 270. 
Cordia, 262. 

bahamensis, 197, 207, 218, 219, 220, 239, 240, 
242. 

cylindrostachya, 199, 230, 262. 

globosa, 239, 262. 

sebestena, 262. 
Cordylecladia irregularis, 245. 
Corea, 299. 
Cormorant, Florida, 359. 

Mexican, 359. 
Corvus nasicus, 365. 
Cory, C. B., 348, 358, 375. 
Corythroichthys cayorum, 321. 



610 



GENERAL INDEX 



Cotton, 159, 23i, 259, 353. 

Cow-flsli, 323. 

Cow-pilot, 314. 

Cozumel, 316. 

Crab-wood, 203, 23S, 2W, 257. 

Bastard, 257. 
Crab's-eyes, 255. 
Cracca cinerea, 255. 
Crape myrtle, 214. 
Crassopeta,lum coriaceum, 197. 

pallens, 25S. 
Crassulace*, 254. 
Crevalle, 302. 
Criminality, 59S. 
Crispy-wood, 237. 
Crooked Island, 0, 12, 40, 41, 42, 102, 148, 149, 

189, 196, 203, 232, 23S, 364. 
Crop and soil problems, 174. 
Cross-bedding, 14, 17. 
Crotalaria verrucosa, 255. 
Croton, 214. 

discolor, 199, 257. 
eleuteria, 206, 221, 229, 257. 
bjalmarsonii, 197. 
linearis, 239, 257. 
lobatus, 257. 
longifolia, 239. 240. 
lucidus, 231, 237, 267. 
Crotopbaga ani, 358, 363. 
Crow, Cuban, 365. 
Cruciferoe, 192, 254. 
Crustaceans, 43. 
Cryptotomus retractus, 317. 

Cuba, 39, 40, 41, 42, 105, 198, 199, 205, 206, 207, 
208, 209, 213, 246, 311, 319, 320, 331, 
333, 334, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 
351, 352, 353, 355, 356, 357, 371, 376, 
381. 
Cuclsold, 323. 

Cuckoo, Andros lizard, 363. 
Maynard's, 363. 
Nassau lizard, 363. 
Yellow-billed, 363. 
Cuckoos, 363. 
Cuculiformes, 363. 
CucurbitacesE, 265. 

Culex eonflrmatus, 274, 276, 277, 278, 2S2. 
cyanesceus, 274, 278, 2S3. 
fasciata, 280. 
fatigans, 397. 
jamaicensis, 276, 277, 283. 
musica, 2S0. 

nanus, 274, 276, 277, 278, 284. 
pipiens, 273, 276, 277, 27S, 285. 
restuans, 277, 286. 
serratus, 276, 286. 
soUicitans, 274, 276, 277, 278, 287. 
ta;nioryncbus, 276, 277, 27S, 287. 
territans, 274, 276, 28S. 
trivitattus, 274, 278, 289. 
Culmer, J. J., 416. 
Cultivated fruits, 209. 
Cultivating and cropping, 172. 



Cultivation of citrus fruits, 150. 
pineapples, 173. 
sisal, 582. 
Cuniculus bahamensis, 375. 
Curlew, Hudsonian. 361. 
Currency and banking facilities, 590. 
Current Island, 362, 365. 
Current Settlement, 225, 243, 244, 245, 247, 250, 
251, 252, 253, 255, 256, 258, 259, 260, 
261, 262, 264, 265, 277, 280, 2S2, 283, 
285, 288, 296, 298. 
Current, Tbe, 300, 311, 315, 316, 317, 318, 320, 

321, 323. 
Curtiss, A. H., 189, 190, 194. 
Curtiss, G. L., 379. 
Cuscutacese, 193. 
Custard apple, 218, 232, 269. 
Custis, J. B. G., 295. 
Cyanospiza ciris, 367. 

cyanea, 367. 
Cycadace^, 193. 
Cycads, 190. 

Cyclospatbe northropi, 191, 197, 232, 251. 
Cyclura bffiolopba, 330, 334, 338. 

carinata, 334, 338. 

cyclura, 338. 

nubila, 334. 

rileyi, 330, 334, 338, 342, 343. 
Cynoctonum sessilifolia, 196. 
Cynodon dactylon, 230, 250. 
Cyprjea cinerea, 44. 
Cyperus brunneus, 217, 230, 251. 

fuligineus, 250. 

ottonis, 250. 

rotundus, 250. 

vablii, 199, 250. 
Cypriuodon variegatus, 299. 

riverendi, 299. 
Cyrena colorata, 45. 
Cystoseira myrica, 244. 



DacryomycetiueiE, 246. 
DactyloscopidaB, 318. 
Dactyloscopus tridigitatus, 318. 
Dalbergia ecastopbyllum, 236, 255. 
Dall, W. H., 14, 15, 17, 23. 
Dana, J. D., 4. 
Darwin, Cbarles, i. 
Dasya gibbesii. 243. 
Dasyatidoe, 296. 
Datura arborea, 199, 263. 
Debates in Parliament, 430. 
Debt of Babama Islands, 596. 
Decapterus macarellus, 303. 
Decromena colorata, 319, 320. 
Degeneracy, 409. 

Cause of, 412. 

Special cases of, 411. 
Delaware, 299. 
Demoiselles, 313. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



611 



Deudroica blackburnia!, 3GG. 

csenilea, 366. 

cjerulescens, 365. 

coronata, 365. 

discolor, 351. 366. 

dominica, 351, 306. 

kirtlandi, 366. 

maculosa, S66. 

palmarum, 366. 

pcnnsylvanica, 366. 

petechia flaviceps, 354, 357, 365. 
gundlachi, 354. 

pityopliila, 3.54. 

bahamensis, 354, 360, 367. 

striata, 360. 

tigrina, 365. 

vigorsli, 366. 

abacoensis, 354, 356, 366. 
acbrustera, 354, 356, 366. 

Tirens. 366. 
Dendrocygna arborea, 351, 360. 
Denclrohyas septentrionalis, 330. 
Dendroperaon purpurens, 252. 
Denial of the right to cultivate land, 454. 
Department of Education, 599. 
Derickson. S. H., 347, 371, 372, 3S1. 
Detracia bulloifles, 42. 
Deveaux. Andrew, 424. 
Diadophis iubescens, 337. 
Diapedium assnrgens, 264. 
Dichromanassa rufescens, 359. 
Dictydium caucellatum, 243. 
Dictyosphoeria favulosa, 244. 
Dictyota bartayresiana, 245. 

dentata, 245. 

fasciola, 245. 
Dictyotales, 245. 
Didymium squamulosum, 243. 
Digenea simples, 245. 
Diodon holacanthus, 324. 

hystris, 3'23. 
DiodontidEE, 323. 
Dioscoraceffi, 251. 
Dipbolis salicifolia, 205, 221, 261. 
Diplasiole.ieunea unidentata, 24S. 
Diplocystis wrightii, 239, 240. 
Diplodus argenteus, 310. 
Diseases of the cellular tissue, 416. 

circulatory system, 410. 

digestive system, 410. 

ear, 416. 

eye, 416. 

locomotion, 416. 

nose, 416. 

respiratory system, 416. 

urinary system, 416. 

skin, 416. 
Dissenters, The, 541. 

Distichlis maritima, 195, 215, 222, 235, 241, 242. 
250, 269. 

spicata, 269. 
Distribution of Bahama flora, 194. 

batrachiaus, 33S. 

plants, 199. 

reptiles, 33S. 



Divaricclla quadrisulcata, 28, 44. 

Diving birds, 358. 

Doctor's club, 223, 256. 

Dodonjea viscosa, 235, 241, 258. 

Dogwood, 206, 223, 226, 238, 255. 

Dolichonyx oryzivorus, 367. 

DoU-busb, 256. 

Dolley, C. S., ISS, 191, 193, 194, 200, 200, 210. 

Dominica, 42. 

Pondia linearis, 195. 

Doricha evelyna?, 352, 356, 363. 

lyrura, 348, 352, 356, 304. 

bryanti, 353. 
Dorsett, O. H., 411. 
Dove, Bahama ground, 362. 

White-winged, 362. 
Dowitcher, 361. 
Dry-barrens, 219. 

Dryobates villosus maynardi, 352, 356, 303. 
Dryopteris patens, 248. 
Drj-petes lacteriflora, 257. 
Duck Cay. 40. 
Duck, Ring-necked, 360. 

Ruddy, 360. 

Lesser scaup, 300. 

Scaup, 360. 
Ducks, 360. 
Dunes, 12, 14. 
Dunmore, Earl of, 425. 
Duranta repens, 200, 221, 242, 202, 263. 

plumieri, 220, 227. 
Durham Creek, 40. 
Dyer, H. G., 274. 



Ebell, A. J., 332. 
EbenaceiE, 193, 261. 
Ebony, 208. 

brown, 257. 
Ecclesiastical affairs, 539. 
Echeneis naucrateoides, 319. 
Ecbeniidae, 319. 
Echidna catenata, 298. 
Ecliinocactus, 200. 
Echistoma. 295. 
Echites andrewsii, 262. 

bifolia, 262. 

sagrsei, 262; 

umebllata, 262. 
Education, 599. 

of negroes, 543, 471. 
Educational establishment, 579. 
Edwards, C. L., 297, 301, 304, 300, 319. 
Eel, Cusk, 320. 

Snake, 298. 

Worm, 298. 
Eggers. II. F. A., 188. 
Egg Island, 41. 
Egret, American, 359. 

Reddish, 359. 
Egretta candidissima, 359. 

Elbow Cay, IS, 249, 250, 253, 255, 250, 239, 321. 
Elder, Yellow, 214, 264. 
Elections of 1832, 404. 
Eleocharis eellulosa, 232, 233, 236, 251. 



613 



GENERAL INDEX 



Elephantiasis, 396, 398. 

arabum, 397. 
Eleusine indica. 2150. 

Eleutliera, IS, 39, 40, 41, 123, 147, 163, 168, 175, 
178, 189, 191, 193, 195, 196, 197, 199, 
200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206, 207, 209, 
225, 231, 232, 239, 243, 244, 245, 247, 
248, 249, 250, 251, 2.52, 253, 254, 255, 
236, 257, 258, 259, _-260, 261, 262, 263, 
264, 265, 267, 310, 312, 315, 316, 317, 
31S, 319, 320, 321, 337, 338, 347, 349, 
358, 359, 360, 361, 363, 364, 365, 366, 
367, 380, 381, 384, 392, 396, 398, 557. 
Elodeacete, 224, 249. 
EIopia.-E, 297. 
Elops saui'us, 297. 

Bleutherodactylus ricordii, 338, 339. 
Elevated sea-elifls. IS, 19. 
Elevation of Bahamas, 4. 
Emilia sonchifolia. 266. 
Empidonax vii-escens, 3S4. 
Emplo.ver. Eight.'? of, 500. 
Endemic plants, 197, 198. 
England. 246. 

Enslavement of Bahama negroes, 563. 
Epicrates angulifer, 336, 341. 

chrysogaster, 338, 342. 

fordii, 335. 

striatus, 338, 341. 
Epidendrum altissimum. 197. 

hahamense, 197. 

fucatum, 242, 252. 

graeile, 197, 252. 

rutum, 197. 
Epiuephelus maculosiis, 305. 

mystacinus, 305. 

striatus, 305. 
Epiphytes, 233. 
Equisetum, 190, 198. 
Eragrostis bahmensis, 190, 197. 

elliotti, 195, 190. 
Ereunetes pusillus, 361. 
Erigeron quercifolium. 196. 
Erismatura Jamaicensis, 360. 
Erithalis fruticosa, 195, 218, 221, 226, 227, 228, 
229, 231,, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 242, 
265. 
Ernodea cokeri. 19S, 199, 242, 264. 

littoralis, 217, 218, 220, 225, 236, 238, 241, 
242, 264, 270. 
Erosion, agents of, 17. 

forms of, 17. 
Erythrina crista-galli, 214. 
Erythroxylon, 192. 

brevipes, 220, 240, 242, 256, 267. 

obovatum, 256, 267. 

reticuiatum, 197. 
E.socidae, 300. 

Established Church, Disendowmeut, 578. 
Establishment of port, 72. 
Eucinostomus gula, 311. 

lefroyi, 311. 



Eugenia, 193. 

axillaris, 60. 

buxifolia, 232, 237, 239, 242, 260. 

confusa, 199, 224, 228, 231, 236, 237, 238, 
239, 260, 267. 

longipes, 196, 260. 

punctata, 199, 260. 
Eupatorium. 265. 

ageratifolium, 266. 

hahamense, 198. 

capillifolium, 196. 

repandum, 265. 
Euphorbia, 227. 

brasiliensis, 199, 257 

buxifolia, 226, 229, 230, 257. 

cayensis, 197, 199, 241, 257. 

havanensis, 199, 257. 

pilulifera. 157. 

punicea, 257. 
Eupborbiacese. 192, 233, 237. 
Eupomacentrus adustus, 314. 

fuscus, 313. 

leucostictus, 313. 
Europe, 41, 199. 243, 246. 
Eustoma exaltatum, 261. 
Eustachys petrjeaea, 249. 
Evans, A. W., 186. 
Evolvulus arbusculus, 226, 234, 262. 

sericeus, 219, 262. 
Executive functions. Struggle over, 485. 
Exoccetida;, 299. 
Exoccetus lineatus, 299. 
Exoecaria sagriei, 257. 

Exostemma carib«um, 219, 237, 240, 265, 267. 
Exothea paniculata. 220, 221, 242, 258, 268. 
Exploration of atmosphere, 129. 
Expenditures and revenues, 396. 
Exports, 595 . 

Exuma, 39, 40, 42, 148. 202, 248, 364, 477. 
Exuma Sound, 9. 



Fagara coriacea, 220, 223, 240, 241, 256. 

fagara, 221, 226, 227, 228, 231, 238, 240, 256. 
267. 

flava, 203, 240, 256, 267. 
Failure of close settlements, 554. 
Falco columbarius, 362. 

peregriuus anatum, 362. 
Falconiformes, 362. 
Family-wood, 237. 
Farlow, W. G., 186. 242, 243. 
Fassig, Dr. O. L., 51, 52, 99, 104, 111. 129. 
Fauna of the " salt pans," 43. 
Favia, 25, 43. 
Favolus alutaceus, 246. 
Fernandina, 371. 
Ferns. 266. 
Ficus aurea. 195. 

hengalensis, 212. 

brevifolia, 233, 252. 

carica, 210. 

jacquinifolia, 212. 224. 252, 269. 

sapotifolia, 199. 212, 224. 228, 232, 252, 268. 
Fierasfer affinis, 320. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



()13 



Fierasfericlte, 320. 
Fig-tree, -lil, 268. 
Filaria diurna, 396. 

nocturna, 306, 397. 
Filaria?. 398. 
Filariasis, 396, 397. 
File-fish, 322, 323. 
Fimlirystilis spadicea, 250. 
Finances, State of, 577. 
Fingered star-gazer, 318. 
Finley, C, 123. 
Fisli-hawk, Stmr., 333. 
Fishes of Bahama Islands. 293. 
Fissnrella listeri, 24. 44. 
Flagler, H. M., 51, 120, 588. 
Flagler Cottage, 52. 
Flamingo, American, 359. 
Flamingo Cay, 42. 
Flemings Key, 362, 372. 
Fleurya lestnans, 252. 
Flexible razor fish, .314. 
Flights, Description of, 130. 
Flogging of female slaves, 460. 
Flora, Composition. 190. 

Distribution, 194. 

Relationships, 190, 198. 
Florida. 5, 8, 19, 39, 40, 41, 42, 195, 196, 198, 
199, 201, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 248, 
298, 299, 300, 301, 307, 308, 309, 310, 
311, 312, 316, 318, 320, 321, 322, 323, 
331, 333, 338, 340, 343, 356, 358. 
Florida cerulea, 359. 
Flounder, ocellated, 320. 

Small, 321. 

Spotted, 320. 
Flounders, 320. 
Flowering plants. 206. 
Fly-catcher, Bahama, 364. 

Green-crested, 364. 
Flying-flsh. 294, 299. 

Striped, 299. 
Foeificulum foeniculum, 199, 261. 
Fresh-marsh formation. 218, 236. 
Fort Charlotte. 41, 129, 250, 589. 

Fincastle, 589. 

Montague. 266. 
Fortune Island, 39, 41, 43, ISS, 189, 191, 197, 

202, 348, 359, 361, 363. 
Fossils, 14, 15, 23, 43. 
Foul-foot vine, 258. 
Fountain of Youth. 421. 
Frangipani. 214. 262. 
Fregata aquila, 359. 
Friar, Slender, 301. 
Friars, 300. 
Fruits. Cultivated, 209. 

Indigenous, 207. 
Frullania gibhosa. 248. 

squarrosa, 248. 
Fuertes, L. A., 349. 
Fulica americana, SCO. 
Fuligula, afflnis, 360. 

coUaris, 360. 

marila, 360. 
Fungi. 194, 245, 260. 



Gadinia carinata, 42. 
Galacti.a bahaniensis, 255. 

rudolphioides, 228, 255. 

spiciformis, 255. 
Galaxaura lapidescens, 245. 
Galedia;, 296. 

Galeoscoptes carolinensis, 364. 
Galium hispidulum, 1U9, 242, 204. 
Gallinaceous birds, 360. 
Gallinago delicata, 361. 
Gallinula galeata, 360. 
Gallinule, Florida, 360. 

Purple, 360. 
Gambusia, 299. 

afflnis, 299. 
Gar, Silver, SflO. 

Gardner, ,T„ ISS, 191, 193, 194, 200, 200, 210. 
Gardenia jasminoides, 214. 
Garman, S., 331, 332, 334. 
Garmannia, 295. 

hemigymna, 318. 
Garriott, B. B., 121. 
Gars, 300. 

Ilalf-beak, 299. 
Gastric and intestinal troubles, 394. 
Geese, 300. 

Gelochelidon nilotica, 360. 
General authority over slaves, 456. 
Geniopteris reptans, 249. 
Genipa clusiaifolia, 21S, 223, 225, 220, 230, 238, 

241, 265, 270. 
Genipe, 211. 
Gentianacea;, 261. 
Geology, 3, 152. 

George Island, 226, 244, 247, 251, 2.52, 253, 256, 
257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 263, 264, 277, 
409. 
Georgetown, 381, 384, 598. 
Geothlypis, 349, 350, 357. 

beldingi, 354. 

coryi. 354, 356, 367. 

exigua. 354, 356, 367. 

flavida, 354, 356, 357. 

incompta, 3.54, 356, 367. 

maynardi, 3-54, 356, 307. 

rostrata, 354, 3.56, 367. 

tanneri, 354, 356, 367. 

trichas, 306. 

brachidactyla, 367. 
Geotrygon chrysia, 351, 358. 
Gerardia domingensis, 264. 

marltima, 196, 264. 

purpurea, 196. 
Gerres, 294. 

brasilianus, 311. 

cinereus, 311. 
Gerridii?, 311. 
Gibson Key, 11. 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 421. 
Gillmore, F., 388, 391. 
Oilman, Dr. D. C, 52. 
Ginglymostoma cirratum, 296. 
Ginglymostomidte, 296. 
Gladstone, II. S., 420. 



614 



GENEEAL INDES 



Glass Window, 18, 40. 
Gleoeapsa, 243. 

Glycymeris americana, 27, 2S, 44. 
Glypliis cicatricosa, 247. 
Glypliisodon saxatilis, 314. 
Gnatcatcher, Bahama, 365. 

Blue-gray, 364. 
Goat-flsb. 294, 312. 
Gobiesocidte, 318. 
Gobiesox cepbalus, 318. 

b teres, 319. 
Gobiidte, 318, 
Gobius glaiicofrtenum, 318. 

soporator, 318. 
Goby, Briudled, 318. 

Half-naked, 318. 
Goggle-eye, 294. 
Golden-eye, American, 360. 
Golding Cay, 39, 305, 324. 
Gonorrhea, 393. 
Gonostoma, 295. 
Goodeuiacete, 265. 
Gossypium barbadense, 234, 259. 
Gounania domingensis, 226, 25S. 
Government, 595. 
Hospitals, 415. 
House, 588. 
Governors Harbor, 40, 178, 207, 250, 251, 2.52, 
254, 256, 257, 2.59, 260, 261, 262, 263, 
265, 277, 280, 286, 288, 289, 29S, 300, 
318, 320, 322, 380, 598. 
Gramineffi, 249. 
Grand Bahama, 39, 41. 
Grand Caicos, 362, 365, 366, 367. 
Grand Cayman, 189, 198, 206, 352, 354. 
Grand Turk, 187, 188, 200. 
Granny-bush, 207, 257, 262. 
Grants Town, 42, 246, 250, 252, 255, 256, 259, 

260, 261, 263, 266. 
Grapefruit, 211. 

Exporting of, 150. 
Production of, 179. 
Grapbis acbariana, 247. 
afzelii, 247. 
dumastii, 247. 
elegans, 247. 
nitida, 247. 
poitKOides, 247. 
radiata, 247. 
Grassquit, Bahama, 367. 
Grassy Cays, 362. 
Great Abaco, 338, 352. 
Great Bahama, 105, 196, 200, 203, 352, 359, 362, 

364, 365, 366, 367. 
Great Bahama Banks, 8, 9, 18, 324. 325. 
Great Exuma, 363, 367. 
Great Inagua, 30, 338, 3-42, 343, 352, 359, 300, 

362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367. 
Great Ragged Cay, 40, 369. 
Great Stirrup Cay, 41, 362. 
Grebe, Pied-billed, 358. 

West Indian, 35S. 
Green Cay, 16, 19, 41, 195, 197, 198, 199, 201, 
224, 243, 244, 245, 251, 252, 254, 257, 



258, 260, 261, 264, 265, 277, 284, 287, 
296, 302, 304, 307, 314, 318, 335, 338, 
348, 349, 359, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 
367. 
Green Turtle Cay, 189, 297, 298, 304, 306, 319, 

320, 321. 
Gregory Town, 39, 244, 245, 251, 253, 254, 255, 
257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 
265, 319. 
Grenada, 335. 
Grisebach, H. E. A., 194. 
Grosbeak, Rose-breasted, 367. 
Grouper, Hamlet, 306. 

Nassau, 305. 
Groupers, 294, 295, 305. 
Gruiformes, 360. 
Grunt, Black-tail, 308. 

Common, 308. 

French, 308. 

Open-mouthed, 308. 

Small-mouthed, SOS. 

Squirrel, 308. 

Yellow, 308. 
Grunts. 294, 295, 305, 307. 
Guadeloupe. 42, 199, 206. 
Guaiacum, 192. 

Sanctum, 203, 225, 234, 238. 240, 256, 267, 
268. 
Guara rubra, 36S. 
Guativere, 306. 

amarilla, 306. 

Red, 306. 
Guava, 193. 

Wild, 207, 220. 
Guaymas, 314. 
Gueplnia palmiceps, 246. 
Guettardia scabra, 234. 
Gullandina crista, 255. 

major, 255. 
Guinea corn. 155. 

grass, 250. 
Gull, Herring, 360. 

Laughing, 360. 
Gulls, 360. 

Gum-elemi, 207, 221, 224, 228, 229, 238, 240, 257. 
Gun Cay, 39, 40, 41, 42, 190. 
Guppya gundlachi, 40. 
Gurnard. Flying. 317. 
Guttarda elliptica, 265. 

scabra, 265. 
Gyalecta lutea, 247. 
Gyminda grisebachii, 199, 258. 
Gymnanthes lucida, 203, 237, 238, 240, 242, 257, 

267. 
Gymuosarda alleterata, 302. 
Gymnosorus variegatus, 245. 
Gymnosperms, 190. 



Habana, 121, 123, 124. 
Hsematopus palliatus, 362. 
Haematoxylon campechianum, 202, 221. 226, 
255, 269. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



615 



Hsemulon album, 307. 

carbonarium, SOS. 

flavolineatum, 308. 

melaaurum, 308. 

plumieri, 308. 

sciurus, 308. 
Ha3muIonidte, 307. 
Haigh, A. S., 111. 

Haiti, 8, 39, 41, 42, 199, 209, 231, 232, 235, 236, 
238, 239, 240, 242, 243. 351, 354, 355, 
356, 376, 382. 
Half-beak, 299. 
Halimeda tridens, 244. 

tuna, 244. 
Hall, G. A., 189. 

Halophilla engelmannii. 195, 199, 224, 249. 
Hamelia patens, 265. 
Haminea antillarum, 45. 
Harbor Island, 14S, 277, 280, 410. 
Hard-bark, 25S. 

Hardhead, 207. 228, 229, 238, 257, 300. 
Hard-wood. 258. 
Harlequin-flsb, 324. 
Harold Pond, 13. 
Harpe rufa, 314. 
Harshberger, J. W., 1S9. 
Havana, 40, 308. 
Hawaiian Islands, 303. 
Hawk, Duck, 362. 

Sbarp-sbinned, 362. 
Hawks Bill Eock, 11. 
Healing Act, 437. 
Heatb, Sir Robt., 421. 
Hedgehog, Sea, 324. 
Helicina bryanti, 42. 

calida, 42. 

Candida, 42. 

fasciata, 42. 

rawsoni, 27, 42, 47. 
Helicteres spiralis, 197, 221, 231, 259. 
Heliotropium curassavicum, 262. 

naniim, 197. 

parviflorum, 239, 263. 
Helinaia swainsoni, 365. 
Helmintbophila bachmanl, 365. 

pinus, 365. 
Helmitheros vermivorus, 365. 
Helodromas solitarius, 361. 
Hemicardium, 25. 

medium, 44. 
HemirhamphidiB, 299. 
Hemirbampbus brasiliensis. 299. 
Hemitrichia elavata, 243. 
Hemorrhage, 392. 
Hemp, 180. 
Hepaticse, 248. 
Hercules club, 220, 256. 
Herrick, F. H., 188, 194. 
Herring, 297. 

Big-eyed, 297. 
Herod ias egretta, 359. 
Heron, Golden-crowned night, 359. 

Little blue, 359. 

Louisiana, 359. 

Snowy, 359. 

Yellow-crowned night, 359. 



Heron, 359. 

Herpetological fauna, 339. 

Herposlphonia pecten-venerls, 245. 

Heterothecium tuberculosum, 247. 

Hex krugiana, 218. 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, 214. 

Highborn Cay, 40, 360, 364, 3G3, 307. 

Higb-coppice formation, 220, 237. 

High Point, 11. 

Himantopus mexieanus, 361. 

Hind, Red, 305. 

Hippocampida?, 322. 

Hippocampus punctulatus, 322. 

Hippomane mancinella, 204, 237, 257. 

Hirneola nigra, 245. 

Hirundo erythrogaster, 365. 

Hispaniola, 421. 

History of Bahama Islands, 419, 420, 569. 

History of Spanish Wells, 409. 

Hitchcock, A. S., 189, 192, 194, 198, 200, 249, 

250. 
Hitchcock, H. F., 186. 
Hitt, A. W., 401, 403. 
Hjalmarson, J. A., 187. 
Hog-fish, 294, 314. 

Hog Island, 100, 101, 296, 297, 303. 312, 313. 
315, 316, 320, 322, 323, 324, 367, 5S7, 
689. 
Hogsty, 12. 
Hole-in-the-Wall, 18. 
Holocentridfe, 301. 
Holocentrus ascensionis, 301. 

coruscus, 301. 

siceifer, 30i. 

tricolor, 301. 

vexillarius, 301. 
Homalochilus striatus, 336. 

strigilatns, 336. 
Homalogaster chrysogaster, 333. 
Hootie, 374. 

Hopetown, 100, 102, 103, 245, 388, 389, 395, 405, 
407, 409, 410, 411, 413, 414. 

History of, 410. 
Hopkins, Commodore, 524. 
Horlick's Food Company, 389. 
Horn-flsb, 323. 
Horse bean, 227, 255. 
Horseflesh, 202, 223, 254. 
I-Iorsehead, 304. 
Hospital. 597. 
Houud-fisb. 294, 300. 
Howard, Dr. L. O., 273. 

Howe, M. A., 186, 189, 190, 195, 243, 244, 245. 
Hughes, E. C, 147. 
Hughes, G., 205. 
Humidity, 116, 138. 
Hummingbird, Abaco, 364. 

Brace's 364. 

Ruby-throated, 363. 
Hura crepitans, 213, 268. 
Hurricanes, 120. 

Erosion by, 188. 

Frequency of, 121. 

Routs, 125. 

West India, 123. 
Hutia, 374. 



616 



GENERAL INDEX 



Hydranassa trieoloi' ruficoUis, 359. 
HyclrocharitaceEe, 193. 
Hydrophyllacese, 193. 
Hyla marmorata, 330. 

septentrionalis, 330, 338, 340, 341, 342, 343. 

squirella, 33S, 339. 
Hylocichla allcite biclinelli, 364, 

fuscescens, 364. 

mustelina. 364. 
Hylodes ricordii. 331. 
Hymenocallis, 225. 

arenicola, 197, 223, 229, 230, 241, 251, 270. 
Hymenomycetineie, 246. 
Hyiison, Westcott & Co., 389. 
Hypelate trifoliata, 208, 221, 228, 240, 242, 258, 

267. 
Hypericacefe, 259. 
Hypopi-ion brevirostris, 296. 

I 

Ibis, Glossy, 359. 

Icacorea paniculata, 220, 261, 268. 

Icterus dominicensis, 365. 

hypomelas, 355. 

landabilis, 355. 

northropi, 35.5, 356, 367. 

oberi, 355. 

portoricensis, 355. 

prothemelas, 355. 

wagleri, 355. 
Ichthyomethia piscipula, 206, 226, 228, 231, 

238, 241, 242, 255, 323. 
Iguana cyclura, 334. 
Ilex krugiana, 220, 236, 237, 258, 268. 

i-epanda, 220, 258, 268. 
IlicaceiE, 258. 
Imports, Principal, 595. 
Inagua, 12, 39, 40, 41, 42, 189, 195, 197, 198, 200, 

202, 205, 829, 330, 338, 360, 594. 
Indian corn, 155, 159. 
Indian Hole, 41. 
Indigenous fruits, 207. 

medicinal plants, 206. 

plants, 195. 

trees, 201. 

shrubs, 201. 
Industries, Important, 592. 
Infections, 408. 
lugraham. D. P., 349. 373. 
lubabitants of Islands, 420. 
Ink-berry, 218, 222, 226, 228, 229, 234, 237. 
Inodes-Lantana Association, 236. 
Inodes palmetto, 191, 195, 201, 218, 219, 223, 

225, 229, 236, 239, 251, 269, 270. 
Insane Asylum, 597. 
lonornis martinica, 360. 
Ipomoea bona-nox, 262. 

dissecta, 262. 

pes-caprcD, 207, 226, 229, 234, 241, 262. 

sagittata, 196, 199, 218. 
' Iresine paniculata, 255. 
Iridio, 293. 

bivittatus, 314. 

garnoti, 315. 

maculipinna, 315. 

radiatus, 315. 



Iridiprocne bicolor, 868. 

Irish potatoes, 155. 

Iritis, 395. 

Iron-wood, 258. 

Isocarpha oppositifolia, 265. 

Iva cheiranthifolia, 222, 265. 

imbricata, 196, 226, 230, 241, 265, 270. 



Jacaranda bahamensis, 197. 

coarralea, 197, 19S. 
Jack, 802. 

Ambor, 294. 

Goggle-eye, 294. 

Horse-eye, 302. 

Yellow, 302. 
.Tacquemonti'a jamaicensis, 217, 221, 227, 228, 

281, 238, 239, 240, 262. 
Jacquinia, 215. 

keyensis, 196, 204, 222, 225, 227, 229, 240, 
241, 261, 270. 
Jains, 401. 

Jamaica, 39, 41, 175, 198, 199, 203, 204, 205, 206, 
207, 20S, 211, 320, 323, 352, 353, 376, 
381, 594. 
Jania capillacea, 245. 
Janthinosoma musica, 278, 281. 

varipes, 274, 276, 281. 
Jenny, Silver, 311. 
Johnson, Eev. E. C, 389. 
Jumby bean. 240, 254. 
JuncaginacejE, 193. 
Juniperus barbadensis, 190, 203, 240, 242, 249, 

268. 
Jurel, 302. 

K 
Kabirpauthis, 401. 
Kellum, J. J., 389. 
Kennedy, H., 882. 
Key Biscayne, 320. 
Key, Nathaniel, 410, 411. 

Key West, 41, 42, 196, 297, 299, 300, 301, 313, 
315, 317, 318, 320. 

Quail-doye, 862. 
Killdeer, 361. 
Killifishes, 299. 
Killarney barrens, 243. 
Kingbird, Cuban, 364. 

Gray, 364. 
King-fish, 294, 302, 363. 
Kite observation, 136, 139. 
Krebs, H. J., 187. 

Kriigiodendron ferreum, 221, 240, 258, 267. 
Kyphosidae, 807. 
Kyphosus sectatrix, 307. 

L 

Labiatas, 193, 263. 
Labor, Condition of, 665. 
Labridfe, 314. 
Labrisomus biguttatus, 819. 

nuchipinnis, 319. 
Lacbuolaimus maximus, 314. 
Lactophrys liicaudalis, 323. 

trieornis, 323. 

trigonus, 328. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



617 



Lady Fisb, Spanish, 314. 
Lady flslies, 297. 
Lagei'sti'iemia indioa, 214. 
Laguueiilai'ia, 234. 

racemosa, 200. 
Lake deposits. 15. 
Lake Henriquillo, 42. 
Lake Killaniey, 13. 
Lamellaxis pallidus, 41. 
Lamproelnelidoii, 354. 
Lampusia, 27, 
Lancelets. 296. 
Landfall of Columbus, 420. 
Land system, 552. 
Langeria densifiora, 215, 264. 
Lanius ludovieianus, 365. 
Lanivireo flavifrons, 365. 
Lantana-Coi'chorus Association, 227. 
Lantana erocea, 226, 227, 220, 231, 234. 

iuToluerata, 217, 21S, 226, 227, 
22S, 229, 231, 234, 239, 263. 
White. 217. 
Lantanas 236, 23S. 
Lapwing. 361. 
Larco. Juan de, 422. 
Larus argentatus, 360. 

ati-icilla, 360. 
Lasiurus borealis, 3S0. 
Laurencia papulosa, 245. 

tuberculosa gemmifera, 245. 
Lauracete, 254. 
Lazaretto. 404. 

Long leases. Introduction of, 561. 
Leather-jacket, 322. 
Lecanora pallida, 247. 

varia, 247. 
Leiocephalus carinatus, SSS. 

losogrammus, 33S, 342. 343. 

schreibersii, 338, 341, 342. 

vireseens 334, 33S, 339. 
Leimadophis, 337. 

andreoe. 337. 

rubesceus, 3SS. 
Lemon. 211. 

Lentiuus strigosus. 246. 
Leonnrus sibiricus, 263. 
Lentibulaceje. 264. 
Lpntibnlariacece. 193. 
Leonine fades, 339. 
Leouotis nepetifolia, 263. 
Leper in Bahamas. 403. 
Lepidium virginicum, 192, 254. 
Lepotyphlops albifrous, 342. 
Lepra cells, 399. 
Leprosy. 299. 

Anesthetic, 399, 406, 416. 

Bacillus of, 400. 

Convention of, 403. 

Recommendations regarding, 404. 

Transmission of, 401. 

Treatment of , 401. 

Tubercular, 399, 416. 
Leptilon canadense. 199, 230, 334. 
Leptotyphlops albifrons, 33S. 343. 
Leptoginm marginellum. 247. 



Leucajna glauea, 221, 227, 230, 354. 

Lewis, Joseph S., 295. 

Liabilities and assets, 597. 

Liagora annulata, 245. 

Liehenes, 247. 

Lichens, 194. 266. 

Licorice, Wild, 253. 

Ligon, Richard, 204, 206. 

Lignum vitie, 159, 203, 225, 234, 238. 240, 

256, 208. 
Li.ia Colorada, 322. 
Lilburne, Gov., 422. 
Liliaceffl, 183. 
Lime, 211. 

Wild, 226, 228, 239, 256. 
Limkin, 360. 
Linacete, 192, 256. 
Linnaeus, 192. 
Liuum, 347. 

bahamense, 197, 256. 

eurtissii. 192, 195. 
Lion fish, 317. 
Lippia, 238. 

canescens, 263. 

noditlora, 263. 

stcpchadifolia, 199, 219, 363. 
Lithophaga antillarum, 26. 43. 
Litorina, 2S. 

Little Abaco, 362, 364. 367. 
Little Bahama Banks, 8, 9, 13, 317. 
Little Golding Cay. 41. 
Little Mangrove Cay, 243, 253, 260, 262, 266, 

350. 
Little Inagua, 359, 365, 367. 
Lithophila vermicularis, 236, 237, 253. 
Live-forever, 207, 231, 254. 
Liverworts, 206. 
Livona pica, 24, 27, 44. 
Liza, 301. 

Blanca. 301. 
Lizard-fish. 297. 
Lizards, 331. 
Local injuries, 416. 
Locomotor-ataxia, 393, 407. 
Logaulaceas, 261. 
Logwood, 159, 202, 226, 255, 269. 
Lonchorhina aurita, 382. 
Long Cayj 40. 

Long Island. 40, 102, 103, 147. 148. 188. 196. 
199, 200. 201, 202, 203, 207, 208, 209, 
228, 239, 243. 246, 250, 251, 252, 254, 
255, 256, 257. 258, 259, 260. 261, 262, 
263, 265, 278, 280, 282, 283, 288, 296, 
337, 338, 348, 358, 359. 360, 361, 362, 
364, 365, 367, 371, 380, 381, .382, 389, 
395. 
Long-jaws, 300. 
Long Rock, 42. 
Lookdown. 304. 
Loranthaceoe, 192, 252. 
Lore. 316. 

Low-coppice Formation, 221. 237. 
Lower California. 297. 304, 311. 
Lucayan Islands, 421. 
Lncayans, 147, -421. 



618 



GENERAL INDEX 



Lueuma multiflora, 1D9, 220, 261. 
Lumliago, 394. 
Lutjanidas, 309. 
Lutjamis analis, 309. 

apodus, 309. 

buccanella, 309. 

gi'iseus, 309. 

mahogoni, 309. 

paucifolia, 254. 

s.Tiiagris. 309. 
Lycodoiitis funebris, 29S. 

movinga, 29S. 
Lycogola epidendi'on, 243. 
Lycoperdineifi, 239, 246. 
L.TCopodium, 190, 198. 
Lyngbya ma,iuseula, 243. 
Lysiloma babamensis, 240, 267. 

latisliqua, 202, 220, 227, 254. 

paucifolia, 202, 223, 224, 26S. 
Lytbraceffi. 193, 254. 

M 

McKiuuen, 147, 149. 
McKuew, C. A., 294. 
Mabuya agilis, 332. 

cepedei, 331. 

sloanii, S38, 341, 342. 
Maeaibi, 297. 
Macbete, 172. 
Maciierei, Yellow, 302. 
Maclierels, 302. 

Macreigbtia caribsea, 221, 261. 
Macrocallista nebulosa, 26, 44. 
Maerorbampbus griseus, 361. 
Macrotus waterbousii, 381, 382, 3S4. 
Madeira, 202, 257, 299, 323. 
Maerter, F. J., 187. 
Magdalena Bay, 301. 
Magistrates, Duties of special, 507. 

Stipeudiar.y, 540. 
Maguetic elemeuts, 102. 

observations, 99. 

stations, 99. 

secular variation, 104. 
Magnetic work. Directions for, 104. 
Maboe, 252. 

sea-side, 213. 
Mabogany. 159, 202, 223, 224, 257. • 
Malacantbida?, 318. 
Malacantbus plumieri. 318. 
Malacca, 246. 
Malacoctenus biguttatus, 319. 

lugubris, 319, 

moorei, 319. 

ocellatus, 319, 

varius, 319. 
Malaria, 393, 416. 
Mallard, 360. 
Malone, Absalom, 411. 

August. 412. 

Benjamin C, 412. 

David, 410. 

Elizabetb, 411. 

Epbraim, 410, 411, 412. 

Francetta, 416. 



Josepb. 411. 

Samuel, 339, 407, 410. 

Sarab, 410. 

yirginia, 411. 

Walter, 410. 

W.vannie, 410. 
Malpigbia polytricha, 209, 230, 256. 
Malpigbiacese, 256. 
Malvaceip. 259. 

Malvaviscus, 193, 197, 199, 259. 
Mammals, 371, 372. 
Mammee, 211. 

Wild, 220, 261. 

americana, 211. 

Sapota, 261. 
Mancbineel, 204, 237, 257. 
Mangifera indica, 211. 
Mangilia. 28. 
Mango, 211. 
Mangrove, 260, 269. 

White, 260. 
Mangrove Cay, 39. 40. 41, 42, 65, 170, 194, 
202, 204, 218, 223, 242, 243. 245, 246, 
247, 248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254. 256, 
257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 
265. 266. 315, 316. 
Mangrove snapper, 309. 
Man-o'-war bird, 359. 
Manson. P., 394. 397, 398. 
Manumission, 409. 

Compensation in case of, 452. 

Conditions and terms of, 450. 
Manzanillo, 42. 
Maple, 220. 
Marasmius bermudensis, 246. 

nidulus, 246. 

opaens, 246. 

ramealis. 246. 

rotula, 246. 

vaillantii, 246. 
Mareca americana, 360. 
Margaritipbora radiata, 26, 27, 43. 
Margarops fuscatus, 351, 364. 
Margate fish, 307. 
Margaret. Sweet. 209, 237, 256. 
Maria Molle, 313. 

Mariguana, 359, 380, 361, 862, 364, SC5, 366, 367. 
Marine deposits, 15. 
Mariporvos. 360. 
Marsh Harbor, 41. 
Martinique, 42. 

Maryland State Weather Service, 129. 
Massachusetts, 129. 297. 317. 319, 323. 
Masters, Rights and duties of, 452. 
Mastic, 159, 205, 261. 

Bastard, 256. 
Mastigole.1eunia auriculata, 248. 
Matauzas, 39. 
Mathew, Gov,, .567. 
Mathews Point. 41. 
Maurandia antirrhiniflora. 263. 
Maxwell. Gov., 425. 

Maynard, C. J., 348, 372, 373, 377, 379, 380, 382. 
May-pole, 269. 
Maytenus buxifolia, 237, 240, 258, 267. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



619 



Meandrites, 2G, 2S, 43. 
Measles, 41G. 
Medical equipment, 389. 
Medicinal plants, 206. 
Meibomia siipiua, 216, 255. 
Melampus Caffeus, 42. 

flavus, 42. 

guudlachi, 42. 
Melauiella graeillima, 41. 
Melanthera deltoidea, 265. 

nivea, 266. 
Molastomacete, 260. 
Melia azedarach, 212, 257. 
Mellacea!, 257. 

Melicocca bijuga, 211, 221, 25S. 
Blelina obliqua, 45. 
Melocactns communis, 200. 
Jleloehia pyramidata, 259. 

tomentosa, 22S, 231, 234, 239, 259. 
Melopelia leucoptera, 362. 
Melop.vrrlia taylori, 355. 
Mermaid's shaving brash, 224. 
Metastehua barbatum, 197. 

brachystephanum, 199, 262. 

eggersii. 197. 

palustre, 262. 
London Meteorological Council. 111. 
Methods of cultivating, 172. 
Metopium metopium, 205, 21S, 219, 220, 221, 
223, 224. 226, 231, 234, 236, 237, 238, 
242, 258, 268. 
Mexico, 195, 199, 299, 302, 303, 352. 
Michaux, A., 187. 
Microceramus gossei, 41. 

Swiftii. 40. 
Mierodictyon crassum, 244. 
Mierole.1eunea bullata, 248. 

luceus, 248. 
Micropalama himantopus. 361. 
Microtralia minuscula, 42. 
Middle Bight. 11. 16. 
Miller. Dr. B. L.. 3, 6, 7, 23. 
Miller, G. S., 347, 371. 
Mills. J. J., 395. 412. 
Millspaugh, C. F., 1S4. 1S9, 190, 191. 
Mimocichla plumbea, 353, 357, 364. 

ruliripes schistaeea, 353. 
Mimosa bahamensis, 197. 
Mimosacere, 192. 254. 
Mimus guudlachi, 353, 356, 864. 

bahamensis, 353, 356, 364. 
hilli, 353. 

polyglottos orpheus 351, 364. 

saturninus, 353. 
Jlimusops floridana, 196. 

Sieberi, 222, 233, 237, 261, 267. 
Minnow, Sheepshead, 299. 

Top. 299. 
Miraporvos, 359, 361. 
Mississippi, 195. 
Mitra. 28. 

Mniotilta varia, 365. 
Mockingbird, Antillean, 364. 

Bryant's, 364. 

Gunlach's, 364. 



Modyford, Sir J., 522. 
MollusUs, 43. 
Non-marine, 23. 
Molly Jliller, 319. 
Mouacauthida?, 322. 
Monacanthus spilouotus, 322, 
Mouniera moiniiera. 236, 204, 
Monocotyledons, 191. 
Montevideo, 42. 
Moouey, C. N., 147. 
Moon-fishes, 304. 
Moon flower, 234. 362. 
Moore, J. P., 380. 
Moracete, 252. 
Moray, 298. 

Black, 298. 

Common spotted, 298. 
Morgans Bluffs, IS, 
MoriiKla roioc, 242, 265. 
Mosquitoes, 271. 

Descriptions of, 278. 
Mosses. 266. 
Monchoir Banks. 12. 
Mourning dove. 362. 
Mouse fish, 324. 
Mt. ^■ernon. 243, 244. 245, 246, 247, 248, 251, 

253, 254, 255. 257, 259, 265. 
Mugil curema, 301. 

trichodou, 301. 
Mugilid.ip. 301. 
Mullet, 295, 

Blue-black, 301, 

Fan-tailed, 301. 

King of the, 305. 

■White, 301. 
Mnllid.ne, 312. 
MurfEuesocidte. 298. 
Murasnidre, 298. 
Murex nuceus, 28, 44. 
Mus alexandrinus, 372. 

musculus. 373. 

rattns. 372. 
Musa paradislaca, 210. 

sapientum. 210. 
Musci. 248. 
Muskrat, 375. 
Mutton-fish, 294, 309. 
Mycteroperca veuenosa, 306. 
Myelitis. 416. 

Myiarchus lucaysiensis, 353, 357, 364. 
Myrica cerifera, 191, 195, 196, 223, 233, 242, 

252, 269. 
Myricaces, 252. 
Myridae, 298. 
Myriophyllum, 224. 
Myrophis punctatus, 298. 
Myrsinlacefe, 261. 
Myrstiphyllum ligustifolium. 198. 
MyrtacGK, 193, 260. 
Mytilus dominguensis, 45, 46. 

cxustus. 28, 42. 43. 
Myxomycetes. 194, 242. 266. 



N 



Naked Wood, 207, 



630 



GENERAL IXDEX 



Naiadacete, 249, 
Nassa ambigua, 2 
Nassau, 14, IS, 10, 
101, 103, 
129, 134, 
243, 244, 
251, 232, 
259, 280, 
280, 2S2, 
296, 297, 
305, 306, 
313, 314, 
321, 322, 
379, 380, 
422, 424, 



:8, 29, 44. 



41, 42, 44, 51, 53, 

111, 112, 113, 116, 

149, 155, 178, 202, 

246, 247, 248, 249, 

254, 255, 256, 257, 

262, 263, 264, 266, 

285, 286, 287, 2SS, 

300, 301, 302, 303, 

308, 309, 310, 311, 

316, 317, 318, 319, 

324, 333, 372, 376, 

3SS, 396, 398, 404, 

5S2, 587, 588, 689, 



100, 
119, 
206, 
250, 
258, 
276, 
289, 
304, 
312, 
320, 
377, 
416, 
598, 



Natica canrena, 25, 26, 27, 29, 44. 
castrensis, 29, 44. 

National Museum, 324. 

Navidad Banks, 9. 12. 

Naucrates ductor, 304. 

Needle-fish, 300. 

Negro fisb, 300. 

Nelson, Capt. R. J., 4. 

Nematodes, 397. 

Neomeris cokeri, 244. 

Nerita tessellata, 29, 44. 
versicolor, 26, 44. 

Nerium oleander, 214. 

Nettion carolinensis, 360. 

Neuritis, 416. 

Neurocarpus justii, 245. 

New England, 300, 307, 320, 322, 

New Growths, Malignant, 410. 
Non-Malignant, 416. 

New Providence, 5, 13, 40, 41, 42, 51, 113, 
147, 161, 162, 168, 187, ISS, 189, 
191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198, 
200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206, 207, 
209, 212, 216, 243, 246, 247, 248, 
250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 236, 
258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 
276, 301, 319, 320, 329, 3 
33S, 347, 348, 349, 358, 359, 360, 
363, 364, 366, 367, 368, 372, 373, 
379, 380, 382, 385, 388, 422, 587, 
596. 

New York, 246. 

New South Wales, 246. 

Nicaragua, 207. 

Nicker bean, 255. 

Nicolls. Major, 480. 

Nigger-fish, 306. 

Nighthawk, Bahama, 363. 

Noddy, 361. 

Nomeidse, 304. 

Nomeus gronovii, 304. 

North America, 199, 338. 

North Bimini, 190. 

North Caicos, 300, 362. 364, 360, 367. 

North Carolina, 195, 246, 316, 323, 340. 

North Cat Cay, 190, 191, 195, 196. 

Northrop. J. I., 5, 7, 188, 191, 192, 349. 

Northrop, Mrs. J. I., 194, 198, 200, 349. 

Nosopheni, 403. 



129, 
190, 
199, 
208, 
249, 
257, 
266, 
16, 337, 
362, 
376, 
588, 



Nostoc commune, 243. 
Novaculichthys infirnius, 314. 
Numenius hudsonicus, 361. 
Nuthatch. Brown-headed, 365. 
Nyctaginaceie, 253. 
Nyctanassa violacea, 359. 
Nycticorax nycticorax ntevius, 359. 
Nyctinomus bahamensis, 380, 384. 
NymphEeacejfi, 192, 254. 



Obedience, Enforcement of, 502. 
Obiism, 415. 

Ocean holes. Submarine, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 
19. 

Terrestrial, 17, IS, 19. 
Oceauites oceanicus, 359. 
Ochleratatus eonflrmatus, 282, 
Ocotea catesbyana, 221, 254. 
Ochthodromus wilsonius, 351, 35S, 362. 
Octoblepharum albidum, 248. 
Oeyurus chrysurus, 310. 
Odontosoria clavata, 232, 249. 
Ogcocephalidse, 325. 
Ogocephalus radiatus, 325. 
Old Man's beard, 250. 
Old Providence, 381. 
Old wife, 303, 322. 
Oleacese, 261. 
Oleaciua solidula, 39. 
Oleander, 214. 
Olivella nivea, 28, 44. 
Onagracere. 193, 233. 
Onchidium floridanum, 42. 
Onions, 159. 
Opeas micra, 41. 

octonoidea, 41. 

paupercula, 41. 

suhula, 41. 
Opegrapha varia. 247. 
Ophichthyida;, 298. 
Ophidiidse. 320. 
Ophidium, 320. 
Opisthosolen biformis, 42. 

bahamensis, 42. 

rawsoni, 42, 
Oporornis agilis, 366. 

Opposition party and the government, 528. 
Opuntia spinosissima, 200. 

triacantha. 199. 200, 234, 260. 

tuna, 200, 227, 234, 238, 260. 
Orange. 211. 

Wild, 254. 
Orchard fruits, 159. 
Orchidacese, 191, 216, 252. 
Organic deposits, 16. 
Oriole, Northrop's, 367. 
Ornithological explorations, 347. 
Ornithopteris adiantoides, 219, 24S. 
Ostraciontidee, 323. 
Osprey, Bahama, 362. 
Ostrea parasitica, 26, 43. 
Out-Islands, 472. 
Ovenbird, 366. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



621 



Owl, American liarn. 363. 

Florida Inirrowing, 352. 

Inagua burrowlug. 303. 

Nassau burrowing, 363. 
Oxalidace;E, 256. 
Oxalis corniculata, 256. 
Oxyechus vociferus, 351. 361. 
Oxystyla undata, 40. 
Oyster-catcher, American, 362 



Padina durviltei, 245. 
Pa'cilonetta bahamensis, 360. 
Page. Jas.. 123. 
Palm, Cocoanut, 209, 269. 

Date. 209. 

Goat. 201. 223, 23S, 251. 

Hog-cabbage. 232, 251. 

Royal, 213. 208. 

Silver, 201. 23S, 270. 

Silver-tliatcli, 201, 219, 222. 225, 251. 

Tbatch, 201, 219, 222. 225, 229, 233, 236, 251, 
209, 270. 
Palmte. 251. 
Palmetto, scrub, 170. 
Palmettos, 171. 
Panama, 29S. 320. 
Pandion halia?tus carolinensis, 352. 

ridgwayi. 352, 356, 362. 
Panicum elephantipes, 199, 250. 

fimbri, 250. 

maximum, 249. 

proliferum, 249. 
Pannaria molybdo^a, 247. 
Papa vera ceaj, 193. 
Papilionacese. 192, 255, 
Paraguay, 335, 3S0. 
Paralysis, 416. 
Parasites, 416. 
Parke, Davis & Co., 390. 
Parmelia citrata, 247. 

latissima, 247. 
Parrot, Bahama, 363. 
Parrot-flsh, 294, 363. 

Blue, 316. 

Dark-green. 315. 

Gold-bridled, 315. 

Mud, 316. 

Ribboned-flnned, 316. 

Streaked, 316. 
Parrot fishes, 31.5, 
Parsons, L. O., 3S9, 410. 
Parthenium hysterophorus, 266. 
Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 226, 228, 231, 

259. 
Paspalum ccespitosum, 250. 

vaginatum, 199, 217, 250, 270. 
Passer domesticus, 36S. 
Passerculus sandwichensis savanna, 367. 
Passeriformes, 364. 
Passiflora, 22S, 238. 

fcetida, 225, 200. 

minima, 260. 

pectinata, 197, 260. 

rubra, 199, 260. 



PassitloraceiE, 200. 

Paurotis andro.sana, 191, 197. 

Pavouia bahamensis, 197. 

spinitex, 216, 259. 
Papaw. 211, 26S. 
Patao. 311. 
Pea. Pigeon, 255. 

stinking, 255. 
Pedipes mirabilis, 42. 
Pelecanus occideutalis. 359. 
Pelican, Brown, 359. 
Pemphigus, 400. 
Penicillus capitatus, 224, 244. 
Penrose, Dr. C. A., 387, 
Pensacola, 307, 316, 317. 
People, Condition of, 597. 
Peperomia magnoliiEfolia, 198. 
Pera humelioefolia, 192, 199, 220, 221, 257, 26S. 
Perca marina venenosa punctata, 294. 
Perching birds, 304. 
Period iS3S to 1S4S, 528. 
Persea persea, 210. 
Pertusaria leioplaca, 247. 

velata, 247. 
Peru. 304. 314, 
Pesplanus, 403. 
Petetia pappigii. .220, 238, 263. 
Petiveria alliacea, 199, 216, 253. 
Petrel. Wilson's, 3.59. 
Petrometopon cruentatus, ■306. 
Pewee. Bahamas. 304. 
Phacicallis. 223. 
Phacoides (Callucina) radians, 27, 44. 

(Cavilueina) trisulcatus, 27, 44. 

(Here) pensylvanicus, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 
29, 44, 46. 

nassula, 28, 44. 
Phaeophycea;, 244, 
Phaethon americanus, 359. 
Phalacrocorax dilophus floridanus, S.59. 

mexicauus, 3.59. 
Phanerogama?, 249. 
Philanthus myrtilloides, 237, 264, 
Phipocephalus phoenix, 224. 
Phlebodium aureum, 249. 
Plirenicoptorus rulier, 359. 
Phoeuix dactylifera, 209. 
Phordflendron, 221. 

northropia;, 197. 

spathulifolium, 242, 252. 
Phthisis fibrosa, 392. 

tiorida, 382. 
Phylianthus bahamensis, 197. 

epiphyllanthus, 226, 228, 231, 230, 238, 239, 
240, 257. 

niruri, 234, 257. 

virens, 199, 257. 
Phyllonycteris plainfrons, 382. 
Physa acuta, 41. 
Physiography, 3. 
Physorum compressum, 242. 

globuliferum, 242. 

vivide. 243. 
Picramnia pentandra, 206. 221, 232, 256. 
Picrodendron baceatum bahamense, 226, 256. 



GBNEEAL INDEX 



Picuda, 300. 

Pigmentary retinitis, 395. 

Pilocereus lanuginosa, 200, 226, 23S, 230, 260. 

Pilot-fish, 304. 

Pimenta vulgaris, 193. 

Pimlico Cay, 365. 

Pineapples, 164, 1V3, 175, 210, 557. 

Canning of, 178. 

Yield of, 149, 164. 176. 
Pine-barren Formations, 218. 
Pines, 171, 203. 
Pingueculae, 395. 
Pinguiculoe pumila, 193, 196. 
Pintano, 314. 
Pinus bahamensis, 190, 195, 203, 249, 268. 

elliottii, 249. 
Pipe flsli, 321. 
Piperace,B, 19S. 
Piracy, 423. 
Piranga erytnromelas, 367. 

rubra, 367. 
Pitangus bahamensis, 353, 357, 364. 

candifasciatus, 353. 
Pithecolobium bahamense, 197, 255. 

hystrix, 254. 

keyense, 217, 218, 219, 220, 224, 226, 227, 
232, 234, 235, 238, 239, 255, 267. 

raucronatum, 197, 199, 254. 
Pithecolobium-Salmea Association, 217. 
Plana Cays, 12. 362, 373, 375. 
Planorbis redfleldi, 41. 
Plant formations, 216. 

list. Summary of, 266. 
Plantain, 210. 
Plantigiuales, 193. 
Platophrys, 320. 

lunatus, 320. 

maculifer, 320. 

oeellatus, 320. 
PlGcotrenia cubense, 42. 
Plegadis autumnalis, 359. 
Pleurodonte (Zachrysia) provisoria, 39. 
Pleuronectidce, 359. 
Plover, American Golden, 361. 

Black-bellied, 361. 

Piping, 362. 

Semipalmated, 361. 

Snowy, 362. 

Wilson's, 362. 
Pluchea fwtida, 238, 266. 

odorata, 207, 234, 238, 266. 

Ijurpurascens, 266. 
Plum, Cocoa, 20S, 254, 267. 

Damson, 207. 

Darling, 208, 218, 225, 228, 232, 234, 235, 
236, 237, 241. 

Devil's, 263. 

Dorlin, 208. 

Milk, 209, 218, 226, 234, 261. 

Old-man's, 263. 

Pigeon, 208, 220, 223, 226, 228, 229, 237, 
238, 240, 252, 254, 269. 

Red, 211. 
PlumbagiuaceiB, 193. 



Plumiera bahamensis, 197. 

obtusata, 234, 262. 

rubra, 214. 
Podilymbus podiceps, 358. 
PcBciliidje, 299. 
Poey, II., 121, 299, 320. 
Poinciana regia, 213. 
Poison toads, 317. 
Poison-wood. 205, 218, 220, 221,' 223, 224, 226 

231, 234, 238, 258. 
Poisons, 416. 
Pole, May, 249. 
Polioptila cserulea, 353, 364. 

csesiogaster, 353, 336, 365. 
Polydactylism, 405. 
Polygala, boykinii, 195, 196. 
PolygalaccEe, 193. 
Polygonace^, 192, 252. 
Polygonum, 233. 
Polygyra cereolus, 39. 
Polynices lactea, 29. 44. 
Polypodium polypodiodes, 248. 
Polyporus, 246. 

guyanensis, 246. 

occidentalis. 246. 
Polystictus abietiuus, 246. 

hirsutus, 246. 

sanguineus, 246. 
Pomacanthus arcuatus, 312. 
Pomacentridffi. 313. 
Pomegranate, 212, 214. 
Pomfret, 304. 
Pompano, 294, 302, 303. 

P,ound, 303. 
Ponce de Leon, 421. 
Pond apple, 253. 
Population and area, 589. 
Porcupine Fish, 323. 

Smaller, 324. 
Porgy. Saucer-eye. 310. 

Sheepshead, 310. 

White-boned, 310. 
Porgies, 294, 310. 
Porites. 25, 43. 
Pork-fish, 294, 308. 

Port Nelson, 233, 253, 257, 255, 258, 259, 260, 278 
Porto Eico, 41, 42, 199. 204. 314. 331, 332, 333, 

334. 335, 338, 353, 355, 376. 
Portuguese man-of-war, 304. 
Portulaca oleracea, 224, 255. 

pilosa, 253. 
Portulacefe, 253. 
Porzana Carolina, 360. 
Post Office, 592. 

Savings Bank, 591. 
Potamogetonaceos,- 193. 
Potatoes, 159. 

Sweet, 155. 
Pot-Holes. 14, 17. 
Potters Cay, 587. 

Powells Point, 232, 247, 251, 253, 256, 257, 260, 
261, 262, 265, 278, 283, 285, 2SS. 300, 
301, 310, 313, 315, 316, 318, 319, 321, 
323. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



623 



Priacantliidte, 311. 
Pricanthus arenatus, 312. 

ci'uentatus, 311. 
Pride of Barbados, 212. 
Primary syphilis, 416. 
Primulacese, lis. 
Prince-wood, 237, 240. 
Priva lappulacea, 203. 
Procellariiformes, 359. 
Procyon lotor elueus, 370. 

mayiiardi, 37G, 377. 
pymfeus, 377. 
Protest of the Bahamas, 432. 
Protonotaria citrea, 305. 
Proridence Channel, 9. 
Provision for the coming changes, 490. 
Prnnns sph.ierociirpn, 192, 201. 
Psenes cyanoplirys, 504. 
Psendophcenix sargentii, 191, 195, 196. 
Pseudoscopelus, 296. 
Psidium guava, 193. 
Psilotum nudum, 190. 
Psychotria undata, 221, 232. 239, 265. 
Pteridium caudatum, 220, 241, 249, 269. 
Pteridophyta. 248. 
Pteris longifolia, 248. 
Pterophryne histrio, 324. 
Pterygium-growths, 395. 
Public Library, 421, 5S8. 
Pudding-wife, 315. 
Puffers, 323. 
Pufflnus gravis, 359. 

Iherminieri. 351, 359. 
Puget Sound, 304. 
Punica granatum, 212, 214. 
Punishments, 455, 512. 
Pupoides marginatus, 41. 
Purpura, 29. 
Purslave, 224. 
Pyrenula aurantiaea, 247. 

fallaciosa, 247. 

ieucoplaca, 247. 

mamiiiana, 247. 
Pyrenomycetinete, 246. 
Pyrrhulagra violacea, 333, 357, 367. 
Pyruia papyratia, 28, 44, 
Pyxine cocoes, 247. 

Q 
Queen Elizabeth, 421. 
Queen's College, 599. 
Querqnedula discors, 360. 
QuiclvsilA'er-bush, 258. 
Question of control of schools, 544. 
Quiet reign in the Colony, 566. 
Quit rents, 553. 

Commutation of, 557. 



Raccoons, 376. 
Ragged Island, 39, 41, 348. 
Rainfall, 113, 117. 
Pails, 360. 

Ra.iania hastata, 219, 220, 242, 251. 
Rallus crepitans coryl, 352, 356, 358, 360. 
waynei, 352. 



Ramalina calicaris, 247. 

gracilis, 247. 
Ram's horn, 217, 220, 225, 226, 232, 238, 255. 
Randall, A., 295. 
Randia aculeata, 265. 
Eanunculace.'p, 193. 
Rapanea gulanensis, 21S, 220, 237, 240, 242, 

201, 267. 
Rascacio, 317. 
Rats, 372. 
Rawson, Gov., 589. 
Ray, Round sting, 291. 
Razor fish, 314.. 
Recent deposits, 17, 23. 
Red bat, 380. 
Red bay, 40. 
Redhead, 260. 
Redstart, American, 367. 
Redwing, B.ahama, 367. 
Red-wood, 208, 220, 223, 240, 258. 
Reforms. Attempt to give effect to, 458. 

in the general court, 514. 

in the magistracy, 505. 
Regime instituted. 492. 
Registration system, adoption of, 439. 

operation of, 457. 
Regulation of 1781, 559. 
Relations of branches of government, 520. 
Relations of Birds to Cuba, 340. 

Florida. 339. 

Haiti, 341. 
Relationships of Bahama flora, 198. 
Religious conditions, 598. 
Religious equality. Contest for, 549. 
Remoras, 319. 
Reptiles, 329, 331. 
Representation in Assembly, 595. 
Resin, Wild. 234. 
Revenues and expenditures, 596. 
Reynosia northropiana, 197. 

septentrionalis, 208, 218, 225, 228, 232, 234. 

235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 258, 207. 

Riecordia ricordii feneoviridis, 353, 357, 364. 

bracei, 304. 
Ridgway. Robt.. 349, 358. 
Riding Point. 39, 42. 
Right to hold property, 446. 
Rights pertaining to contracts, 497. 
Riley, J. H., 330, 335. 336, 337, 347. 372, 376, 

379, 380, 381, 383. 
Ring-toe, 400. 

Rio .Janeiro, 298, 315, 317, 323. 
Rio Grande, 299. 
Riyina humilis, 253. 

IfBvis, 253. 
Rhabdadenia biflora, 228, 234, 238, 202. 

sagriei. 219, 262. 
Rhacicallis maritima, 222, 223, 226, 220, 204, 

209, 270. 
Rhamnaceip, 193, 258. 
Rheumatism, 394, 410. 
Rhipocephalus phoenix, 244. 
Ehisoclonium riparium, 243. 

imple.xum, 243. 
Ehizophora mangle, 204, 218, 234, 237, 238, 200, 
269. 



624 



GENERAL INDES 



Rhizophoraceoe, 260. 

Rhodopliycese, 2J5. 

Eliffia discolor. 251. 

Rhus blodgettii, 196. 

Eh.vpticidjE, 307. 

Rhyptlciis bistrispinosus, 307. 

Rhytidopoma euploca, 42. 

Robinson. C. B., 241. 

Rock-beauties, 294, 312. 

Rock-fisli, 294, 317. 

Rock Sound, 17S. 

Rocky-shore formation, 223. 

Rogers, Woodes, 423. 

Roman Catholic Church, 599. 

Ronco carbonero, 308. 
eondenado, 308. 

Rooker, Samson, 403. 

Rosacece, 254. 

Rose Island, 360. 

Routh, J. E., 100, 101, 103, 134, 136. 

Royal Engineers, ill. 
. Royal poinciana, 213. 

Royal Tictoria Hotel, 588. 

lloystonia regia, 213, 26S. 

Rubiacfc-E, 193, 264. 

Rudder-flsh, 307. 

Rum Cay, 12, 13, 40, 41, 42, 147, 196, 197, 
199, 200, 206, 233, 231, 252, 253, 255, 
256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261. 262. 263, 
265, 27S, 287, 28S, 301, 306, 311. 323, 
331, 332, 335. 338, 34S, 349, 350, 358, 
359, 360, 361, 362, 364, 366. 367, 594. 

Runaways, As to, 433. 
Runner, 302. 

Paippia maritima, 249. 

Russell. W. A., 412. ' 

Kussellia .luncea, 264. . 

Rutacea?, 256. 



Sabal umbraculifera, 191. 

Sabbatia campanulata. 196. 218, 261. 

Sachsia bahameusis, 196. 

Saffron, 207. 209. 261. 

Sagittaria lancifolia, 249. 

lougifolia, 223. 
St. Andrews Hall, 599. 
St. Croix. 332. 353. 
St. Helena, 301, 311. 
St. Lucia, 355. 

St. Thomas, 41, 42, 192. 199. 306, 320. 
Salene Point. 40. 
Salicornia ambigua, 233. 242, 253. 

bigelovii, 195. 
Salmea petrobioides, 217, 218, 230, 234, 241, 

266, 270. 
Salt, 594. 

Salt Cay, 318, .594. 
Salt Cay Banks, 13. 
Salt-marsh formation, 221. 
Salt I'onds, 55S. 
Salvia bahameusis, 197. 

micrantha. 199, 263. 
Samaua, 331. 363. 365. 
Samydaceoe, 260. 



Sand bores. 10. 

Sand-box tree, 213, 268. 

San Diego, 297. 

San Domingo, 203, 204, 331, 336, 376. 

San Domingo Cay, 339. 

San Salvador, 228, 420. 

Sanderling, 361. 

Sand fish, 318. 

Sandpiper, Bartramiau, 361. 

Least, 361. 

Pectoral, 361. 

Semipalmated, 361. 

Solitary, 361. 

Spotted, 361. 

White-rumped, 361. 
Sands. C. T., 411. 
Sand-strand formation, 216, 235. 
Sanitary conditions, 387. 
Sapindacea?, 193, 25S. 
Sapindus saponaria, 89. 
Sapodilla. 212. 

Wild. 222. 233, 237, 261. 
Sapotacere. 261. 

Sapsucker. Yellow-bellied, 363. 
Sardina. 297. 
Sardine. Scaled. 297. 
Sardinela clupeola. 297. 
Sareto. 220, 2.56. 
Sargassaum-flsh, 324. 
Sargassum baeciferum. 244, 245. 
fllipendula. 244. 
pteropleuron, 244. 
Sargent, C. S., 203, 204, 206, 208. 
Saurothera andria, 352, 357, 363. 

bahamensis, 352, 357, 363. 

merlini, 352. 
Savia bahamensis. 199, 221. 
Saw grass, 251. 

Sayella crosseana var. bahamensis, 42. 
Scad. Big-eyed. 303. 

Mackerel, 303. 
Scievola. 215. 

Sctevola plumieri, 217, 226, 227. 
Scapharca transversa, 44. 
Scaridte, 315. 
Scarus ci'eruleus, 316. 

croicensis, 316. 

tteniopterus. 316. 
SchiEfferia frutescens, 258. 
Schizachyrium, 249. 
Schizophyceie, 243. 
Schizophyllum aineum, 246. 
Schlegel, 330. 

Schoeuus nigricans, 199, 251. 
School attendance, 399. 

Board, 599. 

Progress of, 581. 
Schoolmaster, 309. 
Sc^svola plumieri, 265, 270. 
Sclncus sloauii, 332. 
Scirpus ferrugiueus, 231. 
Sclerodermia, 406. 
Scolosanthus bahameusis, 199, 265 
Scombrid.T?, 302. 
Scomberomorus cavalla. 302. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



G35 



Scoi'pteua brasilioiisis. 317. 
grandicornis, 317. 
plumieri, 317. 
Scorpfenidte. 317. 
Scorpion fish, 317. 
Sci-opbularlacoffi, 103, 303. 
Scutellaria longifolia, 196, 199, 131, 203. 
Scytonema, 213. 
Sea gardens, 312, 5S9. 
Sea-grape, 155, 208, 252, 269. 
Sea laedgehog, 324. 
Sea horses, 322. 

Sea level. Annual variation in, 95. 
Seal Cay, 348. 
Searing, A. H., 18S. 

Securinego acidothamnus, 192, 199, 25S. 
Sedimentary deposits, 23. 
Segmentina deutata var. edentata, 41. 

(Planorbnla) dentata, 41. 
Seiurus aurocapilhis, 351, 300. 
motacilla, 366. 
novehoracensis, 360. 
notabilis, 366. 
Selaginella, 190, 198. 
Selene vomer, 304. 
Separation of the councils, 534. 
Seriola rivolian, 303. 
Serjania, 231. 

diversifolia, 228, 258. 
subdentata, 220, 238, 258. 
Serranidte, 305. 
Sesuvium portulacastrum, 217, 225, 229, 235, 

253, 270. 
Setaria flliformis, 199. 

glauca, 220, 230, 234, 238, 250. 
macrostachya, 199. 
Setophaga ruticilla, 367. 
Seven-year-apple, 265. 
Shad. 294. 
Broad, 311. 
Long-boned, 311. 
Shark, Dusky, 296. 

Hammer-headed, 296. 
Nurse, 290. 
Requiem, 296. 
Short-nosed, 290. 
Shovel-head, 290. 
Shaddocks. 211. 
Shattuck, Dr. G. B., 3, 6, 7, 23, 52, 329, 347, 

587. 
Shearwater, Antillean, 359. 

Greater, 359. 
Shell-fish. 294, 323. 
Shidy, L. P., 51. 
Ship Channel Cays, 348, 359. 
Shore, C. A., 324. 
Shore birds, 360. 
Showy sedge, 219. 
Shrike, loggerhead, 205. 
Shrubs, Useful, 201. 
Sida carpinifolia, 234, 239, 259. 

ciliaris, 259. 
Sideroxylon mastichodendron, 205, 226, 227, 

261. 
Siphonaria alternata, 42. 
40 



Sikhs, 401. 

Silk-cotton tree, 213, 588. 
Silver Bank, 9, 12. 
Silversides, 300. 

Simaruba glauca, 199, 206, 220, 221, 256, 208. 
Simarubacea?, 256. 
Siphonaria lineolata, 42. 
Siphonea;, 243. 

Siphonocladus membranacous, 244. 
Siphostoma albirostre, 321. 
pelagicum. 321. 
roussean, 321. 
Sisal, 159, 173, ISO, 5S2. 
Cultivation of, 174. 
Growing of, 159. 
Manufacture of, 174. 
Sisi, SOS. 

Sitta pusilla. 3.51. 
Slavery, abolition of, 419, 457, 431. 
Slaves, Amelioration of, 427. 
Code for. 445. 
Cruelty to. 473. 
Holidays for. 452. 
Legal status of, 446. 
Maintenance of, 446. 
Marriage of, 447. 
Registration of, 428. 
Religious instruction of, 450. 
Right to property in, 452. 
Right to return runaway, 501. 
Rights and duties of, 440, 476. 
Settlements for, 519. 
Slave trade. Abolition of, 427. 

Survival of, 478. 
Sleeper, 318. 
Slippery-back, 332. 
Slippery dick, 314. 
Sloane, H., 205. 
SmilacaceiE, 191, 251. 
Smilax. 191. 

auriculata, 195. 

beyrichii, 191, 195, 199, 219, 220, 221, 228, 

231, 238, 239, 240. 
havanensis, 221, 251. 
oblongata viscifolia, 221, 251. 
Smith, Samuel, 422. 
Smyth, Gov., 459, 405, 468, 474, 475, 4S0, 489, 

535, 536. 
Snake-root, 200, 232. 
Snakes, 335. 
Snapper, 294, 309. 
Black-finned. 309. 
Gray, 309. 
Mahogoni, 309. 
Mangrove, 309. 
Red-tailed, 309. 
Tellow-tailed, 310. 
Snipe. Wilson's, 301. 
Snowball tree, 214. 
Soap Fishes, 307. 
Soil types, 153. 

Soils of Bahama Islands. 147. 
Solanaceffi, 193, 203. 
Solander, 26. 



626 



GENERAL INDEX 



Solanum aculeatissimum, 263. 
bahamense, 217, 238, 263. 
blodgettii, 196. 
Iiavanense, 199, 227, 263. 
nigrum, 263. 
verbascifolium, 263. 
Soleidoe, 821. 
Soles, 321. 

Sophora tomentosa, 255. 
Sora, 360. 
Sour-busb. 207. 
Soui-sop, 210. 
Soutb America, 8, 41, 195, 198, 199, 202, 205, 

206, 209, 338. 
Soutb Bigbt, 39. 
South Carolina, 213, 243, 303, 321. 
Spaniards, 421. 

Spanish Wells, 226, 244, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 
256, 257, 259, 261, 264, 297, 301, 302, 
311, 315, 316, 388, 408, 409. 
Sparida;, 310. 

Sparisoma aurofrenatum, 815. 
distinctum, 316. 
flavescens. 316. 
hoplomystax, 316. 
lorito, 816. 
viride, 315. 
Sparrow, House, 368. 

Savannah, 367. 
Spencer, J. W., 6. 

Speotyto cunicularia bahamensis, 352, 357, 
363. 
cavicola, 352, 357, 863. 
dominicensis, 352. 
floridana, 358. 
Spha?ralcea, abutiloides, 197. 
Sphffirodactylus asper, 338. 
corticoliis, 338, 842, 343. 
decoratus, 338, 342, 343. 
flavicaudus. 338, 339. 
nigropunctatus, 331. 
notatus. 338, 389, 340, 841. 
picturatus, 881. 
Spbagebranchus anguiformis, 298. 
Spberoides spengleri, 323. 
Spbceralcea abutiloides, 197. 
Sphyriena picuda, 800. 
Sphyrapicus varius, 363. 
Spbyrna tiburo, 296. 
Sphyrnidse. 290. 
Spice-wood, 237. 260. 
Spigelia anthelmia, 233, 261. 
Spindalis, Black-backed, 367. 
benedicti. 855. 
zena. 855, 356, 367. 
townsendi, 355, 356, 367. 
Spirogyra rivularis, 243. 
minor, 243. 
Spirula australis, 26, 44. 
Spondias purpurea, 211. 
Sponge-fishery, 592. 
Spoonbill, Rosiate, 359. 
Spoon-wood, 240, 258. 
Sporobolus, 215. 

jacquemoutii, 250. 
virginicus, 217, 235, 250, 270. 



Spyridia fllamentosa, 24.5. 

SphyrsenidsB, 300. 

Sporobolus virginicus, 270. 

Squatarola squatarola, 361. 

Squirrel-fish, 294. 

Stain-bark, 259. 

Stalk-fish, 321. 

Star-apple, Wild, 207. 

Star-gazers, Little, 318. 

Stathmonotus hemphillii, 311. 

Stegomyia fasciata, 273, 276, 277, 278, 280, 405. 

Stejneger, L., 329, 347. 

Stemmodontia trilobata, 266. 

Stemodia maritima, 263. 

Stemonitis herbatica, 243. 

Stenolobium staus, 264. 

Stenostoma albrifrons, 835. 

melanoterma, 835. 
Stenostomum myrtifolium. 198.' 
Stenotaphrum americanum, 250. 

secundatum, 249. 
Sterculiacece, 259. 
Sterna anaethetus, 361. 
antillarum, 361. 
dougalli, 361. 
fuliginosa, 361. 
hirundo, 361. 
maxima, 360. 
sandvicensis acuflavida, 360, 

Stigmatophyllon sagrtenum, 239, 2.56. 
Stilbiscus edwardsi, 298. 

Still, Black-necked, 361. 

Sting Rays, 296. 

Stinking pea, 255. 

Stomias, 295. 

Stone, W., 382. 

Stopper, 224, 228, 229, 236, 237, 260. 

Stork-like birds, 359. 

Stranger Cay, 41. 

Strigiformes, 363. 

Strigilla carnaria, 29, 44. 

Stris pratincola. 3-51 363. 

Stroljilops hubbardi, 41. 

Strom Ijus gigas, 25, 28, 44. 

Strong-back, 207, 218, 228, 238, 262. 

Strumpfla maritima, 217, 230, 265, 269, 270. 

Stylosanthes hamata, 255. 

Submarine division, 7. 

Subsidence of Bahamas, 4, 5, 6, 7. 

Subulina octona, 41. 

Succinea. barbadensis, 41. 
ochracina, 41. 

Sucking fish, 319. 

Sugar apple, 210. 

Sugarloaves. 41, 175. 

Sula cyanops, 359. 
leucogastra, 359. 

Sunshine and clouds, 117. 

Surgical equipment, 889. 

Surgeon, Blue, 818. 
Pishes, 813. 

Suriana, 215, 223, 229. 

maritima, 217, 223, 226, 227, 229, 230, 241, 
256, 269, 270. 

Surmullets, 812. 

Swallow, Bahama, 365. 



THE BAHAMA ISLANDS 



63'J 



Swamp Marl, rriiicipal constituents of, 170. 

Swartz, O., 207. 

Sweet cassava, 159. 

Sweetins. K. S.. 202. 

Sweeting's Village, 41. 

Sweetsop, 210. 

Sweet-wood Bavli, 206, 237. 

Swell-toad, 323. 

Swietenia, 216, 

mahogani, 202, 220, 221, 223, 224, 227, 241, 
242, 252, 257, 26S. 
Swimmers, Tulje-nosed, 359. 
Syacium micrnrnm, 321. 
Syngnathid:e, 321, 
S.vnodontidfB, 207, 
S.vntlierisma fimbi-iatum, 249, 
Syphilis, 393, 414. 

Primary, 416, 

Secondary, 416, 

Tertiary, 416, 



Talipes calcanens, 407, 
Talipes ef]Uino-Tarus, 407, 

eriuiniis, 407, 

varus, 407. 
Talipes or club-foot, 407 
Tamarind tree, 268. 

Wild, 202, 220, 223, 224, 254. 
Tamarindus indica, 210, 268. 
Tamarisk, 214. 
Tamaris gallica, 214. 
Tambor, 323. 
Tampa, 42, 309, 
Tanager, Scarlet, 367, 

Summer, 367. 
Tangs, 294, 313. 

Ocean, 313. 
Tarpons, 297. 

Tarpum Bay, 231, 248, 251, 253, 254, 255, 258, 
257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 
265, 278, 280, 281, 282, 283, 285, 289, 
303, 320, 392, 
Teal, Blue-winged, 360. 

Green-winged, 360, 
Tecoma, 221. 

baliameusis, 197, 219, 220, 221, 228, 231, 
238, 239, 240, 242, 264, 267. 

stans, 214, 264. 
Tectarius muricatus, 27, 44, 
Tedder, Elizabeth, 410, 411, 
Tellina radiata, 26, 44, 48, 

mera, 45, 
Temperature, 113, 

at Cat Cay, 115. 

at Nassau, 114, 

Comparative data of, 116, 
Temporary administration, 536, 
Terebinthacefe, 256. 
Terminalia catappa, 212, 268 

spinosa, 197. 
Tern, Bridled, 361. 

Common, 360. 

Gull-billed, 360. 



Least, 361. 

Rosealie, 361. 
Tetraiodophenolphtalein, 403. 
Tetrazygia bicolor, 207, 220, 239, 240, 241, 200, 

267. 
Tetrodontida?, 323. 
Teucrium eubense, 231, 203. 
Teuthididie, 313. 
Teuthis bahianus, 313. 

ca;ruleus, 313, 

hepatus, 313, 
Texas, 199, 209, 323, 
Thespesia populnea, 213, 

thevetia, 214, 
Thompson, J, C, 319, 
Thompson's Folly, 252. 
Tbouinia discolor, 197, 220, 238, 258. 
Thread-flsh, 304. 
Thrinax argentea, 191. 

bahamensis, 191, 197, 201, 225, 238, 251, -268, 
269, 270, 

floridana, 191, 195, 196. 

parviflora, 191. 
Thrush, Biebnell's 364, 

Pearly-eyed, ,364, 

Plumbeous, 364. 

Wilson's, 384. 

Wood, 364. 
Thunderstorms, 120. 

Tby.sanophora (Ptychopatula) dioseoricola, 
39. 

saxicola, 39. 

vortex, 39. 

(vortex var. ?) inaguensis, 39, 
Tiaris bicolor, 356, 367, 
Tide Records, 53, 
Tides and bench marks, 51, 
Tides at Nassau, 3, 

Daily records of, 53, 

First reduction. 73. 

Harmonic constants, 90. 

High and low waters, 66, 

Hourly records of, 53. 

Recapitulation of, 88. 

Type of, 96, 
Tides, Lagging of, 91. 

priming of, 91. 

Recapitulation of, 94. 

Tropic, 92. 
Tiley, J. H., 371. 
TiliacefB, 259. 
Tillandsia, 191, 210, 222. 

aloifolia. 191, 199, 251, 

recurvata, 269, 

usneoides, 191, 

utriculata, 233, 251. 
Titi, 255, 

Tittman, O. H., 52. 
Tobago Island, 350, 
Tomatoes, 155, 

Exportation of, 150, 
Tom tate, 307, 

Tougue-of-tbe-Ocean, 9, 10, 11, 16, 
Xorinia canalifera, 24, 44, ■ 
Tornatina perviplica, 43, 



628 



GENEKAL INDEX 



Toro, 323. 

Torrubia, cokei-i, 197, 199, 231, 263. 

longifolia, 217, 218, 219, 221, 222, 226, 227, 
22S, 234, 235, 289, 240, 241, 253, 267. 
obtusata, 199, 221, 253. 
Tortugas archipelago, 319, 320. 
Tortula agraria, 248. 
Totanus flavipes, 361. 

melanoleucus, 361. 
Toiich-me-not, 209, 256. 
Tournefoi'tia, 215. 

gnapbalodes. 217, 224, 226. 230, 241, 263, 
269, 270. 
Tournefortia-Suriana Association, 235. 
Towiisend, W. C, 52. 
Trachinoeepbalus myops, 297. 
Tracbinotus falcatus, 303. 

glauciis, 303. 

gooflei, 303. 
Tracburops crumenopbtbalmus, 303. 
Tracbycephalus insulus, 330. 

marmoratus, 330. 
Trade, volume of, 594. 
Trametes h.vdnoides, 246. 
Tree Fig. 212. 

Trees and shrubs, Useful, 201. 
Trees cultivated for ornameut, 212. 
Trema lima, 252. 
Tremellinese, 245. 
Trentepolia aurea, 243. 
Tribulus, 192, 198. 

cistoides, 192. 
Tridax proeumbens, 266. 
Trigger-flsh, 322. 
Trinidad, 40, 307. 
Triopteris rigida, 221, 240, 266. 
Trivia pediculiis, 28, 29, 44. 
Trochatella rupestris, 42. 
Trochilus cohibris, 363. 
Tropic bird, American, 359. 
Tropical America, 208, 246. 
Tropidophis eana, 338, 342. 

bietiana, 3.36. 

maculata. 336. 

pardalis. 338. 
Troschel, 314. 
Trumpet flsb. 321. 
Truncatella. 26. 

bilabiata, .42. 

oaribceensis, 42. 

clatbrus, 42. 

pulchella, 42. 

subeylindrica, 42. 
Trunlc-flsh, 323. 
Trypethelium erucntum, 247. 

interpositum, 247. 

madreporiforme, 247. 

ocholeucum, 247. 

sprenglii, 247. 
Tschudi, 330. 
Tuberculosis, 392, 416. 
Tunny, 302. 

Turbinaria turbinata, 244. 
Turbot, 294. 322. 

Ocean, 322. 

Rough-skinned, 322. 



Turks Islands, 9, 39, 40. 41, 42, 197, 200, 230, 
332, 333, 334. 338, 342, 343, 367. 

Separation of, 569. 
Turnera ulmifolia, 207, 219, 234, 238, 259. . 
Turneraceae, 259. 
Turnstone, Eastern, 362. 
Turtle Cove, 40. 
Tylosurus Acus, 300. 

caribbseus. 300. 
Typha, 216, 233. 

domingensis, 233, 236. 
Typhaceie, 249. 

Typhlops lumbricalis, 338, 340. 341. 
Tyrannus cubensis, 3.51, 364. 

dominicensis, 351, 358, 364. 

U 
U Cay, 40. 

Udotea couglutiuata, 224, 244. 
Ulmaeefe, 252. 
Umbelliferas, 193, 261.. 
Ungalia, 336. 

conu, 337. 
Unicorn-flsh, 294, 323. 
Uniola, 215. 

fasciculata, 270. 

pauiculata, 217, 222, 227, 229, 230. 241, 250, 
269. 

racemiflora. 218, 222, 226, 250. 

virgata, 249. 
Uniola-Tournefortia Association, 217. 
United States, Southern, 195, 196, 199. 
U. S. Bureau of Soils, 147. 
U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey, 4, 29. 51, 104. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 147. 154. 
U S. Fish Commission, 333. 
U. S. Hydrograpbic Office, 4, 8. 
U. S. National ■ Museum, 274, 293, 333, 336, 

338, 347, 371. 
U. S. Weather Bureau, 121, 123. 
University of Iowa, 325. 
Upeneus maculatus, 312. 

martinicus. 312. 
Urechites andrewsii, 230, 234. 238, 202. 
Urocoptis (Gongylostoma) bahamensis, 40. 
Urolophus jamaicensis, 296. 
Utericularia, 193, 233, 264. 
UrticaceiB, 252. 
Uruguay, 314. 



Valerianodes jamaicensis, 263. 
Vallesia glabra, 262. 
Valley of Virginia, 164. 
Valonia utricularis, 244. 

veutricosa, 244. 
Vanelus vanelus. 361. 

Vanilla artieulata, 191, 19S, 200, 221,. 238, 252. 
Vegetation, general discussion of, 185. 
Veneral diseases, 393. 
Venezuela, 206. 
Verbennee*, 193, 263. 
Verma. 295. 

kendalli, 298. 
Vernonia bahamensis, 198, 220, 242. 260. 
Verouicella schivelyee. 41. 



THE BAHAJIA ISLANDS 



639 



Vesi^ei'tilio bnhamensis, 3S4. 
Vespei-ugo fuscus, 377. 

bahamensis, 379. 
^'ib^n•num oinilus, 214. 
Vinca rosea, 262. 
Vincent, Prof. J. M., 42o. 
Vines, Rev. Bcuito.-S. J.. 123. 
Vireo, Black-whiskered, 3(>5. 

Conceiicion. 363. 

Yellow-tbroated, 363. 

crassirostris, 333, 356, 365. 
aleui, 354. 
flavesceus, 356, 365. 

Thick-billed. 365. 
Vireosylvia calidrls barbatulus. 251, 305. 

olivacea. 365. 
Virgin Islands. 190, 20S, 33S, 343. 
Virginia, 302, 303, 309. 
Vltacew, 193, 25S, 259. 
Vitis rotundlfolia, 193, 190, 239. 
Volume of trade, 594. 
Vulture, Turkey, 362. 

Waltheria americana, 259. 

bahamensis, 197. 
Warbler, Abaco isine, 306. 

Bachraau's 305. 

Bahama, 366. 

Bahama yellow, 365. 

Black and white, 365. 

Black burmian, 300. 

Black-poll, 366. 

Black-throated Blue. 363. 

Black-throated Green, 306. 

Blue-winged, 365. _ 

Cape JIay. 365. 

Cerulean, 306. 

Chestnut-sided, 366. 

Connecticut. 306. 

Hooded. 367. 

Kirtland's 366. 

Magnolia, 306. 

Nassau pine, 366. 

Palm, 360. 

Parula, 365. 

Praire. 366. 

Prothonotary, 305. 

Swainson's 365. 

AVorm Eating, 365. 

Yellow-'throated, 360. 
Washerwomen Cays, 34S, 3oS, 360. 
Washington, Booker T., 600. 
Water Cay, 39, 40, 230, 251, 202, 204, 265, 359. 
Water-thrush, 366. 

Grinnel's 306. 

Louisiana, 366. 
Watliugs Island, 13, 39, 40, 41, 42, 100, 101, 
103, 104, 147, 163, ISO, 193, 193, 197, 
199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 207, 209, 
233, 246, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252. 253, 
254, 255, 256, 257, 25S, 259, 260, 461, 
202, 203. 204, 205, 278, 2S0, 283, 287, 



311, 319, 321, 
349, 352, 358, 
300, 307, 381, 



209, 248, 298, 
308, 309, 310, 
317, 318. 321, 



296, 297, 299, 301, 300, 

331, 334, 335, 338, 348, 

359, 360, 301, 362, 364, 

420. 
Wax-lH>rry, 252. 
Waxwiug, Cedar, 305. 
Wentworth, J., 422. 
West Indian cherry, 200. 
West Indies. 199, 205, 206, 207, 

300, 302, 3i;3, 304, 305, 

311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 

322, 323, 333, 350. 
Wet-barrens, 218. 
Wheeler. Dan., 424. 
Which Point, 241, 249, 251, 252, 253, 255, 258, 

259, 204, 263. 
Whiff, 321. 
White head, 237. 
White Marl, Analysis of, 10. 

Description of, 10. 
White torch, 220, 237, 240, 230. 
White-wood Ijark, 206. 

Bahama, 259. 
Wide Opening, 16. 
Wilkenson, Rev. C. B.. 389. 
Willet, 361. 
Williamia krebsi, 42. 
Willige, A., 295. 
Willoughby, Dr. W. W., 420. 
Willughba>ya heterophylla, 196, 218, 219, 242, 

266. 
Wilsonia mitrata, 367. 
Wind direction, 118. 
Wind velocity. 110. 
Windward Islands, 121. 
Woman's tongue. 214. 
Woodpecker, Abaco, 363. 
Bahaman hairy, 363. 
Nye's 303, 381. 
Woodpeckers, 303. 
Woods Holl, 303. 
Wood-star, Bahama, 363. 
Inagua. 364. 

Workhouse, Nassau. 402. 
Wrasses, 314. • 

Wright, .1. M., 419. 
Wyeomyia smithii, 278, 282. 
Wylly, affair, 233. 
Wynian. W., 389. 

X 

Xanthoxylon cribosum. 195. 
Ximeuia americana, 109, 201. 
Xylaria, 246. 
Xylosma, 259. 

ilicifolia. 197, 228, 259. 
Xyrichthys psittacus. 314. 



Vam, Wild. 220, 233. 
Yellow fever. 403. 
Yellow flsh, 306. 



630 



Yellow-legs, 361. 

Greater, 361. 
Xellow-tlii-oat, 367. 

Bryant's 367. 

Cory's, 867. 

Lesser Abaco, 367. 

Lutens, 867. 

Maryland, 366. 

Maynard's, 367. 

Northern, 367. 

Tanner's, 367. 
Yellow-wood, 203, 256. 
Yucatan. 297, 316, 317. 355. 



GENERAL INDEX 



Zaiualodia Indoviciana, 367. 
Zamia, 190. 

tenuis, 198, 201. 
Zeidifi, 317. 
Zenaida zenaida, 351, 358, 362. 

macroura, 351, 358, 362. 
Zenlon bololepis, 317. 
Zouaria variegata, 245. 
Zonitoides minusculus, 41. 
Zoogeographical position, 350. 
Zuelania lactioides, 199, 260, 265. 
Zygopbyllace^, 192, 256. 



I 



AUG ™1 19^,^ 



